Skook 9 Química Analítica Cap 3

Using Spreadsheets
in Analytical
Chapter 3 Chemistry
From the ways that we deal with our finances using software applications such as Quicken to our
modes of communication with friends, relatives, and colleagues using Mozilla Thunderbird, and
Microsoft® Outlook, the personal computer has revolutionized nearly every aspect of our lives.
Physical chemists use applications such as Gaussian, Gamess, and MPQCC to carry out quantum
calculations. Biological chemists and organic chemists use molecular mechanics programs such
as Spartan to build and investigate the properties of molecules, and inorganic chemists exploit
ChemDraw to visualize molecules. Certain software programs transcend specialization and are
used in a broad range of fields. In analytical chemistry and many other areas of science, spread-
sheet programs provide a means for storing, analyzing, and organizing numerical and textual
data. Microsoft® Excel is an example of this type of program.
T he personal computer revolution has produced many useful tools for students, chem-
ists, biologists, and many other scientists and engineers. The spreadsheet is one of
the best examples of these applications. Spreadsheets are versatile, powerful, and easy to
use. They are used for record keeping, mathematical calculations, statistical analysis, curve
Stephen Ausmus/US Department of Agriculture
fitting, data plotting, financial analysis, database management, and a variety of other tasks
limited only by our imaginations. State-of-the-art spreadsheet programs have many built-in
functions to help us accomplish the computational tasks of analytical chemistry. Through-
out this text, we present examples to illustrate some of these tasks and show the actual
spreadsheets for performing them. We use Microsoft® Excel 2010 or 2007 for these examples
and exercises because of the program’s popularity and widespread availability. We assume
throughout that Excel is configured with default options as delivered from the manufacturer
unless we specifically note otherwise. You will find many more examples, more elaborate
explanations of spreadsheet methodology, and expanded treatments of some of the theory
of analytical chemistry in the ancillary text Applications of Microsoft® Excel in Analytical
Chemistry, 2nd ed.1
In this chapter, we present some introductory spreadsheet operations, including entering
text and data, formatting cells, and making several useful calculations. In later chapters, we
explore how to process and display large amounts of data using Excel’s built-in numerical,
statistical, and graphing functions.
1
For more information on the use of spreadsheets in chemistry, see S. R. Crouch and F. J. Holler
Applications of Microsoft® Excel in Analytical Chemistry, 2nd ed., Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, 2014.
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
3A Keeping Records and Making Calculations 49
3A Keeping Records and Making Calculations

It is our feeling that we learn best by doing, not by reading about doing. Although
software manufacturers have made great strides in the production of manuals for
their products, it is still generally true that, when we know enough to read a software
manual efficiently, we no longer need the manual. With that in mind, we have de-
signed a series of spreadsheet exercises that evolve in the context of analytical chem-
istry. We introduce commands and syntax only when they are needed to accomplish
a particular task, so if you need more detailed information, please consult the Ex-
cel help screens or your software documentation. Help is available at the click of a
mouse button up by clicking on the Help icon in the upper-right-hand corner of the
Excel screen or by pressing F1. In either case, a new window opens that permits you
to type questions and obtain context-sensitive help.
3A-1 Getting Started
In this book, we will assume that you are familiar with Windows™ . If you need as-
sistance with Windows, please consult the Windows guide Getting Started or use the
available on-line help facility. To start Excel, double click on the Excel icon, as shown
in the margin, or use the Start button and click on Start/All Programs/Microsoft
Office/Microsoft Office Excel 2010 (or 2007 if you have that version). The window
shown in Figure 3-1 then appears on your computer screen.
Versions of Excel prior to Excel 2007 contained menus such as File, Edit, View,
Insert, Format, and Tools, among others. The menus and toolbars have been
File button
Tabs
Fill handle
Active cell Home ribbon

Formula bar Groups Excel screen captures are used courtesy of Microsoft Corporation.
Minimize/maximize
ribbon
Mouse pointer
Figure 3-1 The opening window in Microsoft Excel. Note the location of the File button, the Quick Access Toolbar, the active cell,
and the mouse pointer.
50 Chapter 3 Using Spreadsheets in Analytical Chemistry
completely removed from Excel 2007 and 2010 and replaced by the ribbon, a
two-dimensional layout of icons and words. Each tab, such as Home, Insert, Page
Layout, Formulas, Data, Review, and View, brings up a different ribbon with its
own set of icons and descriptions. Although the ribbon takes up space, it can be
minimized by clicking the minimize ribbon arrow, by entering Ctrl1F1, or by
right clicking anywhere on the ribbon and selecting Minimize the Ribbon from
the list that appears. In order to maximize workspace, we suggest that you operate
with the ribbon minimized. Excel 2007 does not have the File button. Instead com-
mands such as Save, Print, Open, Close, and Send are located in the Office button
to the left of the Home tab.
Below the ribbon in Figure 3-1 is the worksheet consisting of a grid of cells ar-
ranged in rows and columns. The rows are labeled 1, 2, 3, and so on, and the col-
umns are labeled A, B, C, and so on. Each cell has a unique location specified by its
address. For example, the active cell, which is surrounded by a dark outline as shown
in Figure 3-1, has the address A1. The address of the active cell is always displayed
in the box just above the first column of the displayed worksheet in the formula bar.
You can verify this display of the active cell by clicking on various cells of the work-
sheet. A workbook is a collection of worksheets and can be comprised of multiple
worksheets available by clicking the tabs at the bottom labeled Sheet1, Sheet2, and so
forth. The term spreadsheet is a generic term and usually refers to a worksheet.
3A-2 Calculating a Molar Mass

We begin by constructing a worksheet to calculate the molar mass of sulfuric acid.
Here you will learn how to enter text and numbers, how to format text and data,
how to enter a formula, and how to document the worksheet.
Entering Text and Data in the Worksheet
Cells may contain text, numbers, or formulas. We start by typing some text into the work-
sheet. Click on cell A1, and type Molar Mass of Sulfuric Acid followed
by the Enter key [↵]. This is the spreadsheet title. Notice after entering the title that the
active cell is now A2. In this cell, type AM H[↵] as a label to indicate the atomic mass of
hydrogen. In A3 type AM S[↵], and in A4 type AM O[↵]. In cell A6, type Sulfuric
Acid[↵]. In cell B2 to the right of the label AM H, enter the atomic mass of hydrogen,
1.00794. Likewise in cell B3, enter the atomic mass of sulfur, 32.066, and in cell B4, enter
the atomic mass of oxygen, 15.9994. As you type, the data that you enter appears in the
formula bar. If you make a mistake, just click the mouse in the formula bar, and make
necessary corrections. Format the title of your spreadsheets in boldface font so that you can
easily distinguish it from the body. This procedure can be done by selecting cell A1. In the
formula bar, select the entire title by dragging the mouse over the words Molar Mass
of Sulfuric Acid. When the title has been selected, click the Bold button (see
the margin) in the Font group on the Home tab. This action will make the title appear in
boldface font.
Entering an Equation
In cell B6 we will enter the formula that we want Excel to use to calculate the molar
mass of sulfuric acid. Type the following into cell B6:
=2*B21B314*B4[↵]
Excel formulas always begin
with an equals sign [5]. ❯ This expression is called a formula. In Excel, formulas begin with an equal sign [5]
followed by the desired numerical expression. This formula will calculate the molar
mass of H2SO4 by summing twice the atomic mass of hydrogen (cell B2), the atomic
3A Keeping Records and Making Calculations 51
mass of sulfur (cell B3), and four times the atomic mass of oxygen (cell B4). The result
should be as shown in Figure 3-2.
Note in Figure 3-2, that Excel presents the molar mass of sulfuric acid to five dig-
its past the decimal point. In Chapter 6, we discuss the significant figure convention,
which indicates that the molar mass should only be expressed to three digits beyond
the decimal point since the atomic mass of sulfur is only known to this number
of digits. Hence, a more appropriate result would be 98.079 for the molar mass of
H2SO4. To change the number of digits, display the Home ribbon, and then click
on cell B6. From the Cells group, select the Format command and Format Cells . . .
from the pull down menu. The Format Cells window shown in Figure 3-3 then ap-
pears on the screen.
Figure 3-2 Excel spreadsheet

to calculate the molar mass
of sulfuric acid.
Figure 3-3 Format Cells window.

Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.
Select the Number tab and then Number from the list. In the Decimal places
box select or type 3. Click the OK button. Cell B6 should now contain 98.079.
Note that the effect of changing the number of decimal places can be previewed in
the Sample box in the Format Cells window. You can also increase or decrease the
number of decimal places by clicking the Increase or Decrease Decimal button in the
Number group on the Home ribbon (see the margin).
Documenting the Worksheet

Since the spreadsheet results normally do not contain the equations entered or indi-
cate which cells contained data, it is important to document what was done. There are
several different documentation schemes, but we shall introduce a simple method for
documenting. Make cell A9 the active cell and type Documentation[↵]. Make
the font for this cell boldface. Cells B2 through B4 contain user-entered values, so in
cell A10 enter Cells B2:B45user entries[↵]. The colon between B2 and
B4 specifies a range. Thus, B2:B4 means the range of cells B2 through B4.
In cell A11, type
Cell B652*B21B314*B4[↵]
All formulas in a worksheet
can be revealed by holding the ❯ The spreadsheet should now appear as shown in Figure 3-4. This documentation
indicates the data entered by the user and shows the formula entered in cell B6 to
control key (Ctrl) while pressing
and releasing the grave accent calculate the molar mass of sulfuric acid. In many cases, it is apparent which cells
key ` located to the left of the contain user-entered data. Hence, often the documentation section will contain only
number 1 key on the keyboard. formulas.
Release the Ctrl key. To return to If desired, you can save your file to the hard disk by clicking on the File (Office in
the results, repeat the Ctrl 1 `
Excel 2007) button and choosing Save As. You can save as an Excel Workbook and var-
operation.
ious other formats including a format compatible with Excel 97-2003. Choose Excel
Workbook and enter a location and a file name such as molarmass. Excel will au-
tomatically append the file extension .xlsx to the file name so that it will appear as
molarmass.xlsx. Choosing to save in a format compatible with Excel 97-2003
appends the file extension .xls to the file.
3B More Complex Examples

Excel can be used for many more complex operations including numerical, statistical,
and graphical functions. We illustrate a few of these operations in this chapter.
Figure 3-4 Final spreadsheet for

calculating the molar mass of sulfuric
acid including a documentation section.
Note that we have omitted the Excel
ribbon and formula bar for clarity in
this figure.
3B More Complex Examples 53
3B-1 A Laboratory Notebook Example

For our next example, we will use Excel to carry out some functions of the laboratory
notebook illustrated in Figure 2-24 for the gravimetric determination of chloride.
With this example, we learn how to change the width of columns, how to fill cells
with the fill handle, and how to make more complex calculations.
Entering Text in the Worksheet

Click on cell A1, and as the worksheet title, type Gravimetric Determina-
tion of Chloride followed by the Enter key [↵]. Continue to type text into
the cells of column A as shown below.
Mass of Bottle plus sample, g[↵]

Mass of bottle less sample, g[↵]
Mass of sample, g[↵]
[↵]
Crucible masses, with AgCl, g[↵]
Crucible masses, empty, g[↵]
Mass of AgCl, g[↵]
[↵]
%Chloride[↵]
When you have finished entering the text, the worksheet should appear as shown in
Figure 3-5.
Changing the Width of a Column

Notice that the labels that you typed into column A are wider than the column. You
can change the width of the column by placing the mouse pointer on the boundary
between column A and column B in the column head as shown in Figure 3-6a and
dragging the boundary to the right so that all of the text shows in the column as in
Figure 3-6b.
Figure 3-5 Appearance of the

worksheet after entering text.
Figure 3-6 Changing the column width. Left: place the mouse pointer on the boundary between column A and column B, and drag
to the right to the position shown on the right.
Entering Numbers into the Spreadsheet

Now let us enter some numerical data into the spreadsheet. Click on cell B2 and type
1[↵]
27.6115[↵]
27.2185[↵]
Note that it does not matter to
Excel whether you use lower or ❯ To find the mass of the sample in cell B5, we need to calculate the difference between
the value in cell B3 and that in cell B4, so we type
upper case letters to refer to cells
in a formula. Excel treats them
all as upper case. 5b32b4[↵]
Continue entering data for samples 2 and 3 so that the worksheet appears as shown
in Figure 3-7.
Figure 3-7 Sample data entry for gravimetric determination of chloride.

Filling Cells Using the Fill Handle

The formulas for cells C5 and D5 are identical to the formula in cell B5 except
that the cell references for the data are different. In cell C5, we want to com-
pute the difference between the contents of cells C3 and C4, and in cell D5, we
want the difference between D3 and D4. We could type the formulas in cells C5
and D5 as we did for cell B5, but Excel provides an easy way to duplicate formu-
las, and it automatically changes the cell references to the appropriate values for
us. To duplicate a formula in cells adjacent to an existing formula, simply click
on the cell containing the formula, which is cell B5 in our example, then click on
the fill handle (see Figure 3-1), and drag the corner of the rectangle to the right
so that it encompasses the cells where you want the formula to be duplicated.
Try it now. Click on cell B5, click on the fill handle, and drag to the right to fill
cells C5 and D5. When you let up on the mouse button, the spreadsheet should
look like Figure 3-8. Now click on cell B5, and view the formula in the formula ❮ Relative cell references change
when you copy a formula to
bar. Compare the formula to those in cells C5 and D5. The cell references that another cell. By default, Excel
change are called relative references. creates relative references unless
Now enter the data into rows 7 and 8 as shown in Figure 3-9. Next, click on cell instructed not to do so.
B9, and type the following formula:
5b72b8[↵]
❮ The fill handle permits you to copy
the contents of a cell to other cells
either horizontally or vertically,
but not both. Just click on the fill
handle, and drag from the current
cell to the last cell where you want
the original cell copied.
Figure 3-8 Use of the fill handle to copy formulas into adjacent cells of a spreadsheet. In
this example, we clicked on cell B5, clicked on the fill handle, and dragged the rectangle to
the right to fill cells C5 and D5. The formulas in cells B5, C5, and D5 are identical, but the
cell references in the formulas refer to data in columns B, C, and D, respectively.
Figure 3-9 Entering the data into the spreadsheet in preparation for calculating the mass of
dry silver chloride in the crucibles.
Again click on cell B9, click on the fill handle, and drag through columns C and D
to copy the formula to cells C9 and D9. The mass of silver chloride should now be
calculated for all three crucibles.
Making Complex Calculations with Excel
As we shall learn in Chapter 12, the equation for finding the %chloride in each of
the samples is
mass AgCl
3 molar mass Cl
molar mass AgCl
%chloride 5 3 100%
mass sample
mass AgCl
3 35.4527 grams/mol
143.321 gram/mol
5 3 100%
mass sample
Our task is now to translate this equation into an Excel formula and type it into cell
B11 as shown below.
5B9*35.4527*100/143.321/B5[↵]
Once you have typed the formula, click on cell B11, and drag on the fill handle to
copy the formula into cells C11 and D11. The %chloride for samples 2 and 3 should
now appear in the worksheet as shown in Figure 3-10.
Documenting the Worksheet

We can now document the spreadsheet since our calculations are complete. In cell
A13, type Documention[↵]. Cells B2 through D5 and B7 through D9 contain
user-entered values. In cell A14, enter Cells B2:D5 and B7:D95Data
entries[↵].
We now want to document the calculations done in cells B5:D5, B9:D9, and
B11:D11. Instead of retyping the formulas in these cells from scratch as we did in the
molar mass example, there is an easy way to copy them into the documentation cells.
This shortcut also prevents typing errors in entering the formulas. To illustrate,
Figure 3-10 Completing the calculation of percent chloride. Type the formula in cell B11,
click on the fill handle, and drag to the right through cell D11.
Figure 3-11 Completed worksheet

with documentation.
select cell A15, and type Cell B5[↵]. Now select cell B5, and highlight the
formula displayed in the formula bar. Click on the Copy icon in the Clipboard
group on the Home tab as shown in the margin. To prevent Excel from copying
the formula and changing the cell references, hit the Escape key on the keyboard to
cancel the operation. The text copied, however, is still in the Windows clipboard.
Now select cell A15, and position the cursor after the B5 in the formula bar. Click
on the Paste icon as shown in the margin. This operation will copy the formula
for the mass of sample into cell A15 as a text string. In cells C5 and D5, the same
formula is used except that the relative references changed to columns C and D
when we used the fill handle. Because the same formula is used, the documenta-
tion does not need to include these cells. In cell A16, type Cell B9[↵]. Copy
the formula from cell B9 as before. In Cell A17, type Cell B11[↵], and copy
the formula from this cell. When you have finished, the worksheet should appear
as in Figure 3-11.
3B-2 Another Example from Gravimetric Analysis

Let’s now use some of the basics we have learned to solve a problem of gravimetric
analysis. In this problem, we are to compute the percentage of Fe and Fe3O4 in two
samples of an iron ore. The samples were precipitated as Fe2O3∙xH2O, and the resi-
due was ignited to give pure Fe2O3.
More Cell Formatting

First, select cell A1, and type a title such as Gravimetric Analysis
Example in bold. You can either do as before by typing the title in regular font,

selecting it, and clicking the Bold button shown in the margin, or you can click the
Bold button before typing so that all subsequent typing in the active cell appears
in bold. Next, in cell A2 type Sample and put the sample numbers in cell B2
and C2. In cell A3 type mppt. Now we’ll learn how to make the abbreviation ppt
appear as a subscript as in mppt. Select cell A3. In the formula bar, use the mouse
to highlight (select) the ppt part of mppt. With ppt highlighted, click the right
mouse button, and select Format Cells from the list. The Format Cells window
shown in Figure 3-12 should appear.
Note that since cell A3 contained only text, the Font tab automatically appears in the
window. Recall from the molar mass example that, when there are numbers in the cell
or an entire cell is selected, the Format Cells window contains tabs for Number, Align-
ment, Font, Border, Fill, and Protection. Select Subscript in the Effects box so that a
checkmark appears as shown. Click on the OK button, and note that cell A2 now con-
tains mppt as a label for mass of precipitate. Similarly in cells A4, A5, and A6, type msamp,
MFe, and MO as labels for sample mass, atomic mass of iron, and atomic mass of oxygen.
Entering the Data

The first sample analyzed was a 1.1324-g sample, which gave a precipitate with a
mass of 0.5394 g. In cell B3, enter the number 0.5394 for the mass of the precipi-
tate. In cell B4, type the number 1.1324 for the sample mass. In cells B5 and B6,
type the atomic masses of iron (55.847) and oxygen (15.9994). Your spreadsheet
should now look like Figure 3-13.
Calculating Molar Masses

In order to obtain the desired percentages, we need the molar masses of Fe2O3 and
Fe3O4 in addition to the atomic masses of iron and oxygen. We can use Excel to
calculate these molar masses. In cell A8, type M Fe2O3. Because Excel cannot make
sub-subscripts, Fe2O3 will be used as the subscript. Likewise in cell A9, type MFe3O4.
We will put the calculated molar mass of Fe2O3 in cell B8 and the molar mass for
Fe3O4 in cell B9. In cell B8, type
52*B513*B6[↵]
and in B9, type
53*B514*B6[↵]
Figure 3-12 The Format Cells

window for formatting a subscript.
Figure 3-13 Data entry for sample 1

of the gravimetric analysis example.
The molar masses of Fe2O3 (159.692) and Fe3O4 (231.539) should appear in cells
B8 and B9. If more than three digits beyond the decimal point are displayed, change
the number format to show three digits.
Calculating the Percentages

Our next task is to use the mass of the sample, the mass of the precipitate, the
molar masses, and stoichiometric information to calculate the desired percentages.
Type into cells A11 and A12 the labels %Fe and %Fe 3O 4. For Fe, the following
equation allows us to calculate the percentage.
mppt
3 2 MFe
MFe2O3
% Fe 5 3 100%
msamp
Type into cell B11 the formula
5B3/B8*2*B5/B4*100[↵]
The calculation should return the result 33.32 for % Fe. Again adjust the number of
significant figures if too many digits are displayed.
For Fe3O4, the equation for the percentage is
mppt 2
3 3 MFe3O4
MFe2O3 3
% Fe3O4 5 3 100%
msamp
Type into cell B12, the formula
5B3/B8*2/3*B9/B4*100[↵]
This action should return the result 46.04 for % Fe3O4. Note that because these
calculations involve only multiplications and division, it is not necessary to tell
Excel the order in which to do the calculations. This hierarchy of operations is neces-
sary when there is a combination of multiplications or divisions and additions or
subtractions.
Finding the Percentages for Sample 2: Using Absolute References

For Sample 2, a sample mass of 1.4578 g gave a precipitate mass of 0.6893 g.
Enter these values into cells C3 and C4. We will use the same atomic mass for
Fe in cell B5 and the same molar masses for Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 in cells B8 and B9
for our calculation of the percentages. Therefore, we do not want the references
Figure 3-14 Locating and replacing

a relative value with an absolute value.
in cells B8 and B9 to be relative references when we copy the formulas into cells
C11 and C12. We can make a reference an absolute reference by putting a dollar
sign before the column letter and a second dollar sign before the row number. In
order to change these references, we will use Excel’s Find and Replace functions.
With the cursor on cell A1, click on Find & Select on the Home ribbon. Choose
Replace… from the drop-down menu. Enter B5 in the Find box and $B$5 in
the Replace box as shown in Figure 3-14. Repeat for references B8 and B9. As a
result, these cells become
5B3/$B$8*2*$B$5/B4*100 for B11

5B3/$B$8*2/3*$B$9/B4*100 for B12
We can then copy these results into cells C11 and C12 to calculate the percent-
ages for sample 2. Click on cell C11 after copying, and note that only the relative
references without the dollar signs have changed to column C values. The final work-
sheet after adding Documentation is shown in Figure 3-15. Save your worksheet to
the disk with a file name such as grav_analysis.xls.
In this chapter, we have begun to explore the use of spreadsheets in analytical
chemistry. We have examined many of the basic operations of spreadsheet use in-
cluding data and text entry and formatting, basic calculations, and the use of relative
and absolute cell references. In other spreadsheets in this book and in our ancillary,
Applications of Microsoft® Excel in Analytical Chemistry,2 we build on the techniques
that we have acquired and learn much more about Excel.
Figure 3-15 Completed worksheet

for gravimetric analysis example.
2
S. R. Crouch and F. J. Holler, Applications of Microsoft® Excel in Analytical Chemistry, 2nd ed.,
elmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, 2014.
B
Questions and Problems 61
WEB Use a search engine to locate Excel 2010 supported file formats. Describe files with
WORKS extensions .csv, .dbf, and .ods. Which of these file formats can Excel open and which
can it save? Find file formats that are not supported in Excel 2010. What is a .wks file
format? What is a .xlc format? Are there any file converters that will translate a Lotus
1-2-3 file into an Excel compatible file?
Questions and Problems

*3-1. Describe the use of the following Excel functions after 3-3. There are many ways to document the worksheet en-
reading about them in the Excel help facility. tries and calculations. Use a search engine to find some
(a) SQRT of these methods, and describe them in detail using a
(b) AVERAGE worksheet example.
(c) PI 3-4. Use Excel’s Find/Replace function to replace all the
(d) FACT values containing 27 in the worksheet of Figure 3-10
(e) EXP with 26.
(f ) LOG 3-5. Enter the values shown in the accompanying work-
3-2. Use the Excel help facility to look up the use of the sheet into a blank worksheet. Use Excel’s help facility
COUNT function. Use the function to determine the to learn about Excel’s Sort&Filter operations. Have
number of data values in each column of the worksheet Excel sort the numbers from smallest to largest.
of Figure 3-10. The count function is quite useful for 3-6. Next we will add the numbers in column B in the
determining the number of cells containing numbers worksheet accompanying Problem 3-5. There are sev-
in a given area of a worksheet. eral ways to accomplish this operation in Excel. In a
cell at the bottom of column B, you can invoke the
SUM function by typing =SUM(B2:B12). This ac-
tion should return the value 416. You can also invoke
the AUTOSUM function by clicking on AUTOSUM
in the Editing group on the Home tab. Use the mouse
to select the values to sum in this way, and show that
the same result is found by Excel. In the formula bar,
verify that AUTOSUM produces the exact same for-
mula as that entered manually.
*Answers are provided at the end of the book for questions and problems marked with an asterisk.
Calculations Used
in Analytical
CHAPTER 4 Chemistry
Avogadro’s number is one of the most important of all physical constants and is central to the
study of chemistry. A worldwide effort is under way to determine this important number to 1 part
in 100 million. Several spheres like the one shown in the photo have been fabricated specifically
for this task, and it is claimed they are the most perfect spheres in the world. The diameter of
the 10-cm sphere is uniform to within 40 nm. By measuring the diameter, the mass, the molar
mass of silicon, and the spacing between silicon atoms, it is possible to calculate Avogadro’s
number. Once determined, this number may be used to provide a new standard mass—the silicon
kilogram. For more information, see Problem 4-41 and Web Works.
CSIRO Australia I n this chapter, we describe several methods used to compute the results of a quantitative
analysis. We begin by presenting the SI system of units and the distinction between mass
and weight. We then discuss the mole, a measure of the amount of a chemical substance.
Next, we consider the various ways that concentrations of solutions are expressed. Finally, we
treat chemical stoichiometry. You may have studied much of the material in this chapter in
your general chemistry courses.
4A Some Important Units of Measurement
4A-1 SI Units
Scientists throughout the world have adopted a standardized system of units known
SI is the acronym for the French
“Système International d’Unités.” ❯ as the International System of Units (SI). This system is based on the seven funda-
mental base units shown in Table 4-1. Numerous other useful units, such as volts,
hertz, coulombs, and joules, are derived from these base units.
To express small or large measured quantities in terms of a few simple digits, pre-
The ångstrom unit Å is a non-SI unit of fixes are used with these base units and other derived units. As shown in Table 4-2,
length that is widely used to express the
wavelength of very short radiation such these prefixes multiply the unit by various powers of 10. For example, the wavelength
as X-rays (1 Å 5 0.1 nm 5 10210 m). of yellow radiation used for determining sodium by flame photometry is about
Thus, typical X-radiation lies in the range 5.9 3 1027 m, which can be expressed more compactly as 590 nm (nanometers);
of 0.1 to 10 Å. the volume of a liquid injected onto a chromatographic column is often roughly
50 3 1026 L, or 50 µL (microliters); or the amount of memory on some computer
hard disks is about 20 3 109 bytes, or 20 Gbytes (gigabytes).

Skook 9 Química Analítica Cap 3

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Skook 9 Química Analítica Cap 3

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Using Spreadsheets

3A Keeping Records and Making Calculations

Active cell Home ribbon

3A-2 Calculating a Molar Mass

Figure 3-2 Excel spreadsheet

Figure 3-3 Format Cells window.

Documenting the Worksheet

3B More Complex Examples

Figure 3-4 Final spreadsheet for

3B-1 A Laboratory Notebook Example

Entering Text in the Worksheet

Mass of Bottle plus sample, g[↵]

Changing the Width of a Column

Figure 3-5 Appearance of the

Entering Numbers into the Spreadsheet

Figure 3-7 Sample data entry for gravimetric determination of chloride.

Filling Cells Using the Fill Handle

Documenting the Worksheet

Figure 3-11 Completed worksheet

3B-2 Another Example from Gravimetric Analysis

More Cell Formatting

Entering the Data

Calculating Molar Masses

and in B9, type

Figure 3-12 The Format Cells

Figure 3-13 Data entry for sample 1

Calculating the Percentages

Type into cell B11 the formula

Type into cell B12, the formula

Finding the Percentages for Sample 2: Using Absolute References

Figure 3-14 Locating and replacing

5B3/$B$8*2*$B$5/B4*100 for B11

Figure 3-15 Completed worksheet

Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.

Questions and Problems

Unless otherwise noted, all content on this page is © Cengage Learning.

4A Some Important Units of Measurement

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5B3/$B$82$B$5/B4*100 for B11