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Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3028–3034

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Isotopic dietary reconstruction of humans from Middle Bronze Age Lerna,

Argolid, Greece
S. Triantaphyllou a, *, M.P. Richards b, c, C. Zerner d, S. Voutsaki e
a
Sheffield Centre for Aegean Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Northgate House, West Street, Sheffield S1 4ET, UK
b
Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04105 Leipzig, Germany
c
Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
d
Lerna Publication Project, American School of Classical Studies, 27150 Reynolds Drive, Winston-Salem, NC 27104, USA
e
Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, Poststraat 6, NL 9712 ER Groningen, The Netherlands

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study presents the results of a carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of 39 human bone and 8
Received 4 December 2007 animal samples from Middle Bronze Age (or Middle Helladic, MH, ca. 2100–1700 BC) Lerna, Greece. The
Received in revised form 30 May 2008 isotopic data indicate that the humans had a C3 terrestrial diet while certain individuals appear to have
Accepted 20 June 2008
significant amounts of animal protein in their diet. With regard to weaning age, the isotopic values and
the estimated age of early enamel disruptions suggest that solid foods were starting to be used as
Keywords: a substitute for breast milk at or before the ages of 2.5 and 3 years old.
Stable isotope analysis
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Diet reconstruction
Lerna
Middle Bronze Age
Weaning age

1. Introduction 1950’s by the American School of Classical Studies, under the

The reconstruction of the diets of past peoples has been the
focus of human bone studies in the last 30 years (Larsen, 1997). In
addition to the macroscopic evidence of dental lesions, more
elaborate analytical methods such as stable isotope analysis have
been widely adopted to the identification of dietary patterns
(Ambrose, 1993; Sealy, 2001). Until recently, dietary inferences in
the prehistoric Aegean were based on the evidence of archae-
obotanical and archaeozoological work (Jones, 1987; Halstead,
1987, 1992, 1994; Vaughan and Coulson, 2000; Kotjabopoulou et al.,
2003). This study presents the carbon and nitrogen stable isotope
analysis carried out on samples of human and animal bones from
Middle Helladic Lerna.
Lerna is located in the southwestern corner of the Argive plain,
in a fertile area close to the sea and surrounded by marshes, the
remnants of a large freshwater lake separated from the sea by
a beach barrier (Zangger, 1991) (Fig. 1). The site was continuously
occupied from the Neolithic period (6th–5th millennium BC) to
the Late Bronze Age (17th–14th century BC) while traces of
habitation as well as burials of the Early Iron Age and Roman
period have also been recovered. Lerna was excavated in the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ44 302310418643.
E-mail address: sevitr@otenet.gr (S. Triantaphyllou).
direction of John L. Caskey, University of Cincinnati (Caskey, 1954,
1955, 1956, 1957, 1958). The MH settlement consisted of small,
rectangular or apsidal, self-standing houses which were some-
times re-built in the same location. In addition, 228 intramural
graves dug under the floor, or between houses, have been exca-
vated (Banks, 1967; Blackburn, 1970; Angel, 1971; Zerner, 1978).
Burials often formed small groupings, which might represent
different kin groups. The graves usually contained single in-
humations; double or multiple burials also occur, though rarely.
The dead were buried in different types of graves (pits, cists, jar
burials) and were sometimes accompanied by a few small vases
or other small artefacts.
The Middle Helladic (MH) sites of the Argolid, including Lerna,
have recently been the focus of a 5-year interdisciplinary project,
the Middle Helladic Argolid Project (Voutsaki, 2005; Voutsaki et al.,
2004, 2005, 2006, 2007). The analysis of skeletal data in particular
constitutes an important component of the project. As the skeletal
remains of the intramural cemetery were published by J.L. Angel
more than 30 years ago (Angel, 1971), a full re-examination of the
skeletons following modern standards was carried out by Sevi
Triantaphyllou (see reports by Triantaphyllou in Voutsaki et al.,
2004, 2005, 2006, 2007; Triantaphyllou, 2006, in press). One of the
major goals of the re-examination was to investigate dietary vari-
ation between different age, sex or social subgroups of the MH
community at Lerna.

0305-4403/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.06.018
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S. Triantaphyllou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3028–3034 3029

Fig. 1. Map of Greece with the sites discussed in the text. (Key: 1 ¼ Lerna, 2 ¼ Aspis, 3 ¼ Mycenae, 4 ¼ Spaliareika, 5 ¼ Alepotrypa, 6 ¼ Kouphovouno, 7 ¼ Nea Nikomedeia,
8 ¼ Makriyialos, 9 ¼ Korinos, 10 ¼ Spathes, 11 ¼ Koilada).

2. Dental evidence for diet calculus tend to be mutually exclusive due to the mechanisms
which produce them in the mouth; therefore, the comparison
The relationship between diet and the oral health of past pop- between rates of the two conditions in a population can provide
ulations is being heavily debated (Larsen, 1997) since other factors important information about dietary patterns (Hillson, 1979). It
such as genetic variability may also affect the levels of dental appears that women consumed a type of diet rich in carbohy-
conditions (Wood et al., 1992). Nevertheless, it is broadly accepted drates such as starchy and processed foodstuffs, while men seem
that both environmental conditions and social factors (which in- to have had a protein based diet, and perhaps to have consumed
clude the collection, production and consumption of certain food more meat.
categories) play a major role in determining oral health status.
The full re-examination of the MH Lerna population is still in
progress, and therefore only preliminary observations can be 20
presented here. The frequency of dental lesions has been mea-
18
sured among the dental dentitions (tooth count analysis) of 50
out of the 210 individuals represented in the population since this 16
method is preferable when dealing with differential skeletal 14
preservation (Waldron, 1994). Therefore, 480 teeth from 50 in-
12
dividuals have been systematically recorded and analysed in or-
der to determine the prevalence of caries, dental calculus and
%

10
periapical abscess as well as the numbers of teeth lost prior to 8
death. The overall distribution of dental conditions suggests that
6
the inhabitants of MH Lerna had a mixed type of diet which in-
cluded in equal proportions carbohydrates and protein based 4
foodstuffs provided perhaps by meat (Fig. 2). However, the rates 2
of calculus versus caries in the two sexes show an interesting
pattern. While high rates of calculus (17.98%) versus low rates of 0
Caries Calculus Abscess AMTL
caries (9.64%) can be observed in men, the opposite holds for
women (calculus: 2.39%, caries: 9.58%), thereby suggesting that Fig. 2. Distribution of dental disease in the MH population of Lerna (tooth count
men and women consumed different types of food. Caries and analysis) (n ¼ 480).
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3030 S. Triantaphyllou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3028–3034
3. Palaeopathological evidence for weaning
The investigation of weaning practices in prehistoric populations
has recently attracted the attention of physical anthropologists (Stuart-
Macadam, 1995; Herring et al., 1998; Dupras et al., 2001). Enamel hy-
poplasia defects, i.e. episodic disruptions of enamel formed during
tooth development, appear to have been related to the synergistic
interactions between physiological stress factors and dietary de-
ficiencies (Hillson, 1996). The shift from maternal dependence to post-
weaning diet and to poorer in nutritional quality adult foods is a critical
period in the growth process and the development of the immune
system of infants and children (Moggi-Cecchi et al., 1994; Katzenberg
and Pfeiffer, 1995; Katzenberg et al., 1996; Richards et al., 2002).
Enamel hypoplasia defects have been recognised and measured
macroscopically in the MH population of Lerna. In particular, 54 out of
210 individuals (26%) show stress episodes represented by linear
disruptions of tooth enamel. As the analysis of the data from the MH
Lerna population is still in progress only preliminary observations on
the frequency of enamel defects can be made. However, it can be
stated at this stage that the prevalence of enamel hypoplasia lines by
tooth count in 50 individuals (480 teeth) has been estimated to be
13.12% (63 defects in 480 teeth). This frequency is relatively high
compared to recent studies in other prehistoric populations from
Northern Greece, e.g. Early Neolithic Nea Nikomedeia: 0.63%, Late
Neolithic Makriyialos: 4.19%, Early Bronze Age Koilada: 2.9%, Late
Bronze Age Spathes: 22.12%, Early Iron Age Makriyialos: 13.35%
(Triantaphyllou, 2001: Fig. 6.43), Neolithic Alepotrypa cave (8.3%)
(Papathanasiou, 2001: 115) and Mycenaean Spaliareika in Achaia
(10.8%) (Papathanasiou, 2005). In addition, in order to estimate the
time of development of enamel hypoplasia defects, the position of all
hypoplasias has been measured to the nearest tenth of millimetre, as
the distance from the centre of the hypoplasia line to the cemento-
enamel junction of the tooth. The age of hypoplasia episodes for each
tooth has been determined within half-year intervals using the de-
velopmental chronology provided by Massler et al. (1941) and
modified for use in hypoplasia research by Swärdstedt (1966) and
Goodman et al. (1980). When dealing with multiple episodes, it was
assumed that the highest distances from the cemento-enamel junc-
tion were reflecting the earliest enamel defects which were possibly
associated with the weaning effect. In this way, these enamel dis-
ruptions appeared in children ranging between 0.9 and 4.9 years,
while their mean age was estimated to be 2.9 years. In addition, if we
exclude the cases where the disruptions appear in individuals over
3.5 years, assuming that they are the result of some kind of envi-
ronmental factor rather than the effect of weaning, the estimated
time period of enamel disruptions is reduced to 2.4 years.
4. Materials and methods
The sampling strategy was largely dictated by the three central
questions of this study: the reconstruction of prehistoric diet, di-
etary variation between different population subgroups defined by
age, sex or social status as well as possible changes through time
(Table 1), and, finally, the weaning effect on the subadult pop-
ulation. Forty-eight individuals of different age and sex categories
provided rib fragments (Table 2).
Table 1
Simplified chronological diagram: the MH and the beginning of the LH period (based
on Voutsaki et al., in press)
Phase Absolute chronology
MH I 2100–1900 BC
MH II 1900–1800 BC
MH III 1800–1700 BC
LH I 1700–1600 BC
Nine out of the 48 samples did not produce sufficient collagen
for analysis and are therefore not included here. All samples that
did yield collagen had well-preserved collagen with C:N ratios in
the acceptable range (2.9–3.6, DeNiro, 1985). The remaining 39
individuals included 22 adults, i.e. 15 male and 7 female individuals
and 17 subadults, i.e. 1 neonate (0–1 year), 8 infants (1–6 years), 5
children (6–12 years) and 3 juveniles (12–18 years). It should be
pointed out here that our initial intention strategy was to take 8
samples from each age category. Due to practical considerations,
however, the samples were taken before the re-examination of the
human remains by one of us (S.T.) was completed, therefore the
initial selection was based on Angel’s (1971) age and sex categories.
As a result, the different age categories are not evenly represented
in the analysis. In addition, the dating of some of the graves has
recently been revised by one of us (C.Z.) and consequently MH I
burials are underrepresented in the analysis.
Table 2 presents the list of human skeletons sampled and gives
age and sex determinations as provided by the re-examination of
the human remains (for details on the methodology followed for
sexing and ageing as well as for the definition of the broad age
categories see Triantaphyllou, 2001).
Human bone collagen was extracted from rib samples following
a modified Longin (1971) method (Richards and Hedges, 1999) with
the addition of an ultrafiltration step (Brown et al., 1988). Samples
were prepared and measured at the Department of Human Evo-
lution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig,
Germany. In addition, 8 samples of long bones from the MH fauna
of Lerna were selected by Dr. David Reese (Table 3). These include
herbivores such as red deer, sheep and goat as well as omnivores
(pig) in order to define a baseline of the food chain consumed by
the MH Lerna population.
5. The results of the analysis
Table 2 shows the values of carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes
from the skeletal population of MH Lerna by skeleton number, sex
and age, while Table 3 presents the values of the associated fauna.
Also, in Fig. 3, the human stable isotope values are plotted alongside
the ones from the animal bones in order to provide a basis for the
discussion and the reconstruction of the diet in MH Lerna.
The faunal data fall within the range of terrestrial C3 consumers.
In particular, the mean d13C and d15N values of herbivorous
mammals, i.e. sheep/goat, cattle, and red deer are: 20.0 and
5.3  0.8&, 20.5  1.0& and 4.4  0.8& and 19.8  1.0& and
3.7  0.5&, respectively. The mean d13C and d15N values of om-
nivorous pigs are: 20.7  0.6& and 4.4  0.9&, respectively.
There are two interesting points worth noting here. First, one
sheep/goat (S-EVA: 3835) has slightly elevated d15N values which
can perhaps be attributed to controlled grazing in areas adjacent to
or in the settlement where the animals can also feed on human
garbage (Honch et al., 2006). Second, one pig (S-EVA: 3839),
considered an omnivorous mammal, has low d15N values, which
possibly indicates that it had a mainly vegetarian diet (for a similar
case in Pre-Pottery Neolithic Nevali Çori, Southeast Anatolia see
Lösch et al., 2006).
The mean human bone collagen d13C and d15N values for the MH
Lerna population are: 19.5  0.3& and 8.4  0.7&, respectively.
The stable isotope values generally cluster in an area representing
a C3 terrestrial type of diet (Fig. 3). In general, the overall isotopic
values indicate that the MH population of Lerna had a fairly ho-
mogeneous diet – a conclusion which matches well with both the
settlement and the mortuary evidence where relatively little dif-
ferentiation can be observed (Milka, 2006; Voutsaki, in press). It
should be noted, however, that d15N values (d15N range 3.3&) show
a slightly larger range than d13C values (d13C range 1.5&), probably
because the subadults have elevated d15N values.
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S. Triantaphyllou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3028–3034 3031

Table 2
Stable isotope values for the human bone samples from MH Lerna

S-EVA Sk no Burial no. Sex Age Date % Collagen d13C d15N %C %N C:N
1631 1Ler A1 M YA (28.7 yrs) MH III 1.4 19.4 9.6 43.2 15.6 3.2
1632 4Ler A5 ? Child (7 yrs) MH III 3.9 19.4 8.2 44.6 16.1 3.2
1633 7Ler A8 F OA (þ50 yrs) MH II 3.7 19.4 8.2 44.2 16.2 3.2
1634 8Ler A9 ? Infant (2.5–3 yrs) MH III 2.3 19.0 8.3 43.4 15.7 3.2
1635 9Ler A10 ? Infant (4–5 yrs) MH III 2.5 9.5 7.6 43.7 15.8 3.2
1636 16Ler C-F F Juvenile (16 yrs) MH II 1.1 19.2 8.7 43.4 15.7 3.2
1637 17Ler C-H ? Child (6–7 yrs) MH II 4.0 20.0 8.2 44.3 16.1 3.2
1638 20Ler D1 M MA (41.5 yrs) MH II 2.7 19.3 7.7 43.5 15.8 3.2
1639 33Ler BA1 M YA (18–30 yrs) MH II 1.3 19.6 8.1 39.2 14.1 3.3
1640 38Ler BB2 M MA (late 40’s) MH I 2.0 20.0 8.0 43.2 15.3 3.3
1641 43Ler B12 M YA (18.5 yrs) MH II 0.8 19.9 8.3 23.7 8.6 3.2
1642 44Ler B13 M PA (late 20’s) MH II 2.2 19.7 8.5 42.6 15.3 3.2
1643 46Ler D16 ? Infant (2.5–3.5 yrs) MH II 6.4 19.9 7.5 44.2 16.2 3.2
1644 48Ler D18 M YA (19–20 yrs) MH II 2.2 19.7 7.5 43.7 16.0 3.2
1646 53Ler J1 ? Child (10–11 yrs) MH 3.2 19.2 8.2 43.4 15.8 3.2
1647 55Ler D14 ? Child (11–12 yrs) MH III 3.8 19.7 7.2 43.6 15.9 3.2
1648 56Ler B14 F OA (60 yrs) MH I 0.4 20.3 8.3 13.2 4.6 3.4
1649 57Ler B15 ? Infant (4 yrs) MH II 1.9 19.1 9.2 43.0 15.6 3.2
1652 69Ler B24 M OA (þ50 yrs) MH III 1.5 19.7 8.8 43.0 15.4 3.2
1654 77Ler BC5 F PA (early 30’s) MH I 2.1 19.6 9.1 43.5 15.6 3.3
1655 81Ler BD2 ? Infant (18 mos) SGEa 1.3 19.5 9.5 44.3 15.4 3.4
1656 82Ler BD3 M MA (40–50 yrs) Post SGE 0.8 19.7 9.9 41.3 14.2 3.4
1657 86Ler BD6 ? Neonate (2–6 mos) MH III 2.6 18.8 10.5 43.2 15.5 3.3
1658 87Ler BD9 M PA (early 30’s) MH II 1.1 19.4 8.5 39.9 14.3 3.3
1659 91Ler BD14 M MA (mid 40’s) MH I 4.6 19.3 8.4 44.6 16.1 3.2
1660 93Ler BD16 ? Child (11–12 yrs) MH III 0.6 19.7 8.2 33.1 11.8 3.3
1661 115Ler BE11 M MA (40–50 yrs) MH III 3.7 19.7 9.4 43.4 15.5 3.3
1662 122Ler B25. BE18 M Juvenile (12–14 yrs) SGE 4.6 20.1 7.5 45.9 16.6 3.2
1663 127Ler BE20 M MA (40–50 yrs) MH III 2.9 19.2 8.4 43.7 15.9 3.2
1665 129Ler BE23 M PA (mid 30’s) MH II 0.7 19.1 8.5 34.6 12.6 3.2
1666 139Ler BE30 F PA (early 30’s) MH II 3.6 19.6 8.1 43.2 15.9 3.2
1669 157Ler DE9 ? Infant (2–2.5 yrs) LH I 1.1 19.1 9.8 40.4 14.4 3.3
1671 175Ler DE29 M PA (30–40 yrs) MH III 3.6 19.7 7.8 42.8 15.7 3.2
1673 201Ler DE60 F PA (early 30’s) MH III 5.4 19.9 8.1 43.3 15.9 3.2
1674 203Ler DE63 ? Infant (2–3 yrs) MH II 4.7 19.6 7.7 44.3 16.2 3.2
1675 208Ler G3 F PA (30–40 yrs) MH II 1.9 19.8 8.0 42.4 15.3 3.2
1676 213Ler J3 F YA (19–20 yrs) MH 1.0 19.7 8.3 42.7 15.2 3.3
1677 214Ler J3 ? Juvenile (12–14 yrs) MH 1.3 19.4 7.7 37.8 13.9 3.2
1678 215Ler J3 ? Infant (4–5 yrs) MH 2.4 19.5 7.9 43.7 15.9 3.2

Key: YA ¼ young adult, PA ¼ prime adult, MA ¼ mature adult, OA ¼ old adult, F ¼ female, M ¼ male.
a
SGE ¼ ‘Shaft Grave Era’ ¼ MH III–LH I–LH IIA.

If we want to examine stable isotope values in terms of sex differences between the two sexes in burial treatment also appear
differentiation (Fig. 3), the mean d13C and d15N values for men are: more pronounced (Milka in Voutsaki et al., 2007: 66).
19.6  0.3& and 8.4  0.7&, and for women 19.7  0.3& and The stable isotope values of different age groups have been
8.4  0.4&. Three adult males (20Ler, 48Ler, and 175Ler) and one examined. Some differentiation along age divisions can be ob-
juvenile (122Ler) have particularly low d15N values (between 7.5 served. In particular, the mean d15N value of the 3 juveniles ana-
and 7.8&) which are consistent with a heavy consumption of plant- lysed was 8.0  0.6&, possibly suggesting a more plant-based diet
based protein. Generally, both sexes appear to have consumed
a similar proportion of animal and plant-based proteins as sup- 12
ported also by a t-test for independent samples (for d13C values: Female
t ¼ 0.71, P ¼ 0.48; for d15N values: t ¼ 0.30, P ¼ 0.76). There are, Male
10
however, 3 males (1Ler, 82Ler, 115Ler) who have higher d15N values Subadult
Sheep/Goat
indicating a diet higher in animal protein. These three individuals
Cattle
belong to the later phases of the settlement (MH III and LH I) when Pig 8
Red deer
δ15N

6
Table 3
Stable isotope values for the animal bone samples from MH Lerna
4
S-EVA Species Excavation deposita % Collagen d13C d15N %C %N C:N
3834 Sheep/goat DE 548 0.6 20.0 4.7 41.8 15.2 3.2
3835 Sheep/goat BA-BB 204 3.3 20.0 5.8 43.9 16.0 3.2 2
3836 Cattle G318 0.2 21.2 3.8 41.3 14.7 3.3
3837 Cattle BA-BB 204 2.3 19.8 5.0 43.6 16.0 3.2
3838 Pig DE 548 3.1 21.1 5.0 43.2 15.7 3.2 0
3839 Pig BA-BB 204 0.9 20.3 3.7 42.1 15.3 3.2 -21.6 -21.1 -20.6 -20.1 -19.6 -19.1 -18.6
3840 Red deer DE 548 1.9 19.1 4.1 40.4 14.8 3.2
δ13C
3841 Red deer D 591 3.4 20.5 3.4 42.8 15.9 3.1
a
The MH layers in Lerna are still unpublished, therefore the exact location of the Fig. 3. Human collagen d13C and d15N values plotted by sex and age groups with faunal
excavation deposits and their date within the MH period are not always known. isotope values.
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3032 S. Triantaphyllou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3028–3034

during early/middle childhood (Richards et al., 2002). However, it 12

should be pointed out that low d15N values in immature individuals
are considered by some scholars to reflect a response to nitrogen 10
imbalance during periods of intense growth (e.g. Millard, 2000).
Variation in diet has also been examined against differences 8
between graves (in terms of grave construction, associated fur-

δ15N
nishings and offerings), but no significant correlation could be 6 Adult female
observed. Finally, an attempt has been made to see whether there average
were significant differences in the diet of people buried in different 4
grave clusters (sometimes associated with specific houses – Milka,
in press) which may represent different kin groups. Again, no sig- 2
nificant variation has been observed. This is interesting, as the
absence of clear divisions is a characteristic of MH mortuary 0
patterning. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Another important question is whether we can observe change Age (years)
through time. No significant changes can be observed. For example,
-18.5
when samples dating to MH I and II are combined and compared
with those dating to MH III (Fig. 4), whereas the mean d13C values
are similar (MH I–II d13C value: 19.6  0.3&, MH III d13C value: -19
19.6  0.3&), the d15N values show a very slight increase from the
MH I–II to the MH III period (MH I–II d15N values: 8.3  0.4&, MH III Adult female
d15N value: 8.7  0.7&). However, a t-test indicates that there is no δ13C -19.5 average
statistical difference between these two populations (for d15N
values: t ¼ 1.75, P ¼ 0.096).
-20
The subadult bone d13C and d15N values are plotted in Fig. 5a and
b. These diagrams show clearly that there are at least four early
infants between 4 and 32 months (2.8 years) in age which have -20.5
elevated d13C and d15N values. Similarly, there are two infants aged
to 2.5 and 3 years with low d15N values indicating that they had
started to consume the same food similar to that eaten by adults -21
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
before they died. This suggests that weaning in MH Lerna must
Age (years)
have started at or before the age of 2.5 to 3 years. It is interesting to
note one case of a 4-year old late infant which gives evidence for Fig. 5. a and b: Subadult collagen d13C and d15N values plotted against age (female
late weaning with very positive d13C and d15N values (d13C value: average values with 1s standard deviations plotted).
19.1&, d15N value: 9.2&).
pastoralism in the MH period, see Hielte, 2004). The Lerna evidence
6. Discussion derived from the macroscopic investigation of dentitions and the
isotopic signals seem to point more to mixed farming being prac-
The macroscopic examination of human dentitions has given tised in Lerna, since animal protein appears to constitute only one
sufficient indications that the MH inhabitants of Lerna had a mixed component of the diet.
terrestrial diet. We have seen that the stable isotope analysis of Similarly, no marine protein foodstuffs were consumed at
human and animal bones from MH Lerna has confirmed this. The Neolithic Makriyialos and Late Bronze Age Korinos, northern Pieria
question of the reliance on animal protein, i.e. the consumption of (Triantaphyllou, 2001) and at a large number of inland and coastal
meat and/or dairy products, has been at the centre of an extensive Neolithic sites in southern Greece and Thessaly (Papathanasiou,
discussion about specialized pastoralism versus mixed farming in 2003), with the only exception being Grave Circle A at Mycenae.
the prehistoric Aegean (Halstead, 1994, 1996a, 1996b; for The isotopic signals from Grave Circle A at Mycenae which is more
or less contemporary with the later burials in Lerna suggest that
12 the people buried there, undoubtedly of very high status, relied on
MHI-II marine protein foodstuff (Richards and Hedges, 2008). In any case,
MHIII the majority of the stable isotope values derived from prehistoric
10
assemblages leads to the conclusion that seafood was not an im-
portant component of the diet (for a recent discussion on this
8 issue Milner et al., 2004; Hedges, 2004; Richards and Schulting,
2006). Furthermore, in Lerna, despite the proximity of the settle-
ment to aquatic resources (Zangger, 1991), no significant amounts
δ15N

6
of marine and freshwater fish have been found in the faunal as-
semblage (Gejvall, 1969: 51, 57 – but it should be kept in mind that
4 the deposits have not been sieved during excavation). The stable
isotope analysis seems to confirm that marine resources were not
2 an important component of the diet in Lerna. It should be added
that studies of marine ecology as well as accounts of fishing
technology in the classical literature indicate that fish played
0
-20.4 -20.2 -20 -19.8 -19.6 -19.4 -19.2 -19 a limited role in the diet of the ancient Greeks (Gallant, 1985). On
δ13C the other hand, however, experimental research has shown that
certain marine resources, especially those of low trophic level such
Fig. 4. Adult collagen d13C and d15N values plotted by date. as sardines and anchovies – often consumed in the traditional
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S. Triantaphyllou et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 3028–3034
Mediterranean diet – might fall below the detection threshold of
the methods used (Garvie-Lok, 2001; Hedges, 2004).
Fig. 6 presents the isotopic signals of four MH populations:
nearby Aspis in the Argolid (Triantaphyllou et al., in press), Kou-
phovouno in the southern Peloponnese (Lagia et al., 2007), Xero-
pigado Koiladas in west Macedonia (Triantaphyllou and Richards, in
press), Grave Circles A and B in Mycenae and LH chamber tombs at
Mycenae (Richards and Hedges, 2008). It is interesting to note that
MH populations present a rather variable diet ranging from heavy
reliance on plant resources (grains and legumes) in Kouphovouno
to an animal based protein foodstuff (meat and dairy products) in
Aspis and Grave Circle B at Mycenae. The isotopic values of MH
Lerna appear somewhere in the middle suggesting the consump-
tion of a more mixed terrestrial type of diet than that of the other
MH populations. It is also of particular significance that stable
isotopic signals in the Lerna population tend to resemble the di-
etary regime of Grave Circle B rather than the contemporary pop-
ulation in nearby Aspis. This is surprising, as there are more
similarities between Lerna and Aspis (both are intramural ceme-
teries of ordinary people), while Grave Circle B is a particularly rich
extramural cemetery probably used by the elite in Mycenae.
Interestingly the resemblance increases further if we compare
the Aspis (predominantly MH III, though an earlier MH II date
cannot be excluded for a few graves) and Grave Circle B (MH III-LHI)
assemblages only to the MH III skeletons from Lerna rather than to
all Lerna skeletons from all periods. The mean d13C and d15N values
of the MH III Lerna population are 19.6  0.3& and 8.7  0.7&
while the mean d13C and d15N of the Grave Circle B burials
are 19.4  0.6& and 8.6  1.9& (Richards and Hedges, 2008). In
contrast, while the Aspis humans have a similar mean d13C value
(19.4  0.4&), they also have a slightly elevated mean d15N value
(9.2  0.7&). This may suggest a heavier reliance on animal protein
for the Aspis humans as compared to the contemporary humans
from Lerna and Mycenae (Triantaphyllou et al., in press).
With regard to the weaning effect, the isotope evidence points to
this occurring at or before the ages of 2.5 and 3 years, which matches
well with the estimated time period of early enamel disruptions
between 2.4 and 2.9 years of age. At this point, it is interesting to note
that Ingvarsson-Sundström – on the basis of the Bourgeois-Pichat
biometric analysis on mortality data from Asine and Lerna – con-
cluded that a type of supplemented nutrients such as gruel, animal
milk, etc. may have been given to infants at Asine and Lerna when
they were around 4 months. It is also striking that there is strong
evidence of delayed growth of infants suggesting severe problems of
malnutrition possibly due to weaning off breast milk after children
MYC A
ASP
KOIL
MYC B
LER
KOUPH MYC CHAMB
-20 -19.5 -19 -18.5
δ13C
Fig. 6. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope mean values plotted from other Middle and
Late Helladic assemblages (ASP ¼ Aspis, KOIL ¼ Koilada, KOUPH ¼ Kouphovouno, MYC
A ¼ Grave Circle A at Mycenae, MYC B: Grave Circle B at Mycenae, MYC CHAMB ¼ LH
tombs at Mycenae).
3033
reached the age of 3 years (Ingvarsson-Sundström, 2003: 131, Figs. 16
and 17; Nordquist and Ingvarsson-Sundström, 2005: 164). This evi-
dence matches with both the isotopic data and the estimated period
of the early enamel disruptions. According to studies of archaeolog-
ical skeletal material and ethnographic evidence from non-
industrialised societies (Stuart-Macadam, 1995), food other than
breast milk was introduced at the age of 18 months to 3 years. Be-
sides, there are skeletal studies indicating that early infants were
sometimes introduced to food other than breast milk (Herring et al.,
1998); this must have been the case for the four months old neonate
86Ler. Here, we should also point to the low mean d15N value of the 3
juveniles from Lerna which seem to suggest a plant-based diet during
early/middle childhood. This may indeed imply that during the
transition from breast-feeding to adult diet a special kind of food
based on plant protein, e.g. gruel made of vegetables, legumes, etc.,
was consumed.
7. Conclusions
The integration of isotopic data with the information provided
from the study of the human bones from MH Lerna allowed us to
make inferences about the diet and dietary variation, about dif-
ferential access to certain foodstuffs along sex and age divisions as
well as about practices associated with the weaning effect on in-
fants. Isotopic values and the evidence of dental disease suggest
that the inhabitants of MH Lerna had a C3 terrestrial type of diet.
Certain individuals, however, appear to have significant amounts of
animal protein in their diet. With regard to the weaning age, the
isotopic values as well as the estimated age of early enamel dis-
ruptions would suggest that breast milk was replaced by adult food
when infants were before 2.5 and 3 years old.
Acknowledgements
The stable isotopes analysis was carried out as part of the Middle
Helladic Argolid Project, which is financed by the Netherlands Or-
ganization of Scientific Research and the University of Groningen,
The Netherlands. We would like to express our thanks to the suc-
cessive Ephors of the 4th Ephorate of Classical and Prehistoric
Antiquities, Mrs Zoi Aslamatzidou and Mrs Anna Banaka, as well as
to the Department of Conservation, Greek Ministry of Culture, for
granting us a permit to re-examine and sample the MH burials from
Lerna. We thank the American School of Classical Studies, as well as
Dr M. Wiencke, Dr C. Zerner and Dr E. Banks for granting us per-
mission to study the Lerna skeletons and the finds, and Dr David
Reese for selecting the animal bone samples. We would also like to
acknowledge the assistance of the staff at the 4th Ephorate, par-
12
ticularly Dr Alkistis Papadimitriou. The personnel in the Museum of
Argos have been extremely helpful; we thank them all. M. Richards
10 would like to thank the Max Planck Society for funding and Annette
Weiske and Stefanie Bösel for assistance with the isotopic mea-
8 surements. Finally, we would also like to thank the two anonymous
reviewers for their suggestions and constructive comments.
δ15N
6
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