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PREGRADO UESAN
Educación.
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'La gente no compra productos; ellos compran la expectativa de los beneficios ".
(T. Levitt)
Objetivos de aprendizaje
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INTRODUCCIÓN
En la vida cotidiana usamos la palabra 'producto' libremente como sustantivo que describe
'una cosa o sustancia producida por proceso natural o fabricación' ( Conciso
Oxford Dictionary ) con sus connotaciones asociadas de 'artefacto, good (s), produce,
mercancía, salida, mercancía, oferta, trabajo '( Oxford Thesaurus ). Mediante
El 'producto' de uso común ha llegado a abarcar todo tipo de ofertas, incluidas
servicios a pesar de que los servicios poseen una serie de características distintivas
que a menudo discriminan fuertemente entre productos físicos y no físicos
servicios, especialmente en términos de su comercialización. Para todos los propósitos prácticos, ¿cómo-
alguna vez, argumentamos que las similitudes entre productos y servicios son
de tal manera que será mucho más fructífero tratarlos como lo mismo , y solo vivir
sobre las diferencias donde esto será útil en el desarrollo de estrategias específicas para
marketing más efectivo. En consecuencia, como se dijo anteriormente, a lo largo de este texto
Se debe entender que 'producto' abarca la palabra 'servicio' a menos que se vea el mérito
para distinguirlos.
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¿QUE ES UN PRODUCTO?
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Demanda
Al igual que con el sustantivo 'producto' también lo hace el sustantivo 'demanda' tiene muchos significados,
la mayoría de los cuales son intrascendentes en el uso diario. Es solo cuando obtenemos
hasta el serio asunto de tratar de definir la demanda como una oportunidad comercial
que la precisión en la definición se vuelve importante.
Para empezar, será útil reconocer tres amplias categorías de demanda:
• efectivo
• potencial
• latente
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adecuado. Está claro que la demanda latente constituye una consideración importante en
planificación de la gestión En el caso de una demanda que está latente debido a la falta de
El fabricante puede cambiar las preferencias del consumidor a través de su
actividades de marketing y promoción. Alternativamente, si hay una tendencia hacia
Ingresos disponibles, entonces el productor puede proyectar cómo tales aumentos
en poder adquisitivo permitirá a los consumidores traducir su demanda latente en un
demanda efectiva. Dado dicho pronóstico, podrán planificar una mayor producción,
distribución y ventas para mantener el ritmo del aumento de los ingresos disponibles.
En el caso de una demanda que está latente porque el consumidor desconoce la existencia de
de un producto o servicio que satisfaría un deseo mal definido, entonces claramente si el
fabricante produce un producto que creen que debería satisfacer la necesidad, lo harán
desear llamar la atención de aquellos con una demanda latente para ello. Alternativamente, si un
el fabricante no produce un producto que satisfaga una demanda latente conocida
pero es capaz de especificar cuáles serían las características de dicho producto, entonces el
la demanda latente se convierte en una oportunidad de mercadeo que pueden querer explotar.
Se puede decir que existe demanda potencial donde un consumidor posee compras
poder pero actualmente no está comprando. Por lo tanto, cuando un vendedor ha identificado un latente
demanda y desarrolló un nuevo producto para satisfacerlo, la demanda potencial consiste en
aquellos que pueden respaldar su deseo latente con poder adquisitivo. En otro contexto
la demanda potencial puede considerarse como la parte del mercado total o demanda efectiva
para un producto existente que una empresa podría anticipar asegurando a través de la introducción
ción de un nuevo producto competitivo.
Una vez más, debe subrayarse que, si bien el modelo de los economistas sirve un útil
propósito como base para analizar el mundo real, las suposiciones sobre las cuales se basa son
claramente poco realista. Por lo tanto, los textos económicos elementales generalmente hacen suposiciones sobre
demanda del consumidor de la siguiente manera:
1. Las necesidades del consumidor permanecen sin cambios a lo largo de todo el proceso.
2. Tiene una cantidad fija de dinero disponible.
3. Él / ella es uno de los muchos compradores.
4. Conoce el precio de todos los bienes, cada uno de los cuales es homogéneo.
5. El / ella puede, si lo desea, gastar su dinero en cantidades muy pequeñas.
6. S / él actúa racionalmente.
De estas suposiciones, solo 2 y 3 parecen ser verdaderas con cualquier frecuencia en el
mundo real. Por lo demás, como los gerentes saben muy bien, la demanda del consumidor es inconstante
y cambia frecuentemente El conocimiento de la existencia de todos esos bienes que el
el consumidor puede comprar, y mucho menos sus precios, parece poco probable. Además, los bienes no son
infinitamente divisible y los consumidores tienen que pagar el precio solicitado por un producto, ya sea
ser 10p para una caja de fósforos o £ 250 para un televisor en color. Si bien estas diferencias
entre el modelo y el mundo real son bastante obvios, esto no siempre es cierto con
respecto a la interpretación correcta de lo que constituye un comportamiento racional.
Mientras que el economista habla de racionalidad en términos de consumidores maximizando su
satisfacción, la satisfacción se define generalmente en términos de criterios únicamente objetivos. Utilizando
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• Demografía
• Comportamiento del comprador
• Disponibilidad (suministro y canales de distribución).
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Dado que ahora podemos predecir la esperanza de vida al nacer con un buen grado de
precisión y también podemos predecir las etapas en el ciclo de vida humana, debemos ser
capaz de predecir la demanda de servicios sociales, como salud, educación y bienestar.
De manera más prosaica, también deberíamos ser capaces de predecir las demandas de diferentes
tipos de bienes duraderos de consumo y consumo y de estos pronósticos derivan
otros para las materias primas y los bienes de producción necesarios para crear el
suministro de bienes de consumo. En términos generales y agregados, deberíamos ser capaces de
Dict tipos amplios de demanda agregada 50, 60 o incluso 70 años en el futuro.
La realidad es que la experiencia pasada muestra que incluso en avanzado y sofisticado
ated economías dos cosas son evidentes. Primero, intenta pronosticar la población,
y, en particular, la tasa de natalidad, han sido en gran medida infructuosos y, a menudo altamente
incorrecto. En segundo lugar, incluso cuando tenemos los datos, somos muy pobres en usar esto para
Desarrollar pronósticos básicos. Por ejemplo, si sabemos que la edad de jubilación es de 65 años, entonces
a partir de 2005, deberíamos ser capaces de establecer con bastante precisión (salvo algunas
evento cataclísmico imprevisto) cuántas personas se jubilarán cada año hasta 2070.
Además, a medida que pasa el año y conocemos el número de nacidos vivos que podemos
actualizar nuestra previsión para un año más en el futuro. Más cerca tenemos que estar
capaz de predecir con precisión cuántos lugares de preescolar necesitamos cuatro años antes,
lugares primarios cinco años más adelante, lugares de educación secundaria 11 años más adelante,
la educación terciaria se ubica 18 años más adelante y así sucesivamente. Incluso un examen superficial
de la historia económica reciente muestra que los gobiernos han sido singularmente
sabio en hacer esas predicciones correctas. Con suerte, los profesionales de marketing serán
más exitoso ya que la información básica está a mano para establecer a
al menos, la demanda latente de todo tipo de bienes y servicios.
Para que la demanda latente se convierta en demanda efectiva, otros factores deben venir
en juego, la mayoría de los cuales son mucho menos fáciles de predecir. Si bien tiene una base amplia
taxonomías como la Jerarquía de Necesidades Humanas de Maslow será útil para dar
una comprensión básica de los "gustos", y las Leyes de Engels brindan orientación sobre cómo
El gasto de las personas cambiará a medida que aumenten sus ingresos, ninguno de los conceptos es demasiado
uso práctico en la previsión de la demanda de bienes y servicios específicos. Necesitamos
conocimiento detallado del comportamiento del consumidor, tanto en teoría como en la práctica. Nosotros
Necesitamos establecer cómo las personas se están comportando ahora antes de que podamos especular sobre cómo
pueden comportarse en el futuro. Y, cuando buscamos predecir el comportamiento futuro,
tomar conciencia rápidamente de que si bien podemos hacer algunas generalizaciones útiles sobre
necesidades humanas (transporte, energía, entretenimiento) es mucho más difícil
predecir deseos específicos (automóviles, energía solar, televisión satelital) porque no podemos predecir
innovación tecnológica precisa ni cómo las personas reaccionarán ante ella.
Los factores restantes que influyen en la demanda - precio, distribución y existencias
- Realmente tienen más que ver con lograr algún tipo de equilibrio entre
demanda y oferta que en la configuración de los cambios de demanda a largo plazo. Precio, en teoría,
refleja el valor que los consumidores asignan al asegurar un suministro del bien en cuestión
tal que el precio de mercado se establecerá en un punto en que ningún proveedor esté dispuesto
para ofrecer una unidad adicional a la venta por debajo de ese precio y ningún consumidor está dispuesto a
ofrece más para asegurar una unidad adicional para el consumo. Si el mercado o ir
el precio es visto como demasiado bajo por los productores potenciales, entonces usarán sus recursos
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para hacer algo más con un mayor valor agregado. Alternativamente, si el precio actual
ofrece un mejor rendimiento que el que se puede obtener en la producción de otros productos, productores
intentará cambiar de producir esos bienes o servicios. Las existencias y la distribución
El canal de distribución sirve para garantizar que los proveedores estén disponibles donde y cuando
se desean y para amortiguar las fluctuaciones tanto en el lado de la oferta como en el de la demanda.
Esta breve discusión de los factores que influyen en la demanda indica que, si bien
debería ser posible desarrollar predicciones a largo plazo sobre los cambios en la población,
y de hecho, es posible predecir el cambio tecnológico, estos macro-
es probable que los cambios ambientales sean de uso limitado para los productores que buscan
asegurar el mayor rendimiento posible de los recursos bajo su control en el
corto a mediano plazo. Para hacer esto debemos acercarnos mucho más al consumidor y
tratar de determinar qué es lo que está moldeando sus necesidades y deseos, y el
importancia relativa o preferencia que se les atribuye. En otras palabras,
necesita mirar productos y mercados específicos y para hacerlo debe regresar a nuestro
pregunta de apertura '¿Qué es un producto?'.
Como primer paso para refinar nuestra consideración de la demanda, será útil
desarrollar algún tipo de sistema clasificatorio para los productos ya que esto debería permitirnos
para hacer generalizaciones útiles sobre categorías particulares o tipos de productos.
De hecho, existe un posible sistema clasificatorio en nuestras referencias a bienes de consumo
y bienes duraderos de consumo y para distinguirlos de los bienes de producción.
Esta dicotomía entre productores y bienes de consumo se refleja en la industria
o marketing de empresa a empresa y de consumo, una distinción que
ha demostrado ser muy útil en el desarrollo de recomendaciones específicas para el marketing
estrategias y decisiones de marketing mix.
Como hemos visto, la demanda de bienes industriales se deriva de eso para
bienes de consumo. Siendo así, primero debemos establecer cómo son los bienes de consumo
percibido, comprado y consumido antes de explicar cómo esto afecta la demanda
para bienes industriales Una de las primeras y más influyentes contribuciones al
La clasificación de los bienes de consumo fue hecha por Melvin T. Copeland en 1923
(Copeland, 1923) en el que propuso que los bienes de consumo podrían clasificarse
como productos de compras, productos de conveniencia y productos especializados. Estos fueron definidos
formalmente por el Comité de Definiciones de la American Marketing Association
(1948) de la siguiente manera:
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Sin embargo, Bucklin también señala las 'múltiples barreras que se encuentran en el camino de intento-
para validar cualquier clasificación de la teoría de los bienes "que probablemente explica el
atención limitada que la teoría ha recibido en la literatura de marketing. A pesar de la falta
de validación teórica, y en común con muchas otras mercadotecnias actuales
ideas y técnicas, la teoría es ampliamente mencionada en escritos destinados a
instruir a los practicantes en la profesión '. Bucklin explica por qué: 'La razón es que
cualitativa como es, la teoría de clasificación proporciona una integración amplia y esencial
ción de mucho material en marketing. Proporciona un marco para el análisis de
problemas de comercialización, al menos a nivel rudimentario, y sugiere dónde los estudiantes
podría buscar soluciones a los problemas de estrategia de marketing. Proporciona una lógica
que se puede entender y apreciar fácilmente.
Por otro lado, es importante reconocer que la clasificación del producto puede
ser la consecuencia de las estrategias de marketing, así como de las clasificaciones a priori
gesticulando estrategias preferidas. Esta aparente paradoja es aclarada por Hume Winzar
en su documento de 1992 "Clasificaciones de productos y estrategia de comercialización" (Winzar, 1992)
el resumen para el cual dice lo siguiente:
Los mercadólogos a menudo han intentado utilizar esquemas de clasificación de productos para proporcionar una
'libro de cocina' para la estrategia de marketing. Esta llamada escuela de pensamiento mercantil es
argumentó, en este documento, para ser menos que fructífero en la prestación de un libro de cocina tal. Producto
las clasificaciones son contingentes a los elementos de la mezcla de marketing y asumen
sobre la respuesta del consumidor. Estos conducen a cuatro problemas específicos:
Winzar hace un caso detallado y convincente para apoyar los argumentos anteriores
pero, al hacerlo, pasa por alto que los teóricos desarrollan definiciones y teorías
construcciones éticas para proporcionar un marco de referencia para examinar los estados de la naturaleza o
realidad. Por lo tanto, las ideas de competencia perfecta y monopolio puro rara vez
encontrado en el mundo real pero, al ser definido, proporciona una base para describir
y definiendo todos los innumerables casos que se encuentran entre ellos. De la misma manera por
clasificar los bienes en términos del comportamiento de compra que provocan podemos ver fácilmente
que todos los productos nuevos o mejorados son, por definición, productos de compras; la innovación
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Se deja decidir si desean posicionarlos como conveniencia, comprando
o compras especiales Al definir los productos a priori en cuanto a cómo queremos que
ser percibido ex post , entonces podemos seleccionar la estrategia / mezcla de marketing que
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Creo que logrará esto. ¡Solo si somos exitosos la lógica será circular! En otra
palabras clasificando los productos existentes como pertenecientes a categorías particulares y
identificando las estrategias que han contribuido a este resultado, tenemos un uso-
herramienta gerencial para trazar acciones futuras.
Si los productos y servicios se definen en términos del comportamiento del comprador hacia
ellos, será útil considerar los factores que determinan ese comportamiento.
La mayoría de los modelos de comportamiento del comprador reconocen implícitamente dos tipos de factores:
objetivo y subjetivo. Los factores objetivos pueden o no ser tangibles, pero
debe ser cuantificable y mensurable y están presentes en el objeto mismo. Por con-
En cambio, los factores subjetivos son intangibles y están influenciados por actitudes, creencias,
experiencia y asociaciones que el que toma la decisión tiene hacia el objeto
y se siente relevante al formarse un juicio sobre el nivel de satisfacción que debe tener
obtenido de su consumo. En la teoría económica, son los factores objetivos los que
resolver la decisión y formar la base de la 'racionalidad' económica. En el comportamiento
las ciencias se acepta que los criterios objetivos son propensos a la interpretación subjetiva
y por lo tanto no son tan duros y rápidos como lo haría la escuela racional de toma de decisiones
haznos creer Además, los científicos del comportamiento reconocen que es posible
to discriminate between objectively similar objects – perfect substitutes in the
language of the economist – and hold a firm preference for one substitute product
over another.
Of course, to prefer one substitute product over another it is necessary first to
be able to judge that they are objectively similar, ie we need a set of criteria on
which to form this judgement. Next we need to be able to discriminate between
the objectively similar products in terms of other, to us, meaningful criteria.
Objective criteria are sometimes termed 'performance factors' and, for some tech-
nical products, may be summarized in a performance specification so that only
objects which conform with the specification would be considered as belonging
to the product category under consideration, eg chemicals, fabricated materials
like steel, plastic or aluminium, microprocessors, electrical generating equipment,
etc. In Marketing and Competitive Success (1989) Baker and Hart identified 16 per-
formance factors commonly used by buyers in assessing a product. Como puede ser
seen from the list in Table 2.1, some of these performance factors are intrinsic
properties of the product itself while other factors are associated with availability
and use. An alternative list of objective product characteristics is to be found in
Marketing Strategy and Management (Baker, 2000) which comprises both technical
and economic factors with the latter divided between price and non-price factors
(see Table 2.2).
Organizations that produce things which are seen as objectively similar
are usually regarded as belonging to the same industry and so as being in direct
competition with one another. Indeed product characteristics form the basis for
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TABLE 2.1 (in
Critical
rank success
order) factors: product factors influencing competitiveness
1. Performance in operation
2. Reliability
3. Sale price
4. Efficient delivery
5. Technical sophistication
6. Quality of after-sales service
7. Durability
8. Ease of use
9. Safety in use
10. Ease of maintenance
11. Parts availability and cost
12. Attractive appearance/shape
13. Flexibility and adaptability in use
14. Advertising and promotion
15. Operator comfort
16. Design
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Oler
Taste
for public procurement has been established known as CPV. The CPV consists of
a main vocabulary for defining the subject of a contract, and a supplementary
vocabulary for adding further qualitative information. The main vocabulary is
based on a tree structure comprising codes of up to nine digits (an eight-digit
code plus a check digit) associated with a wording that describes the types of
supplies, works or services forming the subject of the contract. The first two digits
identify the divisions , the first three digits identify the group , the first four digits
identify the classes , and the first five digits the categories . Each of the last three
digits gives a greater degree of precision within each category and a ninth digit is
used to verify the preceding eight digits. While not as precise as the familiar bar-
code unique to every individual product, the system enables both buyers and
sellers to use an unambiguous system for identifying specific products. (Ver
http://simap.eu.int/shared/docs/simap/nomenclature/FAQ-CPV.pdf, accessed
6/10/05.)
Once it is agreed that things are objectively similar (ie they share the same SIC
code) then the question becomes: how can consumers discriminate between
homogeneous products and services? The answer is, of course, that they can only
do so if some other information is provided which identifies individual units of
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FIGURE 2.3
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accepted that because buyers are concerned with benefits or satisfactions this is a
combination of both tangible and intangible 'products' and 'services'. Shostack
(1982) illustrates this in her conceptualization of a continuum from product dom-
inant entities such as salt, and service dominant entities such as teaching, as illus-
trated in Figure 2.4.
This idea is encapsulated neatly in the concept of the augmented product
(illustrated in Figure 2.5) at the heart of which is a physical entity but where dis-
tinctiveness depends very much on the layers of subjective and service factors
which surround it.
The other major characteristic which distinguishes products and services is
that the provision of the service is inseparable from the provider and requires
the involvement of the customer for the service to be created and consumed.
This characteristic also makes it often difficult to standardize a service: they
are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous, although as Ted Levitt showed
in his famous article 'The industrialization of service' (1976a), the success of
McDonald's is largely one of standardization of service. Similarly, as the creation
of a service requires customer involvement, if there is no customer then the
potential to create and consume that service, eg a seat on an aeroplane or hotel
room, is gone (hence 'perishability and fluctuating demand').
So much for the characteristics which help distinguish products from services.
How about the proposal that they call for an extended marketing mix comprising
process, physical evidence and people in addition to the conventional four Ps?
First, what are they? Process is concerned with the way in which the service is
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delivered to the customer; physical evidence consists of those tangible clues that
the consumer may receive which verify either the existence or completion of a
service, eg a cheque book, ticket, policy document, etc.; finally, people embraces
all the members of the service organization, whether or not they have any direct
contact with customers.
It requires little more than a moment's reflection to realize that all three factors
are important in marketing physical products too, and so are a poor basis for dis-
tinguishing between goods and services. As we have seen, as it becomes more
difficult to distinguish between physical objects, the idea of the augmented prod-
uct as a bundle of satisfactions or benefits combining both tangible and intangible
elements has displaced the earlier, more 'economic', representation featuring
only performance and price. Similarly, concepts like total quality management
and internal marketing recognize that all members of a supplier organization are
responsible for the quality of its relationships with customers and so influence
the perceived value of these relationships.
To sum up, the distinction between products and services will be helpful if
it is used to develop enhanced marketing mixes for both; it will be harmful if it
hinders the transfer of ideas and practices between marketers whose outputs
lie at different ends of the continuum between product dominant and service
dominant entities.
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MARCA
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The growth of branding may be attributed to many factors including:
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• Brands can take many forms and are not just names.
• Brands are not restricted to physical products. A brand can just as easily be a
service, an organization or even an aspiration.
• Most importantly, successful brands confer a sustainable competitive advantage
– the corollary being that unsuccessful brands have precisely the opposite effect.
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• 72% of customers will pay a 20% premium for their preferred brand
• 50% will pay 25% more
• 40% will pay 30% more
• 25% say that price doesn't matter
• More than 70% use brands to guide buying decisions
• 50% are brand driven.
It seems clear that branding has the ability to convert otherwise undifferentiated
or convenience goods into shopping or speciality goods. As such, successful
brands possess four key attributes. They communicate quality, superior service
and differentiation, added to which a strong brand enables the owner to pene-
trate markets more quickly and obtain first-mover advantages.
Many brands are represented by a logo or icon and it is this that is immediately
reconocible. However all brands have names and it is this that 'symbolizes the
sum of the attributes that make up the brand and quickly becomes synonymous
with the satisfactions that the brand delivers'. The brand name is a form of men-
tal shorthand that neatly summarizes all the factors to be taken into account in
making a decision to purchase. Once we have identified a brand which possesses
the desired attributes and delivers the desired satisfactions, then we can use that
brand as a summary statement of our wants for a given category of object and
select it on future occasions when the need it satisfied arises.
Such a state of 'brand loyalty' is the one to which all producers aspire. Once it
exists then the object has the status of a speciality good, for consumers will
expend special effort to acquire it and will not easily accept a substitute. En la mayoría
situations brand loyalty confers a status equivalent to shopping goods – we will
make an effort to acquire the preferred brand but, if it is unavailable, will be will-
ing to consider substitutes on the basis of a careful evaluation of their properties
vis-à-vis our preferred brand. From this it follows that convenience goods are
those for which no supplier has been able to create a sustainable differential
advantage and brand loyalty is low or non-existent.
So a brand name has a number of distinguishing characteristics. It is:
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ies like Procter and Gamble with a distinctive name for each of its products, eg:
1. Laundry and cleaning products: Bounce , Cheer , Cascade , Comet , Dawn , Era , Joy , Tide
2. Health care: Ivory , Crest
3. Beauty care: Cover Girl , Head and Shoulders
4. Food and Beverages: Folgers , Pringles
5. Paper: Pampers , Luvs , Always .
The main advantages of giving each product a distinctive name is that there is
less risk that the failure of one product will affect any other; that you can compete
in several product categories which may be seen as quite different in the mind of
the customer; and that you can offer more than one product within the same
product category, at different price points and appealing to different market seg-
mentos. Against these advantages may be offset by the loss of economies of scale;
loss of the ability to stretch or leverage the brand's equity; and the need to
develop a new identity and reputation for every new product.
That said, many of the world's best-known brands are companies rather than
specific products. Indeed eight out of the top ten in 1990 were companies rather
than specific products, as can be seen from Figure 2.6.
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FIGURE 2.6 The global top ten brand names ( source : Business Week, 2005)
From the preceding discussion on branding it is clear that firms are seeking
to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage, and also that customers will
seek to differentiate between competitive offerings in terms of their objective
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performance factors, but that, faced with two or more objectively similar prod-
ucts or services, they will look for other subjective factors to help them dis-
criminate and make a final choice. From the producer/supplier point of view,
objective benefits are to be preferred, hence the emphasis on innovation and
new product development. Of course, innovation is not without its risks – if
the new thing is not sufficiently different from the old (incremental innovation)
customers may see little benefit in changing a currently satisfactory form of
comportamiento. Conversely, if the new thing is radically different from the intended
users' past experience, then they may perceive considerable risk in trying it
and defer a purchase decision until they have more and better information.
Based upon an extensive review of the characteristics of new products Rogers
(1983) developed a very useful framework which classifies characteristics under
five headings:
• Relative advantage
• Compatibility
• Complexity
• Divisibility
• Communicability.
The first characteristic, relative advantage , seeks to measure the economic benefit
conferred upon or available to the adopter of an innovation adjusted to take cog-
nizance of the adopter's present situation. Thus, for example, if a manufacturer
has brought out three models of a machine, the first with a rated output of 1000
units per hour, the second with 1200 units per hour and the third with 1500 units
per hour, then the introduction of model 3 offers a 50% improvement to owners
of model 1, but only 25% to owners of model 2. Clearly the absolute performance is
the same, but a 25% improvement may not be sufficient relative advantage for the
model 2 owner to trade in or scrap his machine in favour of the new one, whereas
50% is sufficient incentive for the model 1 owner to do so. Thus, a planned
replacement policy related to the age of the existing stock of machines would
suggest model 1 owners as better targets for replacement than model 2 owners.
Compatibility and complexity are both dimensions of the degree of novelty asso-
ciated with an innovation, but tend to be inversely related to each other. los
more compatible a new product is with the existing system, the more likely it is to
be readily accepted. Of course, beyond a certain point the new product may so
resemble what it seeks to replace that it is insufficiently distinguishable to
prompt users to change. For example, a survey by McGraw-Hill indicated that
many industrial purchasing agents were unwilling to switch from a currently
satisfactory source of supply unless the change offered a saving equivalent to a
reduction of 8%–10% of the current price.
While complexity , defined as the degree of difficulty associated with full under-
standing of the application of an innovation, does not automatically increase with
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novelty, this is often the case. It certainly is true that the less compatible an inno-
vation is with the existing way of doing things, the more complex it is likely to
seem to be.
Divisibility measures the extent to which it is possible to try an innovation
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before coming to a final adoption/rejection decision and it can have a significant
influence upon attitudes towards a new product. Where there is a high degree of
uncertainty about an innovation, and trial is only possible by firms or individuals
for whom the economic risks are small, then most potential users will prefer to
wait and see. In other words, for them trial is vicarious and based upon the reac-
tions of the early adopters. Two points are worth noting in this context.
First, it is an established fact that many early buyers in industrial markets are
the largest firms in the industry. However, experience suggests that many large
firms which buy during the launch phase do so only on a trial basis and without
any commitment to large-scale or continued use. In some cases early trial may
even be used as a delaying tactic, and it would be a mistake to concentrate all
one's launch efforts on the biggest potential users. Equally, one should not ignore
the opportunity to sell to 'trialists', for, in addition to generating much-needed
revenue, they also provide feedback on problems which only become apparent
when the new product is put into 'normal' use.
The second point to make is that sellers can do a great deal to minimize risk
during the launch phase by providing a trial period or its equivalent. Para examen-
ple, one can supply goods on sale or return terms, provide additional guarantees
to early adopters, or lease the product rather than sell it outright. Endorsement by
an authority figure can also help reduce risk.
The final characteristic, communicability , is heavily influenced by the preceding
four factors, for it reflects the degree of difficulty associated with communicating
the benefits of an innovation to prospective users, which, in turn, is a function of
its relative advantage, compatibility, complexity and divisibility. Comunicación
is a vital activity throughout the new product purchase decision process, with
impersonal or media communications being most important in creating initial
awareness, both impersonal and personal sources influencing interest, personal
sources becoming dominant as the buyer moves towards a decision, and imper-
sonal sources assuming the primary role of reassurance after the decision has
been made.
All these factors can be measured objectively but, as we have noted on a
number of occasions, such objective measurement is of secondary importance. Eso
is the way prospective users perceive and interpret the factors which is import-
ant. In turn, it would seem reasonable to infer that early adopters do perceive
'the facts' differently from followers and laggards – that is, the selling proposition
must seem more attractive and/or less risky to them, and marketers have
expended a great deal of effort in attempts to determine what the distinguishing
features are.
Perhaps the most important point to be made about classifying products is that
it is the perception of novelty that determines how prospective buyers will view
them, and it is this that underpins Rogers' five characteristics. In the seminal
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study undertaken by Booz, Allen and Hamilton (1982) they identified six kinds of
new products from the producer's perspective. Namely:
This classification has been used often in subsequent research (see, for example,
pag. 67).
The above discussion of the characteristics of new products provides an oppor-
tunity to link a number of ideas introduced in the chapter with a model of buyer
behaviour developed for industrial products but of equal relevance to consumer
buying decisions.
The Buygrid Analytic Framework is shown in Figure 2.7. As can be seen, the
Buygrid uses two sets of variables distinguished as Buy Phases (Steps 1–8 on the
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vertical axis) and Buy Classes which are defined as follows:
1. New task : The recognition of a purchasing problem which has not been
encountered previously. The buyer will face considerable uncertainty and will
seek to reduce this through the acquisition of as much information as possible
from both personal and impersonal sources. All the Buy Phases are likely to
receive careful and explicit attention.
2. Modified rebuy : The buyer has prior experience of the purchase problem but
has reason to re-evaluate this in light of some new information or stimulus.
Some of the Buy Phases may be truncated or omitted.
3. Straight rebuy : The buyer is satisfied with an existing source of supply and
sees no reason to change. Phases 4–7 are likely to be omitted altogether and
only cursory attention given to the others, ie purchase has become habitual
and routinized.
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FIGURE 2.7 The Buygrid Analytic Framework for industrial buying situations
( source : Robinson et al. , 1967)
The topic of 'new service development' (NSD) was the subject of a major review
article in the European Journal of Marketing in 1998 (Johne and Storey, 1998).
Given its comprehensive and authoritative coverage it is the major source of the
following discussion. The emphasis in Johne and Storey's article is on 'organic'
development as opposed to growth via mergers, acquisitions and joint ventures.
Further, while they look at all types of new service development, at the time of
writing the bulk of published literature was concerned with financial services.
Compared with physical products many new service offerings require limited
new investment leading to the development of a proliferation of variants.
Subsequently, this enlarged choice can lead to confusion and a lack of meaningful
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differentiation with the result that many such NSDs are unsuccessful. Sigue
that improved processes and procedures are required to improve success rates,
just as they have been in the case of new product development (NPD). Mientras que la
authors acknowledge the importance of services in marketing many tangible
products they consider that it is not essential whereas it is in the case of service
'products'. As they observe 'Nearly all service products involve close interaction
with customers. Interaction is the distinguishing feature of service offerings. En
many service sectors the interactive elements are the very essence of the service
offer.' Further, because interaction is an integral part of the service exchange,
NSD is often far more complex conceptually than NPD.
Added to this perceived complexity, Johne and Storey cite the three dimen-
sions of service offerings that are generally identified as the main basis of differ-
entiation with physical products:
1. Intangibility
2. Heterogeneity
3. Simultaneity.
• New-to-the-world products
• New product lines
• Additions to existing product lines
• Improvements and revisions to existing products
• Repositionings
• Cost reductions.
Given that cost reductions are a result of process development the benefits
are applicable to all of the first four categories as are 'repositionings' which
Johne (1996) terms 'product augmentation development'. A significant element of
product augmentation is to be found in the provision of services. Put another
way, Johne conceives of product development as being concerned with amending
core attributes while product augmentation involves amending the interaction
with the customer. Both forms of development are important in achieving market
development which is one of the generic strategies identified by Ansoff (1957).
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From their review of the services literature Johne and Storey identify six key
themes linked to the NSD process:
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2. The process itself
3. The people involved
4. Analysis of opportunities
5. Development; y
6. Implementation.
Students of NPD will not be surprised that top management support, clear
objectives and goals, an innovative culture, qualified staff, a structured process,
recognition and reward, and cycle time are all associated with success in NSD.
Similarly, Shostack (1984), an early authority on services marketing, recom-
mends a structured approach to NSD driven by 'objectivity, precision, facts and
methodologically based'. However, there is less evidence of service providers
following the more sophisticated processes and procedures in wide use in NPD
such as product screening, concept, product and market testing.
In terms of the people involved, three groups are distinguished that must be
managed in an effective development project:
Those involved with NPD would have little difficulty in endorsing this view.
However, they would be concerned at the lack of sophistication evident in the
service organization's approach to identifying new market opportunities through
market research, and the general lack of research between idea generation and
launch which are seen as critical success factors in NPD.
With regard to development, a distinction is made between the defini-
tion of the features and attributes that will define the nature of the service,
and the service delivery system through which they will be made available
to the customer. Given that this will involve both tangible and intangible
elements, integration and adaptation to the needs of the target audience are
vital. In light of the role of individuals in delivering the service, extensive
training prior to launch is particularly important in implementation. Dado
the ease with which service innovations can be replicated, although test
marketing is recommended it is rarely used. (However, what is recommended as
test marketing for services might be considered to be product testing by NPD
practitioners.)
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Research into NSD success and failure largely reinforces that undertaken for
productos. Johne and Storey observe:
. . . project success or failure can rarely be explained in terms of managing one or two
supporting activities brilliantly. Explanations of project success are multi-factored.
A host of supporting activities need to be managed competently and in a balanced
and well coordinated manner. Supporting activities can be summarised under three
broad sub-tasks which underpin effective and efficient project development. Estas
sub-tasks are:
(1) Opportunity analysis . Effecting synergies by fitting the operational require-
ments for supplying the newly developed offer(s) with existing process operations.
(2) Project development . Readying projects in a cost-effective and timely manner
which are then launched in an appropriate way.
(3) Offer formulation . To maximise appeal to target customers in terms of core
performance attributes and the appropriate customer evaluation and usage elements.
These tasks are represented by a large number of specific factors identified in
a wide range of studies and summarized in a comprehensive table. sin embargo, el
great majority of these critical success factors are related to 'products' and were,
in fact, identified in studies of products rather than services.
Based on the six major empirical studies into NSD success or failure covered
by their review, Johne and Storey conclude that they lack control of three dimen-
sions that are required if the studies are to be replicable, namely:
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2. The context within which it was attempted; y
3. The precise criteria used to assess results.
It is clear, however, that the same problems are to be found in studies of NPD
also. At the same time it is also clear from studies in both fields that there are
varied and different perspectives as to what constitutes success and failure,
reinforcing the point made earlier that explanations are multi-factored. Como
Cordero (1990) pointed out, the criteria and outcomes may well vary depending
on whether one is assessing the commercial outcome of the specific development
under consideration, its technical performance, or its contribution to the business
como un todo. Further, as Griffin and Page (1993) discovered many managers in
the USA responsible for NSD consider it to be successful if it doesn't fail
which begs the question of what it actually contributes to the organization’s
overall performance.
Based on their review, Johne and Storey identify nine areas for future research.
In doing so they freely acknowledge that many of the issues they identify
have been and are being addressed successfully by practitioners. While detailed
analysis of the procedures and practices used has not been published for reasons
Página 32
RESUMEN
In this chapter we have reviewed some of the factors which should be taken into
account when considering the nature of the product or services in order to be able
to answer the question 'What is a product?'.
It has been shown that there is value in seeking to classify products as this
requires us to consider carefully precisely what is the basis of exchange between
producer and consumer. Such consideration makes it clear that for a successful
exchange to occur both parties must be satisfied: it is a win–win outcome. Si esto es
a win–lose outcome it cannot satisfy our definition of the purpose of marketing
as establishing 'mutually satisfying exchange relationships'. Our review has
also made it clear that it is the prospective buyers' perception of benefit or
satisfaction which is determinant and they are best able to define what mix
of benefits – objective or subjective, tangible or intangible, 'product' or 'service' –
will best match their want. The consumers' wants and their buying behaviour
define the market.
We have also established that the classification of products helps determine
which suppliers offer direct substitutes for each other's products and so may be
regarded as being in direct competition with one another. Las características de
the product define the nature of the industry and so provide us with the ability to
identify our immediate competitors and devise strategies for outmanoeuvring
and outperforming them. In addition we have been reminded that as well as
direct competition we must also be concerned with indirect competition whereby
a preference for quite different products may deflect or reduce demand in a given
mercado. This is a theme to which we will return in Chapter 10, on testing product
(and service) concepts.
As the focus of the exchange relationship the product must occupy centre stage
in the suppliers' strategic thinking. It is the medium through which producers
communicate with prospective customers and the means by which they establish
long-lasting and profitable relationships with them. Ultimately it is the only
source of a sustainable competitive advantage. The creation and maintenance of
such an advantage is the subject of the remainder of this book.
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PREGUNTAS
1. What is a 'product'?
2. Distinguish and define three broad categories of demand.
3. What is preference and how is it affected by the law of diminishing marginal
utility?
4. Discuss the factors which may influence demand.
5. Suggest and explain a system for classifying products.
6. Why has branding become so important in increasingly competitive markets?
7. Discuss the five characteristics used by Rogers for classifying new products.
8. Describe the Buygrid and discuss its implications for analysing buyer
comportamiento.
9. Are services different?
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