Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164

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Fire Safety Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/firesaf

Experimental evaluation of the post-fire behavior of steel T-component in

the beam-to-column connection
Merve Sagiroglu
Erzurum Technical University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Civil Engineering, Erzurum, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To evaluate the strength of a connection after exposure to fire, the microstructure/property relationships and
T-component influences of these effects on high temperature strength are needed to discuss structural elements exposed to a
Post-fire behavior heat treatment and to determine its mechanical properties. This study focuses on understanding the structural
Moment-rotation curve behavior of the connection under post-fire conditions. The aim of the work is also to provide a moment-rotation
Microstructure curve, failure mechanism and microstructure for a connection whose component is exposed to heat treatment.
This aim was achieved through five tests that were conducted on a full-scale beam-to-column connection using a
T-component obtained from rolled I-profiles by cutting along the web plane. The moment-rotation curves and
failure modes of the connection at ambient temperature were compared to the moment-rotation curves and failure
modes of the connection whose elements were exposed to high-temperature conditions. The material properties of
the specimen element exposed to the heat treatment were also investigated by comparing them to those of the
original specimen. The test results show that there are differences between the mechanical properties and mi-
crostructures of the heated and original specimens. The differences in these specimens are reflected in the
morphology of the fractures. The reason for the fractures is that microstructure-changes contribute to brittle
behavior in members. The experimental tests indicated that, post-fire, steel connections can be subjected to large
deformations at a lower strength and are more likely to fracture early.

1. Introduction
Beam-to-column connections play an important role in the behavior
of steel frames. Steel frames are traditionally analyzed and designed by
assuming that beam-to-column connections have a significant stiffness
and strength. The effect of the moment on the rotational deformation of
the connections must be considered. Therefore, the behavior of beam-to-
column connection is represented by the M-ϴ curves. Various numerical
[1] and experimental [2–5] investigations have shown that the actual
behavior of the joints falls between rigid and pinned behavior when their
moment-rotation curves have been classified as semi-rigid. Therefore,
beams are free of end moments only if they have complete freedom of
rotation at the supports, and conversely, they have end moments if the
end rotation is prevented partially, such as in the connections in this
paper. Several moment-rotation relationships [6] have been derived from
experimental studies to determine the behavior of semi-rigid connections
and perform computer-based nonlinear analysis [1], which includes the
effects of the flexibility of the connections that have been developed to
design steel frames with semi-rigid connections using mathematical
models.
There have also been studies on the effects of fire on steel structures
and components in the last four decades because the thermal conduc-
tivity of steel is high. At the same time, the concentration of material
within the connection region and differential temperature distribution
should be considered within the connection. When heated, connections
and their elements expand and lose both their strength and stiffness,
decreasing the load carrying capacity. As a result, some studies [7–10]
have been conducted to better understand the connection behavior and
its effects on structures in fire. Fire tests on steel structures have shown
that the temperature within the partially embedded connections in the
concrete slab is lower than that of the connected steel members [8]. In
addition to experimental studies, due to the high cost of experimental
tests and the limitations in the number of geometrical and mechanical
parameters, some studies [11–13] have focused on the finite elements
methods for modeling the behavior of structural connections in some
cases while considering the influence of thermal restraint. Additionally,
prediction methods [14] for the behavior of connections exposed to fire
use an approach based on numerical methods to simulate complicated
structures with numerous parameters.
To provide structural integrity when beam deflections are high due to

E-mail address: merve.sagiroglu@erzurum.edu.tr.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2018.01.007
Received 27 August 2017; Received in revised form 20 December 2017; Accepted 23 January 2018

0379-7112/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

M. Sagiroglu Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164

temperatures [17]. Additionally, the grain size, ferrite transformation

Fig. 1. The connection jointed ½ IPE profile (T-component).
Fig. 2. The configuration of the connection.
fire, beam-to-column connections should have sufficient rotational ca-
pacity and resistance against tying forces [15]. The design of a structure
at high temperature is also based on the design of a structure at ambient
temperature. The post-fire performance of the steel connections is sig-
nificant in the fire-resistant design. The reliability of the design increases
with the accurate prediction of forces that act in the connection during
fire or post-fire conditions. Many factors, such as the steel type, loading,
heating temperature and cooling rate, can affect the post-fire behavior of
the connection. However, the residual mechanical properties of the
structural materials need to be evaluated first, because the element can
be reused after heating and cooling to ambient temperature. To do this,
some researchers needed to determine the residual strengths of materials
to determine if a building could be reused after fire. Tao et al. [16]
developed a simplified post-fire stress-strain model to conduct a more
accurate structural analysis with statistical analysis using the collected
test data.
To evaluate the behavior of a post-fire steel connection, the influence
of the microstructure/property relationships requires further in-
vestigations of the structural elements exposed to heat treatment, as well
as a determination of its mechanical properties. The steel must meet
some basic requirements, such as high temperature strength retention,
good ductility, and good weldability, to retain its strength at higher
temperature, dislocation density, weldability and so on are important
issues concerning structural aspects that determine the fire resistance of
structural steel. While the movement of dislocations are constrained at
ambient temperature, the dislocation movement increases, and strength
decreases when thermal energy is applied.
Steel elements under normal design loads reach their limits of
deflection at temperatures ranging from approximately 510 to 650
C
[17]. They regain their mechanical values after cooling down from fire
temperatures below 600
C [13]. The highest value of micro hardness
[18] and the largest dimples [19] were obtained after a heating
treatment at 600
C [18]. As a result, this temperature was used as the
temperature in experimental studies to evaluate the influence of
heating in the literature. Some researchers [20] propose that steel
maintains two-thirds of its room temperature yield strength at this
temperature.
In practice, various connections have been more popularly employed
in construction. However, the current literature on civil engineering has
limited reports on the behavior of these connections. Maali et al. [21]
suggested a T-shaped connection is obtained from the rolled profiles of
steel grade S235 by cutting along the web plane, while the T elements in
the literature consist of welding. The T-shaped elements are different
from those in the literature to eliminate the problems occurring at the
connection welds, such as the occurrence of fracture points [22] and the
inability to perform well in place. T-stubs are used to model the tension
zone of the bolted connections, which generate the most relevant basis of
deformability for this type of connection. Eurocode identifies the tension
zone and its failure modes related to these connections. According to the
deformation principles of T-stubs, if the bolts fail, then the ductility is
limited; if bending deformation occurs in the flanges, the ductility is
infinite. Some researchers proposed several procedures [23] to fill in this
code gap in the theories for partial strength joints. Coelho [23] proposed
to extend this model to the case of welded plates as T-stub elements and
published the reports for 32 tests on bolted T-stub connections made up
of welded plates. Coelho showed that the fasteners were often the
Fig. 3. High temperature furnace at the structural laboratory.

Table 1
Test details.

Test name H ¼ hy/h1 X (mm) T-element Beam Column Bolt Temperature (
C)

T300-Hmax [21] 1 215 IPE300 IPE240 HEB160 M14 20

T300-Hav [21] 0.82
T300-Hmin [21] 0.63
T300-Hmax-PF 1 600
T300-Hav-PF 0.82

PF ¼ post fire specimen.

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M. Sagiroglu
Fig. 5. Nominal stress-engineering strain relation.
weakest components and that some of the specimens had shown early
damage of the plate material near the weld toe due to the effect of the
welding product, which induced premature cracking and reduced the
overall deformation capacity. This study proposed adapting the T-stub
model to the proposed connection and preventing the problems from
occurring at the welds of connections.
The experimental results [8,9,12] on the response of steel con-
nections have concentrated on endplate connections [7], and experi-
ments involving high-temperature conditions are relatively recent and
limited due to the high cost of tests performed in a furnace. In recent
years, some researchers argued whether structures exposed to fire
could be reused, reinforced or repaired because building new struc-
tures was wasteful and time-consuming [7]. However, a reliable
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Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164
Fig. 4. Tensile test arrangement (a) Test
specimens (b) Test setup (c) Test specimens
after failure.
evaluation is needed for people to feel safe. Additionally, there is very
limited knowledge [7,13] regarding the post-fire behavior of the
connections. Hence, this study investigated the behavior of the
beam-to-column connection post-fire by evaluating the material
structure and obtaining the moment-rotation relationships of the
connection. It is assumed that only the T-component of the connec-
tion's elements is exposed to heat, as it is assumed that the bolts can be
changed out after a fire. This study also aimed to determine the change
in the mechanical properties and microstructures of the T-component
of the connection, considering that the components of the connection
that tie structural members together are important in maintaining
their microstructural integrity post-fire. The rotational capacity values,
moment-rotation curves, failure mechanisms and the microstructures
of the T-component connections, which are exposed to two different
temperatures, are compared to each other to determine their post-fire
residual performance; this performance is the basis for evaluating the
residual mechanical and microstructure performance of a connection
that has cooled down after being exposed to a fire. The results in the
present work are expected to provide a baseline for the design of
fire-resistant connections.
2. Experimental test
2.1. Connection details
The T-component connection is obtained from rolled I-profiles that
contain no welding by cutting along the web plane. Five full-scale
connection tests with different T-section heights were evaluated in this
study. The test specimens are described as follows:
Test specimens consisted of an IPE240 beam connected to a
HEB160 column by a T-IPE300 element with eight M14 Grade 8.8
bolts, as shown in Fig. 1. Columns with a large cross section were
chosen, and the use of column stiffeners with a thickness of 10 mm
prevented excessive deflection in the flange column. To simulate the
M. Sagiroglu Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164

Fig. 6. Locations of displacement transducers (LVDTs).

Fig. 7. Experimental setup (a) the front view (b) the side view.

response of the connections in post-fire conditions, T-IPE300 ele-
ments for two test specimens were first heated and then cooled
down. In all test specimens, the materials were S235. Coupon ten-
sion tests of the structural steel materials of the column stiffener, T
profile, flange, and web of the beam and column were performed in
accordance with UNE-EN 10002-1 [24]. The steel grade of the test
materials is S235.
The basic configuration of the test specimens is illustrated in Fig. 2.
The geometric parameter indices of the specimens are summarized in
Table 1. The parameters in Table 1 were defined as the depth between
fillets of the beam (h1), height of the T-section (hy), length of the T-
section (X), and height ratio (H), which is equal to hy/h1. Only the T-
component of the beam was exposed to the listed temperature.
2.2. Test setup and procedure
The T-element, which is a connection component, was first heated to
600
C over 5 h in a furnace, as illustrated Fig. 3, because the critical
temperature is approximately 550–610
C in simple supported beams for
typical loadings [25]. Then, heating was stopped, and the component
began to cool down slowly in the furnace until it reached ambient tem-
perature. After cooling, the connection was joined with this connection
component, and the post-fire connection specimen was loaded at ambient
temperature until failure to evaluate the effects of the post-fire connec-
tion component on the moment-rotation behavior.
The tensile tests were undertaken at ambient temperature to pro-
vide information on the stress-strain behavior of steel in a T-

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M. Sagiroglu
Fig. 9. (a, e) Photographs of the T-elements in the T300-Hav-PF experiment, (b, c) optical micrograph showing the tempered structure, and (d, f) optical
micrograph showing the tempered structure after lapping and polishing process.
component both before and after exposure to elevated temperatures.
Fig. 4 shows the test arrangement. European standards give S235 steel
whose chemical composition is 0.2% C, 0.55% Si, 1.4% Mn, 0.3% Ni,
0.045% P, 0.045% S, 0.3% Cr, 0.08% Mo and 0.02% Al. The 6 tensile
test specimens were obtained from the web of a typical IPE300 profiles
and were of full thickness of them. Their dimensions were prepared in
accordance with [26]. Then, 3 specimens were exposed to heat, and
the procedure described above was performed until it reached the
ambient temperature before the tensile tests. The tests were driven
under displacement control. The stress-strain curves for the specimens
are shown in Fig. 5. While the post-fire elastic modulus decreased but
did not show considerable change, the post-fire yield strength,
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Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164
Fig. 8. Moment-rotation curve characteristic.
ultimate stress and energy-dissipated decreased. The tests [20] showed
that the steels lost more yield strength at approximately 600
C.
In the test, the beam was statically loaded with a mechanical load by a
900-kN hydraulic jack with a maximum piston stroke of 300 mm. The
jack moved downward and applied a tensile force to the end of the beam.
The applied load strains at the connections were measured from strain
gauges (TML YEFLA-5 (a maximum strain of 15%–20%)). The displace-
ments (DT) of the connection, beam, T-element, and flange of the column
were measured using linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT), as
shown in Fig. 6. The tests, whose configurations and images are illus-
trated in Fig. 7, were performed under displacement control with a
constant speed of 0.01 mm/s up to the collapse of the specimens. A length
M. Sagiroglu Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164

Fig. 10. An SEM micrograph showing the surface of specimens: (a) unheated specimen and (b) tempered at 600
C.

Fig. 11. Images from the fracture surface of the specimen tempered at 600
C: (a) at 130 X magnification, (b) at 200 X magnification, (c) at 2000 X magnification,
and (d) at 4000 X magnification.

of 1500 mm was chosen for the beam and column [21] because this study Ref. [27]:
aimed at developing a realistic stress pattern at the connection, and the 
XDT1
3 2
Lload XDT1

fracture of several specimens, i.e., the ultimate load, was attained with a arctanðδDT1  δDT5  EIP 6
 2
specific testing machine [27]. θ¼ (2)
L1
The results were collected using a data logging device that recorded
all measurements for the test duration. The rotation and bending moment where I is the moment of inertia and E is the Young's modulus of the
(M) were calculated using the displacements of the T-stub connection beam.
multiplied by the distance between the load application point and beam Moment-rotation curves represent important features, such as
end bolted to the column (Lload), respectively: resistance, stiffness, rotation, and ductility. Further, the knee-range of
this curve is the transition zone between the initial and post-limit
M ¼ PLload (1) stiffness [27]. Its lower and upper boundaries are at MminkR and
The rotational deformation of the connection (Ɵ) is equal to the rotation Ɵ minkR and at MsupkR and rotation Ɵ supkR, respec-
connection rotation. The beam rotation is approximately given by tively. The ductility of a connection (Ψj) is a characteristic parameter

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Fig. 12. SEM micrographs showing (a) the fracture surface of the tempered specimen at 500 X magnification, (b) the surface of the tempered specimen at 500 X
magnification, (c) the fracture surface of the tempered specimen at element 1000 X magnification, and (d) the surface element of the tempered specimen at 1000 X
magnification.

Fig. 13. The moment-rotation curves of the T300-Hmax and T300-Hmax-
PF tests.
that represents the length of the yield plateau of the moment–rotation
response. In other words, the ductility of a connection is the difference
between the rotation value that corresponds to the connection's plastic
resistance, ƟMRd, and the total rotation capacity, ƟCd, as illustrated in
Fig. 8 [21]:
θCd
ψj ¼ (3)
θMRd
Additionally, the rotation values at the maximum load, ƟMj.max, and
corresponding ductility levels, Ψj.maxload, are given as follows [21]:
Fig. 14. The moment-rotation curves of the T300-Hav and T300-Hav-PF tests.
θMj:max
ψj:maxload ¼ (4)
θMRd
After testing, heated T-components were removed for examination. In
this study, microstructural examinations for both the specimens heated at
600
C and then cooled to room temperature; the unheated specimens
were performed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and optical
microscope. The SEM microstructures were examined longitudinally in
the thickness direction of the fracture, after the surface element under-
went polishing, and the lower third of the object was etched. They were
examined in a Quanta FEG250 ultra-high solution field emission scan-
ning electron microscope (UHR-FESEM) at 20 kV at the High Technology
Application and Research Center of Erzurum Technical University.

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3. Experimental results and discussions

Energy Dissipated (kN.m.rad)

3.1. Microstructures

The microstructures of the original and heat-treated specimens were

examined by an optical microscope and SEM. Fig. 9a shows the failure
form in the flange of the T-element in the T300-Hav-PF experiment,
which is illustrated in Fig. 18. Fig. 9b and c show optical microscopy

1.68
1.70
1.36
1.21
0.33
images with magnified views of the T-element fractures, which is illus-
trated in Fig. 9a. A tear around the lower bolt hole is observed by optical
Ψj.max load

microscopy at higher magnification after polishing and etching, as

illustrated in Fig. 9d. Fig. 9e shows the crushing form in the web of the T-
1.66
3.87
3.02
6.29
element in the T300-Hav-PF experiment, which is illustrated in Fig. 18.
8 Crushing around the bolt hole is observed by optical microscopy after the
1.80
3.89
3.06
6.29

lapping and polishing process, as illustrated in Fig. 9f.

Ψj

SEM images of the typical microstructures of both the specimens

heated at 600
C and cooled to room temperature, as well as the unheated
0.122
0.179
0.147
0.132
0.08
ӨCd

specimen after the tests, are shown in Fig. 10. The images show the
surface element of both specimens. While there are almost no precipitates
ӨMj.max

and a low dislocation density is observable in the unheated specimen, as

illustrated in Fig. 10a, after testing, many fine precipitates (up to 30 μm)
0.113
0.178
0.145
0.132
0.08

and a high dislocations density are found in the tempered specimens, as

illustrated in Fig. 10b. This indicates that the number of precipitates
ӨMsup.k.R

increases when the steel is heated. Additionally, some precipitations are

0.077
0.105

0.114
0.064
0.11

surrounded by dislocation strands and crusting views due to segregation.

However, the unheated specimen maintains the typical morphology of
the microstructures after testing. The researchers showed that many fine
ӨMin.K.R

0.0067
0.0085
0.0073

0.0036
0.004
Rotation (rad)

precipitates, dislocation tangles and high dislocation densities are

beneficial and showed that the precipitation strength plays an important
role in improving the high-temperature strength of fire-resistant steel
ӨM.Rd

0.068
0.046
0.048
0.021
0.01

[28]. This is because the strength of structural steel observably increases

at 600
C due to the large quantity of fine precipitates and the higher
Sj.ini/Sj.pl

dislocation density. Precipitation and dislocation are the typical

strengthening mechanisms. In Fig. 10, the dimples in the (a) original
4.00
4.09
2.68
4.32
8.29
Stiffness (KN m/rad)

specimen are lower than those in the (b) heated specimen, showing that
the deformation capacity is poorer the strength is higher in the original
Sj.pl

0.28
0.39
0.60
0.31
0.24

sample than in the heated one.

Typical microstructures of the fracture surface of the tempered
1.15
1.60
1.61
1.34
1.99

specimen after testing are shown in Fig. 11. The microstructures were
Sj.ini

examined by the SEM in the longitudinal direction through the thickness

of the fracture. The fracture surface of the specimen mainly consists of
25.67
17.66
17.10
18.44
MӨCd

8.35

dimples. Images with 130 X and 200 X magnifications have observable

layers, as illustrated in Fig. 11a and b, respectively. Non-uniform and
Resistance (KN.m)

Mj.max

27.54
18.96
18.51
18.44

shallow/non-shallow dimples are observed in zones at 2000 X and 4000

8.35

X magnifications, as illustrated Fig. 11c and d, respectively. Additionally,

sliding layers are observed at lower magnifications, and grain boundaries
23.48
10.16
Mj.Rd

9.38
8.25
4.82

are decorated with precipitates. Sha et al. reported that the grain
boundary of ferrite sliding begins at 600
C [29]. As a result, the grain
boundary strength weakens when the steel temperature increases.
KR (knee-range)

The fracture surfaces and surface elements of the tempered specimen

2.20–24.43
2.22–13.34
1.20–14.96
1.53–16.86
1.39–7.47

are shown in Fig. 12, demonstrating the examination of these surfaces by

SEM. The microstructures of the fracture surfaces mainly consist of
dimples whose sizes are approximately 100 μm, as illustrated in Fig. 12a
and c, with 500 X and 1000 X magnifications, respectively. The micro-
T300-Hmax-PF

structures of the surface consist of discontinuous flakes, as illustrated in

T300-Hav-PF
Experiment

T300-Hmax

T300-Hmin
T300-Hav

Fig. 12b and d with 500 X and 1000 X magnifications, respectively.

Additionally, dislocation substructures in the examined region of the
Moment–rotation characteristics.

specimens can be observed in the region checkered with white.

At elevated temperature
At ambient temperature

3.2. Moment-rotation relationship

PF ¼ post fire specimen.

The specimens were loaded to failure at ambient temperature, and the

moment-rotation curves and moment-rotation characteristic values of
the connections were evaluated. The moment–rotation responses for the
Group
Table 2

two full-scale post-fire specimens (T300-Hmax-PF, and T300-Hav-PF)

and three full-scale specimens (T300-Hmax, T300-Hav, T300-Hmin) of

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M. Sagiroglu Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164

Table 3
Comparison of moment–rotation characteristics.

Groups KR (knee- Resistance (KN.m) Stiffness (KN m/ Rotation (rad) Ψj Ψj.max Energy Dissipated
range) rad) load (kN.m.rad)

Mj.Rd Mj.max MθCd Sj.ini/Sj.pl ӨM.Rd ӨMj.max ӨCd

T300-Hmax %- T300- 31.04 64.86 33.04 28.16 8.00 69.12 16.81 8.19 249.44 278.91 27.97
Hmax-PF %
T300-Hav %- T300- 45.32 57.87 55.96 52.72 102.70 78.26 55.06 55.31 105.65 106.72 80.59
Hav-PF%
T300-Hmax %- T300- 49.97 56.73 31.15 31.20 2.25 32.35 57.52 46.72 116.11 133.13 1.20
Hav %
T300-Hmax-PF %- 60.34 41.57 54.72 54.72 91.90 52.38 39.39 39.39 27.19 27.18 72.73
T300-Hav-PF%
T300-Hav %- T300- 37.86 18.80 2.74 4.42 5.62 54.34 25.84 26.25 61.70 62.53 28.82
Hmax-PF %
T300-Hmin %- T300- 55.81 48.61 54.89 51.17 209.33 79.17 44.83 45.58 161.44 164.90 75.73
Hav-PF %
T300-Hmin %- T300- 11.41 12.05 0.38 7.84 61.19 56.25 8.96 10.20 105.55 108.28 11.03
Hmax-PF %

PF ¼ post fire specimen.

Fig. 15. Simplified T-stub model and failure modes for T-stub [30].

Fig. 16. The failure modes (a) in T300-Hmax (b) in T300-Hav (c) in T300-Hmin.

steel-bolted, beam-to-column connections with a T element are reported
in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 and listed in Table 2 (H ¼ height of beam to height
of T joint and PF ¼ post fire connection). Table 2 shows that the knee-
range for the specimens decreased with post-fire effects on connec-
tions. The plastic flexural resistance moments, maximum bending mo-
ments and bending moment capacities for the T300-Hmax-PF and T300-
Hav-PF specimens are lower than those of the T300-Hmax and T300-Hav
specimens, respectively, due to the post-fire effect on the connections.
Additionally, the plastic flexural resistance moment values, maximum
bending moments and bending moment capacities for the T300-Hmax-PF
almost are equal to the values for the T300-Hmin specimen. The rate of
the increases in the initial stiffness to the post-limit stiffness, for the

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Table 4
Failure modes in tests.

Test name T- element H ¼ hy/h1 Fracture of bolts in top tensile row Bearing failure of T- element Shear failure of T- element

T300-Hmax IPE300 1 Yes Yes (in the flange) No

T300-Hav 0.82 Yes Yes (in the flange) No
T300-Hmin 0.63 No Yes (in the flange) Yes (in the web)
T300-Hmax-PF 1 Yes Yes (in the flange) No
T300-Hav-PF 0.82 No No Yes (in the web)

PF ¼ post fire specimen.

Fig. 17. (a,b) The failure modes in the flange of T300-Hmax-PF and (c) the failure modes of the bolts connected to the beam web.

Fig. 18. Failure modes of T300-Hav-PF.

T300-Hmax-PF and T300-Hav-PF specimens are higher than those of the
original ones (T300-Hmax and T300-Hav). Meanwhile, the rate of the
increase in the initial stiffness to the post-limit stiffness increases with the
heat effect, which exposes the connections. The rotations of the plastic
flexural resistance of the T300-Hmax-PF and T300-Hav-PF specimens
decreased in comparison with those of the T300-Hmax and T300-Hav
specimens. Additionally, the rotations of the plastic flexural resistance
for T300-Hmax-PF are smaller than those for the T300-Hmin specimen.
While the maximum rotations and rotation capacities increase with heat
treatment for the T300-Hmax-PF and T300-Hmax specimens, they
decrease with heat treatment for the T300-Hav-PF and T300-Hav speci-
mens. The maximum rotations and rotation capacities for the T300-
Hmax-PF are almost equal to those for the T300-Hmin specimen. While
the Ψj and Ψjmax load values for the T300-Hmax and T300-Hav speci-
mens increased with post-fire exposure, the energy dissipation for the
T300-Hmax and T300-Hav specimens decreased. Additionally, the en-
ergy dissipations for T300-Hmax-PF were almost equal to those for the
T300-Hmin specimen.
Figs. 13 and 14 show that the moment values generally decrease
whereas the rotation values increase with heat treatment. Table 3 gives a
comparison of the moment-rotation characteristic values between the
original specimens and heated specimens. For example, in the first line of
Table 3, the knee-range and energy dissipation of T300-Hmax was
31.04% and 27.97% greater, respectively, than that of T300-Hmax-PF.
However, the moment-rotation curve of T300-Hav-PF is shorter than
that of the original specimen because the fracture of the web plate in the

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M. Sagiroglu
T300-Hav-PF specimen is easily started from the hole and the specimen
failed from this fracture before the end of loading. However, while this
situation is not observed in the test of the T300-Hav specimen, it is
observed in the test of T300-Hav-PF. It is believed that the failure
occurred in response to vulnerability around the hole during loading
because the material flakes and resistance decreased with heat treatment.
Additionally, the mechanism and some moment and rotation values in
the T300-Hav-PF specimen look similar to those in the T300-Hmin
specimen. The plastic flexural resistance moment values, maximum
bending moments and bending moment capacities for T300-Hmax-PF are
almost equal to the values for the T300-Hmin specimen. Additionally, the
maximum rotations and rotation capacities for T300-Hmax-PF are almost
equal to those for the T300-Hmin specimen. As a result, Hmin can also be
used instead of Hmax-PF models. Furthermore, the height in the web of
the T element has a more important role post-fire than the flange of the T-
element or the bolts in the plates.
3.3. Failure modes
Similar to the connections in this study, in Eurocode 3 Part 1.8 [30],
three different failure modes that depend on the ratio between the flex-
ural resistance of the flanges and the axial resistance of the bolts have
been specified for simplified T-stub connections, which are joined with
an extended endplate, as shown in Fig. 15. According to Eurocode 3 Part
1.8 [30], there is Mode 1-complete yielding of the flanges, Mode
2-yielding of flange and bolt fracture and Mode 3-bolt failure without end
plate yielding. For T-stub connections that are not exposed to the heat
treatment, their final failure modes at the end of the test were illustrated
in Fig. 16. The final deformation states of all connections at the end of
both post-fire tests and normal tests are comparatively given in Table 4,
while images of failure at the end of the post-fire tests are illustrated in
Fig. 17 and Fig. 18. While T300-Hmax, T300-Hav and T300-Hmax-PF
specimens failed in tests due to bolt fracture in top tensile rows of the
T-element flange, T300-Hmin and T300-Hav-PF failed because of shear
failure in the web of the T-element. Additionally, all specimens except
T300-Hav-PF experienced the bearing failure of the T-element, as illus-
trated in Table 4. However, this failure did not lead to failure of the
connections.
It can be found that after cooling from 600
C, the failure mode of the
T300-Hmax-PF test is the same as its original failure mode (T300-Hmax
test) without fire exposure. Both of the tests failed due to the flange of the
T-element yielding and due to the fracture of the bolts at the top row in
tension, which is a Mode 2 failure, as shown in Fig. 17. However, after
cooling from 600
C, the failure mode of the T300-Hav-PF test is not the
same as its original failure mode (T300-Hav test) without fire exposure.
While the failure mode of the T300-Hav test is due to the flange of the T-
element yielding and the fracture of the bolts at the top row in tension,
the failure mode of the T300-Hav-PF test is a shear failure in the web of
the T-element, as illustrated in Fig. 18. This failure state is demonstrated
in the T300-Hmin test in Fig. 16, although the flange of the T-element
also yielded. As a result, the failure mode in this connection is affected
after a sample that experienced elevated temperatures of up to 600
C
cooled to room temperature; also, the failure states explain that the
fracture occurred as a result of the reduction in the height and exposure
to heating and cooling. This was because a shear fracture was observed at
T300-Hmin due to the high tensile force that developed under loading in
normal tests. As a result, it is observed that the height in the web of the T-
stub plays a more important role in the post-fire behavior than the flange
of the T-stub or the bolts in the plates.
4. Conclusion
The results of five experimental full-scale tests are presented as
moment-rotation curves, failure mechanisms and images of the micro-
structures. Two tests of the connections are performed after cooling from
a fire temperature of 600
C to reveal more information and reach a
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Fire Safety Journal 96 (2018) 153–164
better understanding of the behavior; microstructures and failure
mechanisms of steel connections jointed with a T-element after a fire.
Many factors can affect the post-fire behavior of structural steel. When
heated, the specimen exceeds the stress limit, its flexibility decreases, and
plastic deformation starts earlier; this outcome occurs because the
modulus of elasticity decreases, and deformation increases with tem-
perature. Although plastic deformation increases with temperature, en-
ergy dissipation decreases due to lower stress, as demonstrated in the
moment-rotation curves and in the stress-strain curves of the specimens
in this study. The rotation in post-fire specimens is higher due to the
increase of the dislocation density, as is demonstrated in the moment-
rotation curves and in the microstructures of the heat-treated speci-
mens in this study.
In the study, there are differences in the morphology and size of the
precipitates between the heated and original specimens. It was observed
that the dislocation density was lower, and the dimples were smaller in
the original specimen than in the specimen with a tempered T-element;
this outcome shows that the deformation capacity is poorer, and the
strength is higher in the original sample than that in the heated sample.
The differences in these specimens are reflected in the fracture
morphology. One of the post-fire tests failed due to a fracture in the T-
element web. The reason for this fracture is from changes in the material
of the heated element, such as the dimples, the dislocation density, and
the precipitates. Because these changes cause brittle behavior in mem-
bers, the member is exposed to heat fractures earlier before reaching
normal failure loading point. The shear capacity can degrade in steel
beams that are exposed to fire, which can lead to the early failure of the
beams. The results show that heating causes earlier fracture, although the
maximum connection capacity under post-fire conditions increases. As a
result, failure depends on the changes in the materials due to heating and
heating does not directly affect the failure mechanism. A larger
maximum rotation capacity could not be observed in this connection
because of early failure, although the heated specimen shows lower
strength and higher rotation under normal conditions.
The experimental tests have demonstrated that steel connections can
be subjected to large deformations under smaller loads and fracture
under post-fire conditions. As a result, the proposed study may be used as
the basis for further investigations on evaluating the behavior of post-fire
steel connections.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank High Technology Application and
Research Center (YUTAM) in Erzurum Technical University, Turkey, and
Ataturk University, Turkey, for using its Structural Laboratory, as well as
the support given by Prof. Dr. A. Cüneyt Aydın, Dr. Mahyar Maali, Dr.
Mahmut Kılıç and the Gençler Metal steel company for making the test
specimens available.
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