CHAPTER 6: INTEGUMENT

Basement membrane- between epi and dermis

- Composed of basal lamina and reticular lamina
Epidermis- derived from the ectoderm; produces the basal lamina
Dermis- develops from the mesoderm and mesenchyme; produces the reticular lamina

*between the integument and deep body musculature is a transitional subcutaneous region made up of very loose CT
and adipose tissue referred to as hypodermis or superficial fascia*

Integument- makes up 15% of human body weight; forms part of the exoskeleton and thickens to resist mechanical
injury

Epidermis produces:
1. Hair
2. Feathers
3. Baleen
4. Claws
5. Nails
6. Horns
7. Beaks
8. Some types of scales

Dermis produces:
1. Dermal bones
2. Osteoderms (reptiles)

Dermis + Epidermis produces:

1. Teeth
2. Denticles
3. Scales of fish

EMBRYONIC ORIGIN
Stratum basale- aka s. germinativum; deep layer of the epidermis that rests upon the basement membrane
- Replenishes the periderm
Periderm- single layer of outer cells

Epimere- somite; divide producing the ff:

1. Sclerotome- embryonic source of the vertebrae; medial
2. Dermyotome- lateral
Myotome- inner cells of the dermyotome; major source of skeletal muscle
Dermatome- outer wall of the dermyotome spreads out under the ectoderm; differentiates into the connective tissue
component of the dermis.
Stratum compactum- layer in the dermis wherein collagen bundles are arranged into distinct ordered layer
Neural crest cells- contribute to bony armour and skin pigment cells called chromatophores

*chromatophores usually reside in the dermis, although in some species they may send pseudopods into the epidermis
or reside there permanently; some are scattered within the hypodermis*

*invagination of the surface epidermis form skin glands*

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE INTEGUMENT
 DERMIS
- Produces plates of bones directly through intramembranous ossification called dermal bones prominent in
Ostracoderms
- Most conspicuous component is the fibrous connective tissue composed mostly of collagen fibers that are
woven into distinct layers called plies. Ex: Amphioxus
- Shark skin have bias that accommodates lateral bending of the body but resists distortion in shape

 EPIDERMIS
- Produces mucus to moisten the surface of the skin
- In fishes, mucus afford protection from bacterial infection and helps ensure the laminar flow of water across the
body surface
- In amphibians, same as the fishes; keeps the skin from drying

TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATE:
1. Stratum corneum- outer keratinized; all cells are dead; new cells are formed through mitotic division in s. basale
- Functions to reduce water loss
Keratin- class of proteins produced during the process of keratinization by keratinocytes

2 types of keratinocytes in Sauropsids:

1. Alpha- soft keratin; present in flexible epidermis
2. Beta- hard keratin; present in scales, claws, beak and feathers
Synapids- only alpha keratin is present
Keratinization- can also occur where friction occur in the epithelium
 Callus- cornified layer on the soles of the feet or palm to prevent mechanical damage
Keratinizing system- elaborate interaction of epidermis and dermis that produce the orderly transformation of
keratinocytes into such cornified structures
Scales- folds in the integument
 Dermal scale- if dermal contributions predominate in the folding.
 Epidermal scale- if epidermal contributions predominate in the folding; in the form of thickened keratinized
layer.

PHYLOGENY
Integument of Fishes
- Non-keratinized; covered in mucus
- Keratinized exceptions in a few groups include:
1. Teeth lining the oral disk of lampreys
2. Jaw coverings of some herbivorous minnows
3. Friction surface on the belly skin of some semi-terrestrial fish
- Epidermis is alive
- No prominent superficial layer of dead cells
- Surface cells are patterned as microridges that hold the surface layer of mucus
Mucous cuticle- mucous coat; resists penetration by infectious bacteria; contributes to laminar flow of water across the
surface; makes fish slippery to predators; includes chemicals that are repugnant, alarming or toxic to enemies

2 types of cells in the epidermis of fishes:

1. Epidermal cells- stratified in the stratum layers, and cuboidal/columnar in the basal layers
2. Unicellular glands- interspersed among the epidermal cells
TYPES OF UNICELLULAR GLANDS:
 Club cell- elongate, binucleate; chemicals excite alarm or fear; release by individuals to alarm others of
imminent danger; contribute to mucous cuticle
 Granular cell- found on the skin of lampreys and other fishes; contribute to mucous cuticle
  Goblet cell- absent in lamprey; found in other bony and cartilaginous fishes; goblet shape; contribute to
mucous cuticle
 Sacciform cell- holds a large, membrane-bound secretory product that seems to function as a repellent
against enemies once released
*collagen within s. compactum is regularly organized into plies that spiral around the body of the fish, allowing the skin
to bend without wrinkling*
*dermis -> dermal bones -> dermal scales*

COATS IN FISH SCALES

Enamel- acelullar; epidermal in origin; -> ganoin
Dentin- deeper layer; dermal in origin; -> cosmine

PRIMITIVE FISHES
- Ostracoderms and Placoderms
- Bony plates of dermal armour as exoskeleton
- Dermal bones in the cranial region form head shields
- Dermal bones in the posterior part of the body are broken up into smaller pieces called dermal scales
Tubercles- on the surface of the scales; surface layer of enamel/-like substance over dentin
Pulp cavities- reside within tubercles
Lamellar- type of dermal done that supports the tubercles

Hagfishes and Lampreys- no dermal bones; skin w/o scales; epidermis with living cells interspersed among them are
unicellular glands (club and granular cells); thread cells discharge thick cords of mucus on the skin surface when the fish
is irritated; slime glands in the dermis, release through ducts

CHONDRICHTHYES
- Dermal bones are absent
Placoid scales- surface denticles; give the rough feel to the surface of the skin; dermally derived but rojects through the
epidermis to reach the surface
Composed of: dentin, enamel and pulp cavity
Chromatophores- occurs in lower epidermis and upper dermis

MECHANISMS TO REDUCE DRAG IN SHARKS:

1. Presence of riblets on the scale spine that control boundary layer separation
2. Placoid scales are erected, bristled by the pressure gradient in the regions of the shark body susceptible to
separation

OSTEICHTHYES (Bony Fishes)

- Dermis is subdivided into superficial loose CT and deeper dense CT
- Chromatophores within the dermis
- Dermal scales do not pierce the epidermis
- Epidermal cells undergo cytoplasmic transformation, not keratinization
- Presence of unicellular gland cells, secretory and club cells- source of slime
TYPES OF SCALES:
1. Cosmoid scale- in sarcopterygians; above double-layered bone (1 vascular, 1 lamellar)
- Presence of well-developed dentin and thin enamel
2. Ganoid scale- thicker enamel without dentin
- Double-layered bone
3. Teleost scale- lacks enamel, dentin, and vascular bone; lamellar bone only which is acellular and noncalcififed
2 TYPES OF TELEOST SCALE
 Cycloid scale- composed of concentric rings called circuli
 Ctenoid scale- with fringe of projections along its posterior margin
INTEGUMENT OF TETRAPODS
- Extensive keratinization produces stratum corneum that resists mechanical abrasion with lipids added across the
surface from specialized glands.
- Resistance to dessication
- Multicellular glands are common which reside in dermis and reach the surface through ducts

AMPHIBIANS
- Skin as site for gas exchange
- Capillary beds- in the lower epidermis and deeper dermis
- Salamanders- lack lungs; completely dependent upon cutaneous respiration
- Frogs and salamander lack all traces of dermal scales
- Chromatophores mostly reside in dermis
(Salamander) Leydig cells scattered throughout the epidermis; secrete substances that resist entry of bacteria and
viruses.
(Terrestrial adults) Leydig cells are now absent; presence of distinct regions such as strata basale, spinosum,
granulosum, corneum.
- Nuptial pads form on digits of male salamanders/frogs during breeding season; raised calluses that hold the
female during mating

2 TYPES OF MULTICELLULAR GLANDS ON THE SKIN: both are exocrine and located in the dermis
1. Mucous glands: smaller; composed of cluster of cells that release through a common duct
2. Poison glands- larger; contain stored toxic secretions within the lumen; secretions are harmful only if eaten or
injected into the bloodstream.

REPTILES
- skin glands are fewer than in amphibians
- scales are different from the dermal scales of fishes; lacks the structural support/contribution from dermis
- scales are folds in the epidermis; hence an epidermal scale; may be modified into crests, spies and hornlike processes
- integumental glands- restricted to certain areas of the body
Hinge- junction between epidermal scales
Scute- if the scale is large and platelike.
Gastralia- collection of bones in the abdominal area; example of dermal bones
Osteoderms- plates of dermal bone located under epidermal scales; found in crocodilians, some lizards and extinct
reptiles.

EPIDERMIS IS DELINEATED INTO 3 REGIONS:

1. Stratum basale
2. Stratum granulosum
3. Stratum corneum

Molting or ecdysis- sloughing of skin; stratum basale gives rise to new layers of granulosum and corneum pushing up the
older layers
Stratum intermedium- WBCs invade that promote the separation and loss of old superficial layer of the skin; temporary
layer between old and new skin

Femoral glands- along the underside of hind limbs in the thigh region; in lizards
Scent glands- (crocodiles) opens into cloaca, another pair opens into the margins of the lower jaw

BIRDS
- epidermal scales along the legs and feet
- epidermis is composed of s. basale and corneum with a transitional layer in between transformed into the keratinized
surface of corneum
- dermis rich in blood vessels, sensory nerve endings and smooth muscle
- feathers are nonvascular and nonnervous products of the skin, principally of the epidermis; replaces annually; develop
embryologically from feather follicles
- chromatophores found within epidermis

Brood patch- formed during brooding season in the dermis of the breast in which warm blood can come into close
association with incubated eggs.
Uropygial gland- located at the base of the tail that secretes a lipid and protein that birds collect on the sides of their
beak and then smear on their feathers in a process called preening.
*Preening makes them water repellent, helps newly regenerated feather unfurl and assume its functional shape*
Salt gland- located on the head; well developed in marine birds; excrete excess salt obtained when these birds ingest
marine foods and seawater.
Pterylae- distinctive tracts on the body where feathers are laid out

PARTS OF A FEATHER:
1. Rachis- central shaft
2. Vane- found on either side of rachis
3. Barbs- with interlocking connections termed barbules (hooklets)
4. Calamus- barbless part of the rachis; quill; anchors the feather to the body

TYPES OF FEATHERS: accdg to function

1. Flight feathers- long and vanes are assymetrical
 Remiges- wings; long rachis and prominent vanes
 Rectrices- tail
2. Contour feathers- aka pennaceous feathers; cover the body with symmetrical vanes; shape the surface of the
bird
3. Down feathers- aka plumulaceous feathers; lack a distinctive rachis; noninterlocking barbs extend out from the
calamus as a fluffy feather for insulation
4. Filoplumes- for display;

Feather follicles- are invaginations of the epidermis that dip into underlying dermis
IN THE PROCESS OF MOLTING/SPATHE DEVELOPMENT:
-new feather, feather filament, grows out of the follicle
-new epidermal cells form three distinct tissues
1. disposable sheath
2. main feather
3. pulp caps

EVOLUTION OF FEATHERS
- Previously played a role in surface insulation
- Balikan

MAMMALS
-epidermis and dermis join through basement membrane
Hypodermis- beneath dermis; aka superficial fascia, composed of connective tissue and fat

 EPIDERMIS
- May be specialized into hair, nails and glands
- Epithelial cells are keratinocytes
- S. spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (not present in all parts of the skin), corneum
Langerhans cells- stellate cells dispersed singly throughout the upper parts of stratum spinosum; play a role in cell-
mediated actions of the immune system
Merkel cells- originates from neural crest cells; respond to tactile stimulation (mechanoreceptors)
Chromatophores- arise from embryonic neural crest cells; secrete melanin
Skin color- combination of yellow stratum corneum + red blood vessels + pigments by chromatophores

 DERMIS
- Double-layered: papillary and reticular
- Occupied by blood vessels, nerves and smooth muscles that does not reach the epidermis
- Dermal bones only to the skull and pectoral girdle; except Glyptodon and living armadillo whose epidermis is
underlaid by dermal bone
- Hair follicles and glands project inward from the epidermis
Papillary layer- pushes fingerlike projections called dermal papillae into the epidermis
Reticular layer- includes irregularly arranged fibrous connective tissue and anchors the dermis to the underlying fascia

 HAIR
- Slender, keratinous filaments
- Produced within epidermal hair follicle rooted in the dermis
- Keratinization is localized and intermittent
- Gray as the intrinsic color
Root- base
Shaft- nonliving
Cuticle- outer surface of the shaft
Hair cortex- beneath the shaft
Hair medulla- core of the shaft
Hair papilla- small tuft of the dermis; involved in stimulating activity of the matrix cells of the epidermis
matrix cells- germinal region that starts the process of keratinization to produce hair within the follicle

STAGES IN THE GROWTH OF THE HAIR SHAFT:

1. Growth
2. Degeneration
3. Rest

Arrector pili muscle- thin band of smooth muscle anchored in the dermis attached to the follicle and makes the hair
stand erect in response to cold, fear or anger.
*special stem cells within hair follicle responsible to hair color die, as humans grow old*
Fur- aka pelage; composed of guard hairs and underfur
Guard hairs- larger coarse hairs that are most apparent on the outer surface of the fur; function as insulators
Underfur- found beneath the guard hairs and is usually finer and shorter; function as insulators
Vibrissae- found aound the snouts of many mammals with sensitive nerves associated with the roots; common on
nocturnal mammals
Quills- of porcupines are stiff, coarse hairs specialized for defense

EVOLUTION OF HAIR
- Hair arose as surface insulation

GLANDS
3 TYPES OF INTEGUMENTAL GLANDS IN MAMMALS: scent, sweat and mammary are derived from these
1. Sebaceous- globular or saclike; produce sebum into hair follicles; absent from the palms and soles; present
without hair at the angle of the mouth, penis, near the vagina, next to the mammary nipples which functions to
lubricate the surface
DERIVATIVES:
 Wax glands- secrete earwax; outer ear canal
  Meibomian glands- secrete an oily film over the surface of the eyelid
2. Eccrine- produce thin watery fluids that are not associated with the hair follicles; begin to function before
puberty; associated with the soles and palms, prehensile tails;
o chimpanzees and humans have the greatest number of eccrine glands
o platypus- limited to the snout
o mice, rats, cats- present on paws
o rabbits- around the lip
o elephants- eccrine and sebaceous glands are absent
3. Apocrine- provide a viscous, lipid-containing fluid associated with the hair follicles; begin to function at puberty;
inervated by adrenergic nerves; secretion primarily function in chemical signalling.

Eccrine and Apocrine- long, coiled invaginations of the epidermis that reach the deep dermis but maintain continuity up
to the stratum corneum

Sweat glands- surface evaporation of the products of glands that helps to dissipate heat
- derived from eccrine glands (humans), or apocrine glands (horses) [example of convergent evolution]
Scent glands- produce secretions that play a part in social communication; secretions are used to mark territory
- derived from apocrine
Mammary glands- produce milk (mixture of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins that nourishes the young)
PARTS OF MAMMARY GLANDS:
1. lobules- each is a cluster of secretory alveoli in which milk is produced
2. alveoli- open into a common duct that opens directly into an epidermal papilla or nipple
nipple- surrounded by circular pigmented area of skin called areola
cistern- common chamber onto where ducts are attached, with long collar of epidermis called teat
*adipose tissue can build up beneath the mammary glands to produce breasts*
Ectodermal mammary ridges- within which mammary glands form
Lactation- release of milk to a suckling; present in males of Malaysian fruit bat; functional only in females
Monotremes- nipples, teats, breasts are absent; milk is release on areola
Marsupials and eutherians- teats, nipples, breasts are present
Oxytocin- released during suckling; hormone that stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells enveloping the alveoli,
releasing milk
Letdown- active release of milk

SPECIALIZATION OF THE INTEGUMENT

 NAILS
-plates of tightly compacted epithelial cells on the surface of fingers and toes
-protect the tips from mechanical injury
-present only in primates
Nail matrix- forms new nail at the base by pushing the existing nail forward
 CLAWS
-curved, laterally compressed keratinized projections from the tips of digits
-seen in some amphibians, most birds, reptiles, mammals
 HOOVES
-enlarged keratinized plates on the tips of ungulate digits
Consists of:
1. Hoof wall- U-shaped and open at the heel; consists of s. externa (thin, shiny surface layer), medium (thicker
permeated with coiled, tubular channels), internum (regularly laminated, infolded layer that interdigitates with
the dermis)
- Grows from the germinal region, not from the underlying dermis
2. Frog- wedge-shaped; fills the opening in the heel of the hoof wall
3. Sole- fills the ground surface between the wall and frog; consists of corium
4. Digital cushion or pad- derivative of the hypodermis
  HORNS
-present in mammals, dinosaurs and extinct turtles
-those present in lizards are actually pointed epidermal scales
-tough, cornified structure that fits over the bony core that is never branched
-true horns are present in Bovidae (both sexes)
 ANTLERS
-velvet- overlying living skin; provide vascular supply to the growing bone
-shed
-branched
-true antlers occur only in Cervidae (male)
-caribou, bothe sexes have seasonal antlers
- in deer, it consists of main beam and shorter tines or points.
 BALEEN
-plates within the mouth of mysticete whales; act as strainers to extract krill from water gulped
-contains no bon
 SCALES
 DERMAL ARMOR
-forms the armor of ostracoderms and placoderms
-derived from the dermis
-supports the scales of bony fishes; lost in tetrapods except in Glyptodon and living armadillo
-evident in fish skull and pectoral girdle
Carapace- fusion of dermal bone with expanded ribs and vertebrae
Plastron- fused dermal bones along the belly
 MUCUS
-inhibits entrance of pathogens (aquatic vertebrates)
-keeps the integument moist (terrestrial vertebrates)
Cutaneous respiration- evident in amphibians, and turtles as they hibernate submerged in ice-covered ponds (occur in
exposed areas of the skin)
-aquatic locomotion- smoothes the irregularities and rough surface features on the epidermis to reduce friction
 COLOR
Tyndall Scattering- Differential scattering of light; basis for much color in nature
Interference phenomena- responsible for iridescent colors
Iridiscent colors- produced when light is reflected from materials (barbs and barbules in the case of birds) with different
refractive indices.
Chromatophores- arise from neural crest cells
4 GROUPS OF CHROMATOPHORES:
1. Melanophore- contains melanin; melanosomes house the melanin granules that intercept sunlight to prevent
penetration of harmful radiation
 Dermal- broad, flat cell that changes color rapidly; found only in ectotherms
 Epidermal- thin, elongated cell prominent in endotherms but present in all vertebrates
2. Iridophore- contains light-reflecting guanine platelets; found in ectotherms; in the iris of the eye (birds)
3. Xanthophore- contains yellow pigments
4. Erythrophore- red pigments;