ing the life of construction.
The study il- points in this paper and we feel they have
lustrates the importance of coverings and
moisture resistance since the rubber under
lead in 1930 was of comparable grade to
that under braid.
Under conclusion 3 the authors mention
the rapid rate of failure of rubber and braid
installed about 1930. Cables purchased at
this time for network stressed particularly
heat resistance and neglected moisture re-
sistence entirely. We believe that a detailed
analysis of those cables which still do func-
tion and the specification to which they
were purchased may give valuable evidence
to correlate laboratory tests.
We believe the confidence expressed by
the authors in the improved life to be ex-
pected for modern types of rubber and neo-
prene sheath is well justified. With modern
types of compounds, the life estimate for all
types of cable mentioned by the authors
could well be increased. Wte congratulate
the authors in making available to all of us
such a factual and useful study.
E. L. Leinbach and C. P. Xenis: The
discussions have brouight out interesting
Nonunirorm Torque
Caused by Unbalanced
OLLE 1. ELGERD
ASSOCIATE MEMBER AIEE
A 3-PHASE induction motor operating
under balanced conditions of im-
pressed voltage and circuit constants de-
livers uniform positive torque provided
that attention is limited to the funda-
mentals of the voltage and flux waves.
Any unbalancing will result in additional
torque components of two types:
1. Uniform negative torque.
2. Variable torque having an amplitude
and periodicity which depend upon the type
and degree of the phase asymmetry.
For example, the effect of unbalanced
impressed voltage is to produce a variable
torque which has a frequency of 2f
cycles per second and an amplitude pro-
portional to the square of the negative-
sequence component of the voltage.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze
the variable torque produced by an un-
balancing of the phase impedances of the
rotor of a machine of the wound-rotor
type. It will be shown that the frequency
of this variable torque is 2sf, a relatively
low value under ordinary conditions; but
induction motors may be operated at
slips ranging from 5 to 20 per cent, so that
DECEMBER 1954 Elgerd-NVonuniform Torque in Induction Mlotors
Both Mr. Richards and Mr. Schatzel elab-
been very worth-while contributions.
Mr. Bullard has pointed out that, while
the cost comparisons shown are based upon
a fixed dollar value, actually there has been
a considerable currency depreciation in the
past 25 years, and he suggests that changes
in dollar value may have significant effect.
This is quite true and it may readily be
shown that in a period of depreciating cur-
rency the longer-lived cable is favored.
Over the period under consideration the
wide swings in dollar value are indicated by
the relative prices paid for no. 4/0 R/B
cable:
1929 1.00
1932 (low point) -0.41
1954 = 1.91
Mr. Richards suggests that rubber-lead
cable may have an economic life definitely
in excess of 30 years. This is quite possible
and to that extent leaded construction
would be favored, but it must also be
recognized that over such long periods of
time obsolescence and inadequacy loom
larger as factors in limiting cable life on the
system.
in Induction Motors
Rotor Impedances
the frequency of the variable torque may
lie between 6 and 24 cycles per second.
Under normal operation of the motor
the rotor unbalance, and consequently
also the amplitude of the variable torque
component, will remain rather small, but
in certain applications this torque may
attain such large proportions as to pre-
sent a serious problem.
For example, wound-rotor induction
motors of considerable size 10,000 horse-
power or more are used, sometimes in
combination with synchronous motors, to
drive the impellers in wind tunnels. The
motors, blowers, and their shafts consti-
tute a mechanical system which may have
natural periods of torsional vibration of
from 1 to 50 cycles per second, so that if
the variable driving torque caused by
electric unbalance happens to coincide
with one of these natural frequencies,
Paper 54-323, recommended by the AIEE Rotating
Machinery Committee and approved by the AIEE
Committee on Technical Operatiosis for presenta-
tion at the AIEE Fall General Meeting, Chicago,
Ill., October 11-15, 1954. Manuscript submitted
March 10, 1954; made available for printing June
23, 1954.
OLLE I. ELGERD is with Washington University,
St. Louis, Mo.
orate upon the prime importance of an im-
pervious cable sheath and, in answer to Mr.
Schatzel's inquiry, the following data are
submitted:
Rubber-braid cable-vintage 1930 = 30-per-
cent rubber with tapes and weather proof
braid
Rubber-lead cable-vintage 1930 = "inter-
mediate" rubber and lead sheath
It is to be noted that the 30-per-cent rubber
insulation used at that time was not de-
signed for underground use but was gener-
ally recognized in the industry for use in dry
locations.
The rubber insulation used for the leaded
cable at that time was known as "inter-
mediate" rubber, a compound containing
less than 30-per-cent rubber. The "per-
formance"-type rubber insulation used since
1936 with nonleaded cable has been in ac-
cordance with American Society for Testing
Materials specifications for this type of insu-
lation plus additional requirements limiting
water absorption and requiring increased
resistance to heat.
shaft stresses of dangerous magnitude
may be expected. The type of asym-
metry which is of major importance in
such cases is that which originates in un-
balanced rotor rheostats of the liquid
type.
Nomenclature
a -=1200
Bim =maximum value of stator flux, webers
per square meter
B2M =maximum value of rotor flux, webers
per square meter
Els= positive-sequence electromotive force
in the stator winding, volts per phase,
complex number
E2R = negative-sequence electromotive force
in the rotor winding, volts per phase,
complex number
lis = positive-sequence stator current, am-
peres, complex number
fiR = positive-sequence rotor current, am-
peres, complex number
'2s = negative-sequence stator current, am-
peres, complex number
'2R = negative-sequence rotor current, am-
peres, complex number
kT=torque constant, defined by equation 2
ns = synchronous speed, revolutions per
minute (rpm)
RS = stator resistance, ohms per phase
RR =rotor resistance, ohms per phase
RA, RB, RC = external rotor resistances,
ohms
s = slip
T= instantaneous value of vibratory torque,
newtonmeters
TM =maximum value of vibratory torque,
newtonmeters
V= network voltage, volts per phase
V1R = positive-sequence rotor (terminal)
voltage, volts per phase, complex
number
1481
 C
+ T4

VIR V2R
FLUX

Z1
IB

I STATOR 'I'

IC
\ / ~FORCE ON B
/ ~ROTO R
Fig. I (above). The torque forming flux and current waves in an induc-
tion motor under completely balanced conditions. The flux wave is asso- c I IR
ciated with the stator. Both waves travel with n5 rpm relative to the
stator, sn. rpm relative to the rotor

Fig. 2 (right). The actual voltages and currents as measured at the motor 12R
terminals (section 1-1 in Fig. 4) are resolved into their positive-sequence ~A

components, V1R, IIR, and negative-sequence components, V2R, 12R

V2R = negative-sequence rotor (terminal)
voltage, volts per phase, complex
number
Xo=exciting reactance of motor, ohms per
phase
Xs = stator leakage reactance, ohms per
phase
XR = rotor leakage reactance, ohms per
phase
pl=phase difference between Els and I1s,
degrees
P2= phase difference between E2R and
- 12R, degrees
7=degree of rotor unbalance defined by
- =.AR/R. Here is assumed that
RA' :RB=R, Rc=R+AR
General
The torque developed in any electric
machine results from the interaction be-
tween the distributed flux due to the
stator winding and the distributed current
in the rotor conductors.',2 It will be as-
sumed that both the flux and the current
are sinusoidally distributed, as indicated
in Fig. 1, and that if higher harmonics are
present they may be neglected. It fol-
lows that the torque can be expressed as
T = constant X BMAM
cos
where
AM = amplitude, amperes per meter, of the
assumed sinusoidally distributed cur-
rent sheet (A M is proportional to
actual current I)
BM =maximum air-gap flux density which
is proportional to the induced elec-
tromotive force per phase E divided
by the frequencyf
B
dimensions and the winding data.
This torque is constant only if the
phase angle so between flux and current
waves is independent of time; but if
these waves travel around the air gap at
different speeds the angle so will itself be a
harmonic function of time and the torque
will accordingly vary sinusoidally with an
amplitude kTEI/f.
Because of the assumed unbalanced
rotor impedances, the voltage drops across
the liquid rheostats, and the correspond-
ing unbalanced currents therein, may
be resolved into positive- and negative-
sequence components, all having the fre-
quency sf cycles per second; see Fig. 2.
Using the subscripts R and S to indicate
rotor and stator quantities, and the sub-
scripts 1 and 2 to indicate the positive and
negative sequences respectively, the rotor
currents will then be represented by I1R
and I2R. Rotor current I1R will give rise to
the positive-sequence stator current Is
(1)
of frequency f; and rotor current I2R will
give rise to a stator current I2s of fre-
quency (1- 2s)f.
Moreover, in addition to the main
stator flux associated with the impressed
voltage V, there will be another air-gap
flux wave associated with the negative-
sequence rotor voltage V2R. There are
accordingly six different waves of flux
and current to be considered, as shown in
c
note that the latter system will be station-
ary with respect to the stator if the slip s
is 0.5. This fact has important conse-
quences so far as the torque is concerned,
as will be shown later.
In the following analysis it will be as-
sumed for the sake of simplicity that
1. The motor is supplied from a 3-phase
bus of infinite capacity which maintains a
constant impressed voltage of V volts per
phase, Fig. 4.
2. All computations are made in terms of
quantities referred to the primary (stator).
3. The exciting impedance of the motor is
purely inductive and equal to Xo ohms per
phase.
Derivation of General Formula
for Variable Torque
The relative speed between the two
wave systems is 2snu rpm, and therefore
the angle a in Fig. 3 may be written
a = 27r2sft (3)
Table 1. Six Waves of Flux and Current
Speed in
RPM
Item
Relative
Amplitude to Rotor
Main flux due to impressed
voltage V .................Bo....... +sfs
Flux wave due to V2R
Positive-sequence rotor cur-
........Sflm.......B -ss

whence Table I; see also Fig. 3. These six waves rent ....................... IlR . +sns
Negative-sequence rotor
E
represent two wave systems, one of which current .................... I2R -sns
T = kTr I cos SD newtonmeters (2) travels around the air gap at synchronous Positive-sequence stator
f current Ils +sns
speed n, rpm, and the other one with the
....................

Negative-sequence stator
where kT is a function of the machine speed (1 -2s)n, rpm. It is interesting to current ..................... I2S -sns

1 48- Elgerd-Nonuniform Torque in Induction Motors DECEMBER 1954

B2 R
f T2 +
iI
~ ~ ~ ~I
Fig. 3. Flux and current waves existing in a loaded induction motor
with unbalanced rotor impedances. The wave system consisting of B1s,
Its, and lR travels with a speed of n. rpm relative to the stator, sn5 rpm
relative to the rotor. The wave system consisting of B2R, 12X, and 12R
travels with a speed of (1 -2s)n. rpm relative to the stator, -sn8 rpm
relative to the rotor. The arrows indicate motion relative to the rotor
It is evident that the variable com-
ponent of the total torque now must con-
sist of two components. One, T14, is a re-
sult of the interactions between flux wave
1 and current wave 4, and the other, T25,
between flux wave 2 and current wave 5.
The instantaneous value T of this
torque is the sum of the two
T=T14+T25
or
T=T14M cos (a - 2)+T25MV cos (a-PIi) (5)
From equation 2
T14M =kT
f
112RI
T25Mk= tI s1
From equation 5 the following final
expression for the oscillatory torque am-
plitude can be derived.
TM =
\/Tl4M2+ T25V 2+2T14M T25M COS ( PI- 2)
The phase angles Soj and c2 between
flux and current waves, Fig. 3, express
also the phase difference between electro-
motive force waves and current waves,
i.e.
(Pi = I(Ejs)(118)
VP2 = /(E2' )(-I12R)
It has thus been shown that the ampli-
tude of the pulsating torque is a function
of the magnitudes and phase angles of the
electromotive forces E1S and E2R and the
currents lis and I2R. Equations for these
quantities are derived in the Appendix
DECEMBER 1954
}v
RS
I +
Xs
IR
RR
12R
XR
Fig. 4. A loaded induction motor with unbalanced
Only one motor phase is shown
I
I
RA
RB
RC
rotor rheostats.
s = 0.5 owing to the fact that flux wave 2
has zero speed relative to the stator. This
means that no flux-reducing currents are
induced in the stator and consequently
the flux will reach a very high amplitude.
equations 15 through 22, and it is also
shown there how the torque constant kT Conclusions
can be determined from the design data of
the motors. It has been shown that an induction
The torque amplitude TM is thus com- motor subject to unbalance of the rotor
pletely determined, but because of the impedances will deliver an air-gap torque
complexity of the equations they do not that contains a harmonic component of
lend themselves to simple interpretations. twice the slip frequency. The amplitude
It is evident that the torque is a function of this oscillatory torque component is de-
(4)
of both slip and the degree of unbalance. pendent upon slip and degree of unbal-
A more complete study of equations 15 ance, and equations have been given for
through 22, 6, and 7 will reveal that the its determination. These equations have
magnitude of the variable component of been based upon completely generalized
the torque is conditioned by the following assumptions, and they are therefore ap-
considerations.
(6) CASE OF CONSTANT SLIP (CONSTANT
7
MOTOR SPEED)
Lu
If the degree of unbalance in the rotor 0 6
impedances is represented by -j, the largest cr
value of the rotor unbalance that can be 0
expected under normal conditions of C] 5
operation is about 7t = 10 per cent. Within
this range Els, Als, Sj, and sP2 are practi- 11
cally independent of -q, at least for s<20
per cent. As I2R is approximately propor- U-
0
(7) tional to -1 and E2R approximately propor- 3
tional to I2R, the torque amplitude will be
z
practically proportional to -j. 2
Fig. 5 shows torque curves calculated
for a 25,000-horsepower motor. The pro-
portionality between TM and Xq appears
clearly in the high-speed zone (s<20 per
cent).
(8) 50 100
CASE OF CONSTANT VALUE OF ROTOR SLIP IN %
UNBALANCE
Fig. 5. The oscillatory torque amplitude Tm
Although a motor is seldom operated plotted versus slip of the motor for three
with a greater slip than 0.2, it is of in- different values of rotor unbalance iq. TM is
terest to study the torque within the total given in per cent of rated torque. The curves
speed range, Fig. 5. The torque reaches are calculated for an induction motor rated
a very pronounced maximum value at 25,000 horsepower at a slip of 16.67 per cent
Elgerd-Nonuniform Torque in Induction Motors 1483
 xs XR S.xs RC SX R RR
Is IR 12S 12R
X0 VI R E2R s X0 V2R

Fig. 6. The conventional equivalent diagram for an induction motor Fig. 7. The equivalent diagram for an induction motor where a negative-
modified to hold for the case of unbalanced rotor rheostats. (Compare sequence voltage V2R of frequency sf is applied to the rotor while the
with Figs. 2 and 4.) The diagram applies to the positive-sequence motor is running with a slip of s
system of voltages and currents

plicable to a motor having any degree of snS-[(1 -s)n,] 2s-1

S1 =- (12) 12S =I2R+ . (18)
rotor unbalance. In this paper, par- sns s JsX0
ticular stress has been placed upon the From the equivalent diagram, Fig. 7 l'IR = Z3I1R+-Z5I2 (19)
unbalanced conditions that may occur R

during normal operation of the motor. V2R=(-I2R)X T12R = Z4I1R+Z3I.2R (20)

The oscillatory torque amplitude will [- Rs +j(1 1- 2s)X ,]js.
(21)
reach extremely high values under fault LR [-Rs+j(1 -2s)(X, + XO)
conditions in the rotor, i.e., open circuit in (13) E2R = V2R+IT2R(RR +jSXR) (22)
one phase or short circuit between two The link between the positive- and n
Calculation of Torque Constant kT
phases. tive-sequence systems is finally establi
An investigation of the 25,000-horse- by expressing the voltage across the li
rheostats by means of symmetrical im The torque coiistant kT may be calcu-
power motor just mentioned indicated lated in several different ways. It is evi-
ances
that the highest value of torque amplitude dent that the rated torque delivered under
could be expected for the first-mentioned completely balanced and rated conditions is
ViR= (RA+RB+Rc)IlR+ given by the expression
type of fault (RA= RB, RC ce ). In this 3

particular case the oscillatory torque (RA+a2RB+aRc)12R I8 R I

-
(E1s, (23)
proved to be of the same order of magni- (14)Trated =- kTr ~~f cos 11R)
tude as the rated torque of the motor.
IO. = (RA-+aRR+a2Rc)IIR± Eis and I1R in this expression may be
3 readily obtained by using equations 15, 17,
and 21 substituting rated value of the slip.
Appendix. Derivation oF 3(RA ±RB+R, Because Trated and f are known it is thus
Equations possible to calculate kT from equation 23.
For simplicity let
The positive- and negative-sequence sys-
tems are analyzed separately, and are then Z1 =RR+sRs+jS(XR+XS) References
linked together by means of symmetrical
impedances. All equations are derived for Z2 = -RR+jSXR+ 1. THEORY OF ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHIN-
phase A3. ERY (book), A. S. Langsdorf. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1937, pp. 412-14.
jsX0[ -Rs+j(1 -2s)X8]
Positive-Sequence System -Rs+j(1 -2s)(Xs+X)
2. ELEKTROMASKINLARA (THEORY OF ALTERNAT-
ING CURRENT MACHINERY) (book), F. Dahigren.
From Fig. 4 Tekniska Hogskolans Studentkar, Stockholm,
1
Sweden, 1948, pp. 6-
19) Z3= (RA+RB+Rc)
V=Els+(Rs+jXs)I1S 3. SYMMETRICAI, COMPONENTS (book), C. F.
1
Wagner, R. D. Evans. McGraw-Hill Book Com-
)
(1 pany, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1933, pp. 345-62.
sEls =I1R(RR+jSXR)+ VlR (10)
-Z4= (RA+aRB+a2Rc)
3
Els = (Ils -IIR)jXO ,i
. .

The well-known equivalent diagram for Z5= (RA+a2RB+aRc)

3
an induction motor is thus modified in
accordance with Fig. 6. and from equations 9 through 14 we then
Discussion
derive
C. Concordia (General Electric Company,
Negative-Sequence System
'1~R = sV (15) Schenectady, 'N. Y.'3: It may be of interest
The negative-sequence voltage V2R of (Zl+Z3)(Z2-Z3)+Z4Z5 to point out another, and we believe a much
frequency sf may now be considered as a simpler, way of determining the pulsating
"terminal voltage" applied to the rotor. 12R 1 R (16)
component of torque in an induction motor
The equivalent diagram can therefore still Z2-Z3 caused by unequal rotor resistances. In-
be used if all reactances are multiplied by s, stead of developing a special and rather
Fig. 7. Slip s1 is related to the actual slip s
by
s vIR+* ( 17) involved wNay of looking at this problem,
we have simply used the long-established

1484 Elgerd-Nonuniform Torque in Induction Mlotors D-EMBSIBER 1954

methods in general use for the calculation
of starting performance of synchronous
motors, where a similar rotor impedance
unbalance, caused by the salient field poles
and by the differences between the amortis-
seur characteristics in the pole (direct)
and interpole (quadrature) axis, always
exists. The induction motor is merely a
special case of this more general synchro-
nous-motor case, in which only the rotor
resistances are unequal in the two axes.
Equations for the calculation of the
pulsating component of torque have been
given in reference 1 and on pages 178 and
179 of reference 2 in terms of the usual
2-reaction-theory direct- and quadrature-
axis quantities, and in reference 2, pages
170 and 171, in terms of "forward" and
"backward" rotating currents and fluxes.
These forward and backward components
are similar to the conventional symmetrical
components except that they are calculated
with reference to axes fixed in the rotor
rather than in the stator, and are thus
considerably easier to calculate and to
visualize. Instead of six quantities, as in
the paper, we have at most only four
quantities with which to deal, and, as has
been shown in reference 2, this can be
reduced in most cases to only one quantity.
If stator resistance is negligible the for-
ward rotating flux is simply proportional
to the applied voltage, the backward
rotating flux is zero, and the forward
rotating current no longer enters the
equation. Thus the only quantity that
has to be calculated is the backward rotating
current, which has the simple equation
(reference 2, equation 463)
11 1\ e
\xq(jS) Xd(jS)/2V2 (24)
The forward rotating flux is simply
B-je
Bf =0ag2(25)
and the magnitude of the torque pulsation
is
T2s=2lIb Bfj (26)
If, in addition, the motor leakage re-
actances are neglected, as will generally
be reasonable for the actual operating
conditions of a wound-rotor motor with a
liquid-rheostat secondary load, a still
simpler equation may be obtained. In this
case, the ratio of the pulsating torque to
the average, or load, torque is given by
T28v Rq+Rd
Considering the case -where one phase of
a 3-phase resistance is R(1+e), the other
two being R, equation 27 reduces to
Tavt +e31(28)
Thus the per-cent torque pulsation is
simply, and conservatively, one-third of
the per-cent resistance unbalance for
relatively small unbalances, while for the
limiting cases we have: for short circuit of
one phase (e = -1) the torque pulsation is
half the load torque, and for the open
circuit of one phase the torque pulsation is
equal to the load torque.
DECEMBER 1 954 Elgerd-Nonuniform Torque in Induction Motors
Equation 28 is derived by taking axes
fixed in the rotor in space, phase with and
at 90 degrees to the resistor having the
value R(1 ±+e). Then by inspection Rd
(at 90 degrees) is unchanged, and Rq (at
0 degrees) is changed by two-thirds of the
change in one phase.
It should be pointed out that simple
exact expressions for the torque pulsation
are only possible if a rotor axis of sym-
metry can be found. If all the resistors
have different values, only an approximate
equation is feasible, regardless of what kind
of components are used. On the other
hand, since the actual amount of unbalance
is in general unknown, the usual purpose
of calculation is to determine allowable
degrees of unbalance, and for this purpose
the type of unbalance having axes of
symmetry is as good as any other.
We have several drives in service similar
to those mentioned by the author, and we
have made numerous investigations of
the permissible rotor resistance unbalance
for these drives. Our calculations have
been based upon the torque equations
of this discussion and upon the torsional
vibration characteristics of the mechanical
system, including the determination of the
torsional natural frequencies and of the
torque amplification at resonance. Aside
from the possibility of high shaft stresses
mentioned by the author, we have been
concerned with avoiding the possibility of
torque reversal at gears and at gear-type
couplings.
REFERENCES
1. SALIENT POLE MOTORS OUT OF SYNCHRONISM,
A. H. Lauder. AIEE Transactions (Electrical
Entgineering), vol. 55, June 1936, Pp. 636-49.
2. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES-THEORY AND PER-
FORMANCE (book), C. Concordia. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1951.
Gurney L. Godwin (Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, East Pittsburgh, Pa.): Mr.
Elgerd is to be congratulated on his timely
and interesting paper on a subject of great
importance in connection with wound-rotor
induction motor drives.
It should be pointed out that equation 15
of the paper is not an exact equation;
however, for most purposes it is a suffi-
ciently good approximation.
Mr. Elgerd's statement that the torque
amplitude will be practically proportional
to t7 for 7'Y<O.1 and s<0.2 is capable of con-
siderable extension. It can be shown that
for 7'<0.3 and constant Z3 the change in
positive-sequence current introduced by
the unbalance is less than 0.01 per cent.
TM is therefore proportional to 77 within
this accuracy for all values of s. The
curves of Fig. 5 do not bear out this re-
lationship and must therefore be ques-
tioned.
It is suggested that since wound-rotor
motors are normally operated with sec-
ondary control more useful data can be
presented by plotting curves of TM against
s for constant values of positive-sequence
torque (T1) and for one value of -q (probably
77=0.0l). TM for other values of 77 at least
up to 0.3 can be ratioed from it.
It will be found, up to pullout which is
the limit of the practical range of interest,
that TR (Z4/Z3) TIN (sq/3) T1 except very
close to half-speed where a cusp as high as
0.5 per cent is experienced in the curve
due to the rapid change of negative-sequence
constants as 1-2s approaches 0. Prac-
tically speaking, this cusp is of little im-
portance since at half-speed the torsional
frequency is equal to the line frequency
and it is standard commercial design prac-
tice to avoid torsional build-ups under
short-circuit conditions by not permitting
the natural frequencies of the drive to
approach line frequency. A recent study
has shown that induction motor decrements
are so short that the natural frequency of
the shafting does not appreciably affect the
short-circuit stresses; however, because of
the problem just mentioned, caution is still
advisable on wound-rotor drives.
Eric T. B. Gross (Illinois Institute of
Technology, Chicago, Ill.): The various
effects of unbalanced rotor impedances on
the operational characteristics of induction
motors have aroused the interest of elec-
trical engineers for more than a half-
century. The first paper was written by
H. Goerges and published in 1896.1 Since
that time, more than 30 investigators
analyzed various phases of the problem.
A recent paper2 contains many references
which may be of interest to the author.
It may be worth while to mention that
symmetrical component analysis has been
the preferred method for dealing with this
problem. However, if the rotor unsym-
metry is general, in addition to two equiva-
lent circuits some resulting equations must
be used to solve the problem. Only if the
rotor has single axis symmetry (e.g., if the
rotor impedances in two phases are equal,
but different from that in the third phase,
or if the rotor has salient-pole characteris-
tics) is it possible to interconnect the
positive- and negative-sequence networks
directly through a third network.
REFERENCES
1. INDUCTION MOT1ORS JPERATING AT REDUCED
SPEED, Hans Goerges. Electrical Rezview, London,
England, vol. 39, 1896, pp. 689-90.
2. THE GOERGES PHENOMENON-INDUCTION MO-
TORS WITH UNBALANCED ROTOR IMPEDANCES,
Harold L. Garbarino, Eric T. B. Gross. AIEE
Transactions, vol, 69. pt. II 1950, pp. 1569-75.
Olle I. Elgerd: I appreciate the construc-
tive remarks of the discussers. It is true,
as both Mr. Concordia and Mr. Godwin
point out, that the problem can be con-
siderably simplified under certain assump-
tions. If the degree of unbalance is small,
it is easy to prove that equation 7 equals
the approximative expression 28 in Mr.
Concordia's discussion. However, it should
be noted that the x-alue of slip also enters
the picture. It might be allowed to neglect
RS besides RRIS in the normal speed range,
but definitely wrong should the slip have
a value close to unity. A general treatment
of the problem should take the backward
rotating flux wave into consideration as is
done in the paper. Only by so doing are
we able to calculate the torque amplitude
for any degree of unibalance and any speed.
The only restriction is that the rotor un-
balance has to be of such a nature that it
is possible to find one axis of rotor sym-
metry. This is definitely possible with the
definition of "unbalance" as given in the
paper.
1485
 I disagree with Mr. Concordia in his
statement that his method of approach is
simpler than the method presented in the
paper. Both methods deal with four
different quantities in the general case (not
six, as stated by Mr. Concordia), namely
two flux waves and two current waves,
A)utotransformers for Power Systems
0. T. FARRY
FELLOW AIEE
A UTOTRANSFORMERS have
been receiving so much attention
recently in the power transmission field,
because of their low cost and high ef-
ficiency, that it is appropriate to examine
their advantages and disadvantages, and
their applications. This paper will in-
clude methods of calculating the equiva-
lent size, the operating characteristics,
and the limiting features and protection
required where these properties differ
from those of conventional transformers.
The study of reactance and short-circuit
currents is of importance for power in-
stallations of autotransformers, while it is
not usually necessary in their other ap-
plications, such as voltage balancers and
motor-starting compensators. A first
step in this study will be a review of the
elementary principles.
A simple autotransformer is equivalent
in size to a conventional transformer
rated much lower, as illustrated in Figs.
1 and 2. In the transformer of Fig. 1,
each winding is of 600-kva size, one hav-
ing 15 kv and 40 amperes; and the other
10 kv and 60 amperes. In the autotrans-
former of Fig. 2, which has the same out-
put capacity, the series winding has only
5 kv and 40 amperes, and is therefore of
200-kva size. The common winding must
carry ampere turns equal and opposite to
the ampere turns in the series winding so
it, also, is of 200-kva size. Therefore,
this autotransformer is equal in size to a
conventional 200-kva transformer with-
out taps.
It is evident that for a simple auto-
transformer the size of the series winding
is the output kva multiplied by (high
kv-low kv)/high kv. Since the common
winding must be the same kvTa size as the
Paper 54-324, recommended by the AIEE Trans-
formers Committee and approved by the AIEE
Committee on Technical Operations for presenta-
tion at the AIEE Fall General Meeting, Chicago,
Ill., October 11-15, 1954. Manuscript submitted
January 14, 1954; made available for printing
June 23, 1954.
0. T. FARRY is with the Wagner Electric Cor-
poration, St. Louis, Mo.
1486
The question here is whether the induction
motor is to be considered a special case of
a synchronous machine or vice versa. If
we want to treat the induction motor in
accordance with a theory developed for a
synchronous machine, in the first place
we have to be very familiar with that
series winding, it follows that this ratio
expresses the equivalent size of the auto-
transformer as compared to a conven-
tional 2-winding transformer. This ratio,
called the coratio, may be expressed as
coratio= (high voltage-low voltage)/high
voltage.
The symnbol r is used in this paper torep-
resent coratio as defined. It is a major
factor in determining the equivalent size
of simple single-phase- or wye-connected
3-phase autotransformers. Generally the
smaller the coratio, the greater the econ-
omy derived by using an autotrans-
former instead of a conventional trans-
former. If the coratio is large, there is
little or no advantage in an autotrans-
former. A coratio of more than 2/3 is
seldom used.
Disadvantages of autotransformers
must not be overlooked. One is that the
high voltage may be carried back into the
low-voltage circuit in case of an accidental
ground at certain places. This may be
guarded against by adequately grounding
the neutral or common terminal of the
autotransformer. A more serious disad-
vantage is the low impedance inherent in
the autotransformer and which is a func-
tion of the coratio and other factors.
Short-circuit currents of destruCtive mag-
nitude may be encountered because of the
low impedance. A third disadvantage is
the difficulty of providing proper surge
protection to the windings of an auto-
transformer. These disadvantages make
it necessary to analyze the characteristics
of autotransformers so that proper steps
may be taken to overcome them.
Connections
The simple single-phase autotrans-
former is illustrated in Fig. 2. For 3-
phase use, two or three single-phase units
can be connected together in various
ways, some of which will now be re-
viewed. Two single-phase units can be
connected open delta as in Fig. 3. Three
Farry-A utotransformers for Power Systems
theory, and in the second place be ready to
transform the rotor impedances of the
induction machine into equivalent imped-
ances in d- and q-directions. It should also
be noted that such a transformation is
impossible in the case of complete un-
symmetry of the rotor impedances.
units or a 3-phase autotransformer can be
connected extended delta as in Fig. 4.
These two connections are sometimes used
for small installations, particularly where
standard single-phase units are suitable.
The zigzag connection (Fig. 5) has the
advantage that a neutral point is available
for grounding and third harmonic volt-
ages tend to cancel out. However, four
windings are required per leg and it gen-
erally has no economic advantage over a
wye-connected autotransformer.
Phase displacement, either with or
without voltage change, can be accom-
plished with autotransformers. A con-
nection for 30-degree phase displacement
with no voltage change is illustrated in
Fig. 6, where the windings are shown
as straight lines. Each leg has three
windings, the voltage values of which, ex-
pressed in per unit of line-to-neutral volt-
age are 0.5176, 0.8165, and 0.2988. Since
these four connections, while unique,
have very limited application, their cal-
culations will not be covered in this paper.
The wye connection (Fig. 7) is the one
most generally employed for 3-phase use,
and is the one considered in our further
discussion.
Taps above or below the rated high
voltage can be placed in the series winding
as indicated in Fig. 8, which represents
one leg of a 3-phase wye-connected auto-
Fig. I (right). Con-
ventional transformer
LOW VOLTAGE
WINDING
10 K V
Fig. 2 (below). 600 K VA
Autotransformer 60 AMPERES
-0 15 KV
HIGH VOLTAGE
COMMON SERIES
WINDING WINDING
IOKV 20AMPERES 5 KV
10 KV
200 KVA
40 AMPERES
LOW VOLTAGE
DE-CEMBE-R 195-4