1

Topic 6

Upon completion of this Topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain the benefits of observing children
2. Identify the skills required in observing children
3. Discuss the types of tools used in observing children
4. Analyse the pros and cons of the observation methods

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Why observe children
6.3 Guidelines for observing children
6.4 Separating fact from opinion
6.5 Ethical behaviour when observing children
6.6 Types of observation tools
6.7 Samples of Observation Recordings

Words You Should Know

Summary
References
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6.1 Introduction

In Topics 2, 3, 4 and 5, discussion was focussed on different types of assessment tools used in
assessing children in early childhood education. To provide a more holistic picture of childrens’
capabilities and abilities, observations have been widely used in preschools and kindergartens.
Observation has become a powerful tool in ‘getting to know’ children that has enabled both
teachers and the school to make a more accurate assessment of children.

What is Observation?
Observation is defined as the process of closely observing or monitoring something or
someone. Anyone can make an observation merely by watching. The following are some
examples of observation:

• A principal watching a teacher give a lesson to her class in order to judge her
effectiveness as an educator.
• A mother watching her child interact with other children on the playground.
• A doctor watching a patient after administering an injection

Early childhood education is not only about

teaching, it is about meeting the developmental
needs of children. Observations play an
important role in meeting the developmental
needs of the children in your classroom. The
teacher observes children under their care by
noting how each child behaves, learns, reacts to
new situations and interacts with others (see
Figure 6.1). Later, the teacher reflects on the
information and determines how it can used to
Figure 6.1 Teacher observing children meet the needs of learners. Observation is often
under her care seen as an effective method of assessing
children as they develop.

We spend much of our day consciously and unconsciously observing people, activities,
elements of the environment and countless other things. Early childhood educators utilise their
skills of observation on a continual basis. Within a matter of seconds an educator can assess
the safety of an environment whether it is a playroom or playground, do a head count of
children, observe children in play and so forth.

This may appear effortless to some but it usually takes time and practice to develop these
important skills and to find a method of observation that is tailor-made for your teaching style.
A good educator will recognise that regular observations can enhance their own teaching
 3

abilities and ultimately will have a positive impact on the children they support. Don’t wait
until there is a concern or problem in the classroom to begin the process of observation.

Regular observations allow the teacher to develop insights various aspects of the environment
programme from the playground to interactions between the children and adults. With
knowledge gained through observations teachers will be better equipped to answer questions
about the children in their classroom and share information with parents and professionals.

6.2 Why Observe Children?

Observing children can be interesting, but is it

worth the time and effort? The answer is YES.

• First, observing children gives teachers

a helpful snapshot of the children in
their care. It allows them to see
individual children as they are.
Through systematic observation, the
teacher may discover that a certain
child is struggling or falling behind in one or more areas of development. By identifying
each child’s strengths and weaknesses, teacher and parents can offer individualised
activities and encouragement. They may even identify a developmental issue that needs
to be addressed.

• Second, observations enable the teacher to see progress. For example, at age two, a
child can only scribble with a crayon and by age four, the child has acquired the fine
motor skills to stay within the lines as they colour.

• Third, while traditional testing gives a snapshot of how a child is performing at a certain
point in time, observation in early childhood education settings allows the teacher to
get a more accurate reading on a child’s true developmental progress. Testing is
not the most reliable method of measuring skill as there are many factors that can affect
a child’s performance at any particular time. Tiredness, hunger, boredom and many
other feelings can impact whether or not a child will demonstrate the skills they have
learned at the time of assessment. Recorded observations can show a much more
accurate picture of a child’s performance in the most important developmental areas.

• Fourth, observation also helps teachers customise activities for the benefit of group.
Through observation, teachers can judge how effective their own efforts have been.
They may find, for example, that one method of responding to a child’s undesirable
 4

behaviour causes the behaviour to increase, while another causes the behaviour to
decrease.

• Fifth, observation can help the teacher to better understand how different areas of
development are interrelated. Few activities and skills are purely physical or purely
social, emotional, or intellectual. Most are a mixture. For example, a child’s language
capability is related to social interaction or the child’s ability to mix with others.

• Sixth, by observing how teachers interact with children, the teacher (or observer)
gets an insight into the interaction and may suggest effective techniques and advise
when working with children.

• Seventh, observing helps the teacher recognise what behaviours are typical at a
particular age level.

• Eight, many health care professionals use observation to diagnose developmental

problems and to assess the effectiveness of treatments and therapies. Researchers
use it to add to society’s scientific understanding of child development. In all these
ways and more, observation is a key tool.

• Nine, the experience of observing children of different ages will increase

understanding and appreciation of them. Only when one spends time with children
will that information come to life.

a) What is observation of children?

b) Why observe children?

6.3 Guidelines for Observing Children

You can learn a lot about children and their development from reading about them. However,
only when you spend time with children will that information come to life. The experience of
observing children of different ages will increase your understanding and appreciation of
them. The following are some of the general guidelines for observing children:
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1. Determine the place - Some observations may be at the playground, outdoor on

fieldwork, the school cantin or the classroom. Teacher will arrange the time and place
for his or her observations.

2. Know the objective - Before observing, the teacher

should know specifically what to look for. Jot down
the key words in notebook ahead of time, leaving
space to filled in of observations about each point.

3. Typical behaviours - Review what behaviours and skills

are typical for the specific age and area of development that is
being looked at. These are milestones which is discussed in
Topic 7. If teachers know how preschoolers typically interact
with one another, they will be better equipped to notice details about the interaction of
the children observed. Bri ng along a list of the skills that are
typical for the age group observed.

4. Be respectful – Children are young and sensitive. Be careful

of the words used and children should not feel uncomfortable
or threatened when the teacher observes them.

5. Keep a low profile - While observing, do not call any unnecessary attention to oneself.
Find a spot where the teacher can see and hear the children clearly. As children move
around and the teacher may need to quietly
move as well. Try not to interact with
children. Remember that the purpose is to
observe children’s typical behaviours. It is
natural for some of the children to approach the teacher what are they doing. Simply
smile and say you are working. “Try not to indicate that you are there to watch what
they do". Doing so might influence their behaviour.

6. Start with basic information –

• Write down the date and time of the observation, the location, total number of
children present, and the number of adults working with the children.
• List the number of children and their ages (in years and months, if possible).
• Identify the child or the children who are the focus of observation.
• Indicate the setting, such as class or program.
• Include any other relevant information, such as the school class’s theme for the
week.
 6

7. Record exactly what you observe - Do not rely on your

memory—quickly jot down your observations as you make
them. Unless you are using a checklist or tally sheet, you
will be writing a description of what you see and hear.
Record events in the order in which they occur. It is helpful to jot down the time every
fi ve minutes in the margin of your paper. Write as many details as possible, including
direct quotes of what the children say. To save time and maintain privacy, you can refer
to a child by an initial. Record only what you see and hear, not your interpretation or
opinion.

8. Notice specific details - For example, if the focus

is on observing how a child interacts with adults,
look at what circumstances does the child seek out an
adult. How does the child ask an adult for help? Does
the child use words or gestures?

9. Be patient - It may take a while to find examples

of the behaviours you are looking for. Allow
children’s actions to unfold naturally. Do not try
to force or prompt particular behaviours.
Sometimes you may not see all of the behaviours requested on the observation form. If
this happens, write “Unable to observe” in the answer space.

10. Keep observations confidential - The

individuals observed and their families have a
legal right to privacy. Never discuss
observations with anyone outside of class. That
means not sharing what is seen, interpretations
and conclusions, or even the names of the children observed. Notes should be kept
in a safe place where others cannot read them.

a) Discuss some of the guidelines when observing children.

b) Do you agree with these guidelines?
c) What other guidelines would you include?
 7

6.4 Separating Fact from Opinion

As you observe, your notes must be objective rather than subjective. In other words, record
facts instead of making judgments and expressing your opinions. After you observe, you will
have an opportunity to interpret what you have seen. An example of an objective observation
is: “Zak told Kumar he wanted to ride the tricycle. Zak kept riding, and then Kumar said it
louder and ran after him.” A subjective observation of the same event might be: “Zak was
being selfish and acting like a bully with Kumar today.”

Maintaining objectivity takes practice. Keep the following in mind:

• Guard against making assumptions

Do not assume you know what a child is thinking or feeling
—that is not being objective. “He feels sad” is subjective.
How can you be sure the child is sad rather than afraid,
angry, or frustrated? “He started crying” is objective.

• Use descriptive words with care

Adjectives and adverbs help you add important
details to your observations. Just be sure you
are using them to describe facts. “She is being silly today” is your opinion. “Chee
Leong walked over to Mei Ling shyly” makes an assumption about Chee Leong’s
feeling. In contrast, “Chee Leong walked over to Mei Ling slowly” is descriptive
but objective.

• Do not label children

“Laila is an incredible artist for her age” and “Faizal
seems to be the class clown” put labels on children.
More objective observations would be “Faizal sang a
made-up song about worms three times” and “Lara’s
picture showed a house with windows, flowers, and a
cat.”

• Examine your own biases

If a boy came to preschool with
uncombed hair and a stained T-shirt,
you might make assumptions about his family life. That could affect what you
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notice and record about his behaviour. The truth is, you do not know the reasons
behind his appearance. It should not affect your impressions.

• Do not let background information impair your objectivity

One observer wrote: “Jason talked baby talk at snack time (He has a new baby
sister at home).” The way to record objectively would be: “At snack time Jason
said ‘Me want apple juice. Me need bottle.’” Save your interpretations for later.

• Avoid favouritism
While observing, Rina paid special attention to Sara because she resembled her
young niece. As a result, Sara missed seeing what some of the other children were
doing. Avoid focusing too much on children who are especially appealing or who
seem more advanced in their skills.

• Remain neutral
Do not get upset by any emotional outbursts and conflicts you witness. Stay
focused and record what you see and hear.

• See children as they are

Strive not to be influenced by what you think the child is like or what you think
the child should be doing.

• Realise your own limitations

Learning to observe—and especially to accurately interpret observations—takes
time and practice

a) Why is it important to be objective when observing children?

b) Explain how does a teacher maintain objectivity or to focus on the facts.

when observing children in the classroom.

6.5 Ethical Behaviour and Child Observation

Ethics refers to principles of conduct. Following ethical principles is important at any time,
but especially when observing children. Here are some basic points to be aware of and follow.
 9

Because observations take place in a wide variety of settings, these guidelines may need to be
adapted to fit the situation. However, no matter what the setting, anyone who observes children
is responsible for behaving in ethical ways.

Avoiding Comments
“Look at him,” “He seems so hyper. It looks like the other kids try to stay away from him.”
Children may overhear you or wonder what you are saying. As you observe, focus on watching
and listening, not talking.

Maintaining privacy and confidentiality

Maintaining privacy and confidentiality has always been essential when working with children
and their families. In recent years, with society’s increased focus on privacy issues, laws
protecting privacy have been strengthened. As a result, these ethical principles are even more
critical. When you observe children, you may gather sensitive information, often without even
realising it. Details about a specific child’s behaviour and development are normally not the
business of anyone except the child’s family and perhaps teachers or caregivers.

Keeping Observations Confidential

You may discuss your observations in class and with parents. However, you may not discuss
them with others, including your own family and friends. Be careful not to leave your
observation notes and other materials where others can read them.

Interpreting Your Observations

Observations have two main parts. During the actual observation, you must remain objective.
After completing your observations, you will think about what you observed and draw
conclusions. Remember, your impressions may not be accurate, especially since you are seeing
only a small part of a child’s life. Your interpretations and conclusions, like your observations,
should be kept confidential.

a) What is ethics?
b) Discuss the steps you would take to ensure that you maintain high
ethical standards when observing children?
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6.6 Types of Observational Techniques

All teachers need to develop skill as observers. They need to see and record as accurately and
as objectively as possible what is happening in situations. Teachers learn most about children
by studying their behaviour directly. By learning to observe with objectivity, to make careful
notes, and to go over these thoughtfully, a teacher increases her understanding of a child’s
behaviour.

Guiding Questions
Running Record Event Recording

OBSERVATIONAL Time Recording

Anecdotal Record
TECHNIQUES

Frequency
Developmental
Rating Scale Count
Checklist

Figure 6.1 Types of Observational Techniques

There are a variety of methods for observing children. The method chosen depends upon the
behaviours being checked or information collected and how much time is available. Every type
has advantages and disadvantages.

1. Running Record

A detailed written account of everything observed about the child for a period of time. Includes
what the child says, plus relevant actions and responses of others.

Advantages

• Gives the best detail of any observation method.

• Everything that occurs is recorded as it occurs.
• Allows others reading the account to understand the situation clearly.
• Interpretation can be added later.
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Disadvantages

• Time consuming to do.

• May be difficult to keep up with what is happening.
• Behaviours observed may not be typical of those another time or day.

2. Anecdotal Record

Short, but complete, written descriptions of a specific, common behaviour, event, or situation
that the observer is tracking.

Advantages

• Takes less time than running record, written only when the specific behaviour, event,
or situation occurs.
• When well written, includes details about the when, where, and why of the incident,
including what was said.
• Best for tracking changes over time.

Disadvantages

• Depends on accurate short-term memory.

• Focuses on only one event, situation, or behaviour.
• Does not give immediate feedback, since must be interpreted with similar records
accumulated over time.

3. Developmental Checklist

The checklist can be used to determine the presence or absence of a particular skill or behaviour
or to rate the quality of the behaviour or setting. Checklists of developmental milestones can
be used to determine which skills they have mastered, which are emerging, and which remained
to be learned.

Advantages

• Easy to record.
• A good way to track each child’s development, and areas of strength and weakness.
• Can look for many skills at one time.
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• Can use to plan activities to improve areas of weakness.

Disadvantages

• Tells what was observed but not why or how.

• Skills need to be checked on a regular basis to identify those newly learned

4. Guided Questions

A series of questions guiding the observer to look for, record, and interpret development or
behaviour related to a particular topic.

Advantages

• Good choice for those learning observation skills.

• Can look for a variety of skills or behaviours in one observation.
• Helps observer think through important questions related to topics observed.
• Gives a real-life link to topic being studied.

Disadvantages

• Does not result in information to act on.

• Not used by teachers and other professionals.

5. Event Recordings

Each time a targeted event or behaviour occurs, the observer captures, in writing, as many
details as possible from the beginning of the event until the end. Recordings may be continuous,
narrative records of the child’s behaviours and responses or a detailed recording of a single
event. For example, behaviours of concern such as temper tantrums may occur regularly; it is
important to capture the details of the antecedent condition (what happens right before the
tantrum occurs), the behaviour during the tantrum, and the consequent events (what happens
immediately after the tantrum) in order to develop appropriate management and treatment plans

Advantages

• Useful for tracking behaviours that occur infrequently.

• Records the circumstances surrounding the behaviour.
• Efficient use of time.
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• Teacher could use to gather information and track changes.

Disadvantages

• Depends on accurate short-term memory.

• Focus is limited to one event or behaviour.

6. Time Recordings

This is often called interval recording and is used when behaviours occur more frequently
and the observer is interested in the frequency of occurrence. A record that documents the
frequency of a common behaviour. Presence of the behaviour is checked at certain, fairly short,
periods of time, usually several times a day. To develop a more complete picture of a child’s
behaviour you may decide to observe the child using a time sampling approach. Prior to the
observation, you need to develop a form for recording observations and select the times you
want to observe. Forms are usually quite simple; typically divided into smaller intervals of 15
seconds to 1 minute, and behaviours may be pre-printed on the form so that the observer can
record what is occurring during each interval. The observation period may last from several
minutes at different times throughout the day to an hour or more every day for several weeks.
At the end of the observation period, the percentage of time that the child has spent in the
behaviours of interest can be determined.

Advantages

• Easy to do; requires little training.

• Teachers could use this technique to track changes in frequency of specific behaviours.

Disadvantages

• Only tells how often something occurred, not why or how.

• Presence of behaviour is tracked only during specific time periods.
• Accurate interpretation of results depends on taking many samples over time.

7. Frequency Counts

Observer keeps track of how often one or more specific behaviours occurs.

Advantages

• A tally mark is added each time the behaviour being tracked occurs.
• Gives a more accurate picture than time sample of overall frequency.
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Disadvantages

• Results are mainly the number of times something occurred, with little additional
information.
• Requires being attentive at all times.

8. Rating Scale

Used to evaluate how well the child being observed meets a set of criteria related to a skill or
behaviour.

Advantages

• Easy to record.
• Gives information on the level of performance achieved for a number of aspects of a
skill or behaviour.
• Each rating level is described.

Disadvantages

• Ratings may be somewhat subjective, especially among different observers.

• The focus is limited.
• Does not give related information.

a) Explain the difference between anecdotal recording and running

recording.
b) What is the difference between time and event recording?
c) List the advantages and disadvantages of each of the methods of
observation.
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6.7 Samples of Observational Recordings

The following are samples of observational recordings:

1. Running Record Sample

A detailed written account of everything observed about the child for a period of time.
includes what the child says, plus relevant actions and responses of others.

Observer: ___________________ Date: ___________________ Time:

Location: ___________________ Children’s Ages: ____________________

OBSERVATION OBJECTIVE: To observe children’s social and emotional development during

dramatic play.

Running Record
Description of Physical Environment:
The dramatic play centre has a play kitchen, washer and dryer, table and four chairs, and
various dishes, empty food containers, and play food. There is a desk with a play phone.
There is a mirror and a chest full of various clothes and hats for dress up.

Record of Children’s Speech and Actions Notes and Interpretations

Olivia calls to Grace, “Do you want to play ‘kitchen’ Olivia tends to tell everyone
with me?” Grace walks in the play area and asks “Can what to do. Both children have
I be the mom?” Olivia says, “No, I’m the mom. See, I active imaginations and enjoy
have the apron on. You be the girl, okay?” Grace role playing.
frowns and then says, “Okay, my name is Brittany. Our
dog can be Spot. I’ll feed him. He’s hungry.” Olivia
gives Grace a bowl for the imaginary dog.
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2. Anecdotal Record Sample

A detailed written account of everything observed
about the child for a period of time. includes what the
child says, plus relevant actions and responses of
others.

Observer: ___________________ Date:

___________________ Time:

Location: ___________________ Child’s Age: ____________________

OBSERVATION OBJECTIVE: To observe the separation period and adjustment to preschool

for Kim, a newly enrolled child.

Anecdotal Record
Description Interpretation
Date: October 7 Time: 9:00-9:05 a.m. This is Kim’s first time to stay at
Kim and her mom appear at the door holding hands. the preschool. She seems a
They stand in the doorway until Mrs. Green spots the little scared and shy.
teacher and as the teacher moves toward the pair, Kim
leans closer to her mother. The teacher kneels down to
Kim and says, “Kim, we’re so glad you’ll be staying with
us a little while this morning while your mother goes to
the dentist.” Kim looks at the teacher but clings to her
mother’s leg.

The teacher stands and says to the parent. “I’m sure This might be giving Kim the
she’ll do fi ne.” Kim’s mother says, “I hope so. We’ve idea to cry. The mother seems
just moved here and I’ve never left her with a group of to be as anxious as the child.
children like this. I hope she doesn’t cry.” Kim’s eyes
begin to water. Saying “I hope the other children will be
nice,” Mrs. Greene bends down to Kim. “Give Mommy
a big hug and kiss.” I’ll miss you, but I’ll be back real
soon. As she hugs Kim, Kim really starts to cry. “Mommy,
please take me!”

The mother pulls Kim’s arms away. “Now, Mommy will Kim may have mixed feelings.
be right back.” The teacher takes Kim’s hand and says, She is interested in what’s
“Would you like to paint a picture to show your mommy going on, but she is scared.
when she comes back to pick you up?” Kim’s eyes scan
the room. The teacher tells Mrs. Green that Kim will
probably stop crying as soon as she is occupied in an
interesting activity. The mother leaves.

Kim is led to the art centre, where the teacher asks her
to choose an apron. Kim chooses by pointing her finger.
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She is still whimpering. The teacher helps Kim put on The teacher shows that she
the apron, then sits in a chair and puts her arm around accepts Kim’s feelings but also
Kim. “You may feel a little scared here in this new place.” wants her to get involved in an
The child and teacher are quiet for several minutes. “Let activity.
me show you how to wipe the brush.” The teacher helps
Kim get started painting, and now she has stopped
crying.

3. Developmental Checklist Sample

It is used to determine the presence or absence of a particular skill or behaviour or to
rate the quality of the behaviour or setting. Children are observed to determine which
skills they have mastered, which are emerging, and which remained to be learned.

Observer: ___________________ Date: __________________ Time: __________________

Location: ___________________ Child’s Age: ____________________

OBSERVATION OBJECTIVE: To identify and document a child’s gross motor skills.

Developmental Checklist
Gross Motor Skills: Age Three
Attempted Mastered
Walks steadily. __________ ________
Runs. __________ ________
Stops accurately when running. __________ ________
Skips. __________ ________
Hops on one foot. ___________ _________
Climbs ladder to slide. __________ __________
Alternates feet, going up stairs. __________ ___________
Jumps off bottom step. __________ ___________
Jumps up and down. __________ ___________
Balances on one foot. __________ ___________
Rides tricycle. __________ ___________
Throws a ball overhand. __________ ___________
Kicks a large ball. ___________ ___________
Catches large ball with arms out straight. ___________ ____________
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4. Frequency Count Sample

OBJECTIVE: To observe how often child #12 is hurting other children.

Frequency Record //// (One tally mark for each act)

Notes and Comments

Dec. 7 11:15 a.m.: Grabbed doll from child #3 and hit her.

Dec. 8 3:08 p.m.: Hit child #2 with book and took same doll.
4:20 p.m.: Pulled child #6’s hair. Wanted to be the one to feed gerbil.

Dec.10 9:30 a.m.: Squashed child #5’s fingers with block.

Three of the hitting acts were because of a disagreement over a toy—twice for a particular
doll. She pulled child #6’s hair when it was child #6’s turn to feed the gerbil and she wanted
to do it. No hitting occurred while the teacher was talking to the class or paying attention
to child #12. The teacher made child #12 sit in the time-out chair only once for hurting her
classmates. The other two times she saw her, she reminded her about the “no hitting”
rule. The teacher did not see the hair-pulling, but she did witness child #6 crying
and holding her head.

Summary and Interpretations

Child #12 seems to know that hitting usually gets her what she wants. The teacher
seemed inconsistent in how she reacted to the hitting and hair pulling. Child #12 did not
hit as long as the teacher was paying attention to her or could see her. She may be
seeking her attention. The teacher could temporarily put away the doll that the girls do
not want to share. Try new frequency count two weeks after teacher responds
consistently to child #12’s misbehaviour in order to check progress.
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• Observation • Avoid assumptions • Frequency counts

• Snapshot of children
• Assess progress
• Customise activities
• Typical behaviour
• Respectful
• Ethics
• Confidential
• Running records • Rating scale
• Anecdotal records • Check biases
• Developmental • Remain neutral
checklist • Understand children
• Guided questions • Objective
• Event recording • Subjective
• Time recording

• Observation is defined as the process of closely observing or monitoring something or

someone.

• Early childhood education is not only about teaching, it is about meeting the
developmental needs of children.

• Observation is often seen as an effective method of assessing children as they develop.

• Regular observations allow the teacher to develop insights various aspects of the
environment programme from the playground to interactions between the children and
adults.

• Observing children gives teachers a helpful snapshot of the children in their care.

• Observation also helps teachers customise activities for the benefit of group.

• Observation can help the teacher to better understand how different areas of
development are interrelated.

• Observing helps the teacher recognise what behaviours are typical at a particular age
level.
 20

• Many health care professionals use observation to diagnose developmental problems

and to assess the effectiveness of treatments and therapies.

• The experience of observing children of different ages will increase understanding and
appreciation of them.

• Do not rely on your memory—quickly jot down your observations as you make them.

• Do not assume you know what a child is thinking or feeling —that is not being
objective.

• Do not try to force or prompt particular behaviours.

• Running Record - A detailed written account of everything observed about the child for
a period of time. Includes what the child says, plus relevant actions and responses of
others.

• Anecdotal Record - Short, but complete, written descriptions of a specific, common

behaviour, event, or situation that the observer is tracking.

• Guided Questions - A series of questions guiding the observer to look for, record, and
interpret development or behaviour related to a particular topic.

• Frequency Counts -Observer keeps track of how often one or more specific behaviours
occurs.

• Rating Scale - Used to evaluate how well the child being observed meets a set of criteria
related to a skill or behaviour.

• Time Recordings - This is often called interval recording and is used when behaviours
occur more frequently and the observer is interested in the frequency of occurrence.

• Event Recordings - Each time a targeted event or behaviour occurs, the observer
captures, in writing, as many details as possible from the beginning of the event until
the end.

• Developmental Checklist - The checklist can be used to determine the presence or

absence of a particular skill or behaviour or to rate the quality of the behaviour or
setting.
 21

REFERENCES

• Patricia Clark and Gayle McDowel (2008). The Developing Child Observation
Guidebook. Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.

• Hobart, C., and Frankel, J. (1994) A Practical Guide to Child Observation and
Assessment, Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.

• Mortimer, H. (2001) Special Needs and Early Years Provision. London: Continuum.

• Moyles, J. (1989) Just Playing? The Role and Status of Play in Early Childhood
Education. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

• Early Learning Standards Task Force and Kindergarten Assessment Work Group
(2005. EARLY CHILDHOOD ASSESSMENT FOR CHILDREN FROM BIRTH TO
AGE 8.