Contemporary

Linguistics
An Introduction
Editedby
WILLIAM O'GRADY
MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY
FRANCIS KATAMBA

LONGMAN
London and New York
 Table of contents

Dedication v
Epigraph vi
Series list xiii
Acknowledgements xiv
Preface xv
Preface to the original edition published by
Copp Clark Pitman L td, Canada xvii
List of technical abbreviations xix

1 Language: a preview
WILLIAM O'CRADY, MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 1

1 A creative system 1
2 Grammar and linguistic competence 4
3 Changeability: grammars change over time 9
4 Biological specialization for language 13
Summing up 14
Note 15
Sources 15
Recommended reading 15
Questions 16

2 Phonetics: the sounds of language

MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 18

1 Phonetic transcription 19
2 The sound-producing system 20
3 Sound classes 23
4 Consonant articulation 25
5 Manners of articulation 27
6 Vowels 35
7 Phonetic transcription of RP vowels and consonants 41
8 Suprasegmentals 41
9 Processes 49
10 Other vowels and consonants (advanced) 57
Summing up 62
Notes 64
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sources 64
Recommended reading 64
Questions 65

3 Phonology: the function and patterning of sounds

MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 68

1 Segments in contrast 70
2 Phonetically conditioned variation: phonemes and allophones 72
3 Phonetic and phonemic transcription 82
4 Above the segment: syllables 83
5 Features 95
6 Derivations and rule ordering 102
7 Representations (advanced) 108
8 Stress and metrics (advanced) 113
Summing up 121
Notes 122
Sources 122
Recommended reading 123
Appendix: Hints for solving phonology problems 123
Questions 125

4 Morphology: the analysis of word structure

WILLIAM O'GRADY AND VIDEA P. DE GUZMAN 1 32
1 Words and word structure 132
2 Derivation 144
3 Compounding 151
4 Other types of word formation 156
5 Inflection 160
6 Further examples of inflection 164
Summing up 170
Notes 171
Sources 171
Recommended reading 172
Appendix: How to identify morphemes in unfamiliar languages v 172
Questions 173

5 Syntax: the analysis of sentence structure

WILLIAM O'GRADY 181
1 Categories and structure 182
2 Complement options . 196
3 Transformations 202
4 Universal grammar and parametric variation 214
5 Some extensions (advanced) 222
6 Other types of syntactic analysis 229
Summing up 234
 TABLE OF CONTENTS IX

Notes 234
Sources 235
Recommended reading 236
Appendix: How to build tree structures 236
Questions 239

6 Interfaces
MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY, WILLIAM O'GRADY AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 245

1 Morphology and phonology 245

2 Phonology and syntax 254
3 Morphology and syntax 260
Summing up 264
Notes 264
Sources 265
Recommended reading 265
Questions 265

7 Semantics: the analysis of meaning

WILLIAM O'GRADY 268

1 The nature of meaning 268

2 The conceptual system 276
3 Syntax and sentence interpretation 284
4 Other factors in sentence interpretation 295
Summing up 305
Notes 305
Sources 306
Recommended reading 307
Questions 307

8 Historical linguistics: the study of language change

ROBERT W. MURRAY 3 13

1 The nature of language change 313

2 Sound change 318
3 Morphological change 332
4 Syntactic change 337
5 Lexical and semantic change 340
6 The spread of change 346
7 Language reconstruction 349
8 Language change and naturalness 362
Summing up 363
Notes 364
Sources 364
Recommended reading 365
Questions 366
X TABLE OF CONTENTS

9 The classification of languages

ALEKSANDRA STEINBERGS 372

1 Some preliminaries 372

2 Typological classification 374
3 Genetic classification 389
Summing up 410
Notes 411
Sources 411
Recommended reading 412
Questions 412

10 Brain and language

GARY LIBBEN 41 6

1 The human brain 416

2 Investigating the brain 421
3 Aphasia 424
4 Acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia 429
5 Linguistic theory and aphasia 431
6 Where is language? 434
Summing up 435
Notes 435
Sources 435
Recommended reading 436
Questions 436

11 Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing

GARY LIBBEN 438

1 Methods of psycholinguistic research 438

2 Language processing and linguistics 448
3 Putting it all together: psycholinguistic modelling 457
Summing up 460
Sources 460
Recommended reading 461
Questions 462

12 Language acquisition: the emergence of a grammar

SOOK WHAN CHO AND WILLIAM O'GRADY 464

1 The study of language acquisition 464

2 Phonological development 466
3 Morphological development 471
4 Syntactic development 476
5 Semantic development 481
6 Determinants of language acquisition 488
Summing up 496
Notes 497
 TABLE OF CONTENTS XI

Sources 497
Recommended reading 499
Questions 499

13 Second language acquisition

JOHN ARCHIBALD 503

1 The study of second language acquisition 504

2 Interlanguage grammars 511
3 Factors affecting SLA 523
4 The L2 classroom 528
Summing up 534
Notes 535
Sources 535
Recommended reading 536
Appendix: L2 pedagogy 536
Questions 537

14 Language in social contexts

RONALD H. SOUTHERLAND AND FRANCIS KATAMBA 540

1 Fundamental concepts 540

2 Social differentiation of language 542
3 Regional differentiation of language 563
4 Mixed languages 571
5 Speech situations 576
Summing up 585
Note 586
Sources 586
Recommended reading 588
Questions 588

15 Writing and language

MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY AND WILLIAM O'GRADY 59 1

1 Types of writing 591

2 The history of writing 592
3 The evolution of writing 595
4 Some other writing systems 604
5 English orthography 613
6 Writing and reading 619
Summing up 620
Notes 621
Sources 622
Recommended reading 623
Questions 623
Xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

16 Animal communication
MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY 625

1 Non-vocal communication 625

2 Communication structure: the study of signs 627
3 The bees 635
4 The birds 638
5 Non-human primates 641
6 Testing non-human primates for linguistic ability 648
7 Comparing communication systems: design features 656
Summing up 659
Notes 660
Picture credits 661
Sources 661
Recommended reading 662
Questions 662

Computational linguistics
JDITH KLAVANS 664
1 Computational phonetics and phonology 666
2 Computational morphology 671
3 Computational syntax 676
4 Computational lexicology 684
5 Computational semantics 689
6 Practical applications of computational linguistics 693
Summing up 700
Recommended reading 700
Questions 700

Glossary 703
Language Index 736
Subject Index 740