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Define the feedback systems.

Identify the endocrine glands.
Discuss the mechanisms of hormone action
Recognize the role of nervous system and
endocrine system in homeostasis.
Relate the structure and function of the
endocrine system to the reproductive system,
urinary, fluid and electrolyte balance.
Principles of Human Anatomy and
2
Physiology, 11e
 The nervous and endocrine systems act as a coordinated
interlocking supersystem, the neuroendocrine system.
 The endocrine system controls body activities by releasing
mediator molecules called hormones.
 The nervous system controls body actions through nerve
impulses.
 Parts of the nervous system stimulate or inhibit the release of
hormones.
 Hormones may promote or inhibit the generation of nerve
impulses.

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 Endocrine System Nervous System
Control body activities through Control body actions through NERVE
HORMONES IMPULSES
Hormones released through bloodstream, Nerve impulses conducted through nerve
has systemic actions cells
Results may takes hours, long duration of Results in miliseconds, brief duration of
effects effects
Affect nearly all body tissues Affect muscle & glands
Alters metabolism, regulate growth and Cause muscle to contract & glands to
development & influence reproductive secrete
processes

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 Help regulate:
 extracellular fluid
 metabolism
 biological clock
 contraction of cardiac &
smooth muscle
 glandular secretion
 some immune functions
 Growth & development
 Reproduction

 Hormones have powerful

effects when present in very
low concentrations. 5
 EXOCRINE GLANDS
 secrete products into ducts which empty into body
cavities or body surface
 sweat, oil, mucous, & digestive glands
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS
 secrete products (hormones) into bloodstream
 pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal
 other organs secrete hormones as a 2nd function
 Examples : hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries,
testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin,
heart & placenta

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 Hormones only affect target cells with specific membrane
proteins called receptors
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 Although hormones travel in blood throughout the body, they
affect only specific target cells.
 Target cells have specific protein or glycoprotein receptors
to which hormones bind.
 Receptors are constantly being synthesized and broken down.

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 Receptors are constantly being synthesized & broken down
 range of 2000-100,000 receptors / target cell

 Down-regulation
 excess hormone leads to a decrease in number of receptors
 receptors undergo endocytosis and are degraded
 decreases sensitivity of target cell to hormone
 Up-regulation
 deficiency of hormone leads to an increase in the number
of receptors
 target tissue becomes more sensitive to the hormone

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 Hormones that travel in blood and act on distant target cells
are called circulating hormones or endocrines.
 Hormones that act locally without first entering the blood
stream are called local hormones.
 Those that act on neighboring cells are called paracrines.
 Those that act on the same cell that secreted them are
termed autocrines.

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Circulating
hormone

Paracrine
hormone

Autocrine
hormone

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 Lipid-soluble hormones include the steroids, thyroid
hormones, and nitric oxide, which acts as a local hormone in
several tissues.
 Water-soluble hormones include the amines; peptides,
proteins, and glycoproteins; and eicosanoids.

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 Steroids
 lipids derived from cholesterol
on SER
 different functional groups
attached to core of structure
provide uniqueness

 Thyroid hormones
 tyrosine ring plus attached
iodines are lipid-soluble

 Nitric oxide is gas

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 Amine, peptide and protein
hormones
 modified amino acids or
amino acids put together
 serotonin, melatonin,
histamine, epinephrine
 some glycoproteins

 Eicosanoids
 derived from arachidonic
acid (fatty acid)
 prostaglandins or
leukotrienes
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 Protein hormones circulate in free form in blood
 Steroid (lipid) & thyroid hormones must attach to transport
proteins synthesized by liver
 improve transport by making them water-soluble
 slow loss of hormone by filtration within kidney
 create reserve of hormone
 only 0.1% to 10% of hormone is not bound to transport
protein = free fraction

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 Hormone binds to cell surface or receptor inside target cell
 Cell may then
 synthesize new molecules
 change permeability of membrane
 alter rates of reactions
 Each target cell responds to hormone differently
At liver cells---insulin stimulates glycogen synthesis
At adipocytes---insulin stimulates triglyceride synthesis

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 Lipid-soluble hormones bind to and activate receptors within
cells.
 The activated receptors then alter gene expression which
results in the formation of new proteins.
 The new proteins alter the cells activity and result in the
physiological responses of those hormones.

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 The hormone binds to the membrane receptor.
 The activated receptor activates a membrane G-protein which
turns on adenylate cyclase.
 Adenylate cyclase converts ATP into cyclic AMP which
activates protein kinases.
 Protein kinases phosphorylate enzymes which catalyze
reactions that produce the physiological response.
 Since hormones that bond to plasma membrane receptors
initiate a cascade of events, they can induce their effects at
very low concentrations.

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 The responsiveness of a target cell to a hormone depends on
the hormone’s concentration, the abundance of the target
cell’s hormone receptors, and influences exerted by other
hormones.
 Three hormonal interactions are the
 permissive effect
 synergistic effect
 antagonist effect

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 Permissive effect
 a second hormone, strengthens the effects of the first
 thyroid strengthens epinephrine’s effect upon lipolysis
 Synergistic effect
 two hormones acting together for greater effect
 estrogen & LH are both needed for oocyte production
 Antagonistic effects
 two hormones with opposite effects
 insulin promotes glycogen formation & glucagon stimulates
glycogen breakdown

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 Regulated by signals from nervous system, chemical
changes in the blood or by other hormones
 Negative feedback control (most common)
 decrease/increase in blood level is reversed
 Positive feedback control
 the change produced by the hormone causes more
hormone to be released
 Disorders involve either hyposecretion or hypersecretion
of a hormone

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 The hypothalamus is the major integrating link between the
nervous and endocrine systems.
 Hypothalamus receives input from cortex, thalamus, limbic
system & internal organs
 Hypothalamus controls pituitary gland with 9 different
releasing & inhibiting hormones

 The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland (hypophysis)

regulate virtually all aspects of growth, development,
metabolism, and homeostasis.

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Principles of Human Anatomy and
24
Physiology, 11e
 The pituitary gland is located in the sella turcica of the
sphenoid bone and is differentiated into the anterior
pituitary (adenohypophysis), the posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis), and pars intermedia (avascular zone in
between)
 Pea-shaped, 1/2 inch gland found in sella turcica of
sphenoid
 Infundibulum attaches it to brain
 Anterior lobe = 75%
 develops from roof of mouth
 Posterior lobe = 25%
 ends of axons of 10,000 neurons found in
hypothalamus
 neuroglial cells called pituicytes
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 The blood supply to the anterior pituitary is from the superior
hypophyseal arteries.
 Hormones of the anterior pituitary and the cells that produce the:
 Human growth hormone (hGH) is secreted by somatotrophs.
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is secreted by
thyrotrophs.
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH) are secreted by gonadotrophs.
 Prolactin (PRL) is secreted by lactrotrophs.
 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte-
stimulating hormone (MSH) are secreted by corticotrophs.

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 Controlling hormones enter blood
 Travel through portal veins
 Enter anterior pituitary at capillaries 27
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 Decrease in blood levels
 Receptors in hypothalamus
& thyroid
 Cells activated to secrete
more TSH or more T3 & T4
 Blood levels increase

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 Oxytocin stimulates uterine
contractions
 Uterine contractions stimulate
oxytocin release

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 Human growth hormone (hGH) is the most plentiful anterior
pituitary hormone.
 It acts indirectly on tissues by promoting the synthesis and
secretion of small protein hormones called insulin-like growth
factors (IGFs).
 IGFs stimulate general body growth and regulate various
aspects of metabolism.
 Various stimuli promote and inhibit hGH production
 One symptom of excess hGH is hyperglycemia. (Clinical
Application)

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 Produced by somatotrophs
 target cells synthesize insulinlike growth
 common target cells are liver, skeletal muscle,
cartilage and bone
 increases cell growth & cell division by increasing their
uptake of amino acids & synthesis of proteins
 stimulate lipolysis in adipose so fatty acids used for
ATP
 retard use of glucose for ATP production so blood
glucose levels remain high enough to supply brain

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 Low blood sugar stimulates release
of GHRH from hypothalamus
 anterior pituitary releases more
hGH, more glycogen broken
down into glucose by liver cells
 High blood sugar stimulates release
of GHIH from hypothalamus
 less hGH from anterior pituitary,
glycogen does not breakdown
into glucose

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 Hypothalamus regulates thyrotroph cells
 Thyrotroph cells produce TSH
 TSH stimulates the synthesis & secretion of T3 and T4
 Metabolic rate stimulated

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 Releasing hormone from
hypothalamus controls
gonadotrophs
 Gonadotrophs release
follicle stimulating hormone
 FSH functions
 initiates the formation of
follicles within the ovary
 stimulates follicle cells to
secrete estrogen
 stimulates sperm production in
testes

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 Releasing hormones from hypothalamus stimulate
gonadotrophs
 Gonadotrophs produce LH

 In females, LH stimulates
 secretion of estrogen
 ovulation of 2nd oocyte from ovary
 formation of corpus luteum
 secretion of progesterone

 In males, LH stimulates the interstitial cells of the

testes to secrete testosterone.
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 Prolactin (PRL), together with other
hormones, initiates and maintains milk
secretion by the mammary glands.
 Hypothalamus regulates
lactotroph cells
 Lactotrophs produce prolactin
 Under right conditions, prolactin
causes milk production
 Suckling reduces levels of hypothalamic
inhibition and prolactin levels rise along
with milk production

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 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) controls the production
and secretion of hormones called glucocorticoids by the cortex
of the adrenal gland.
 Hypothalamus releasing hormones stimulate corticotrophs
 Corticotrophs secrete ACTH & MSH
 ACTH stimulates cells of the adrenal cortex that produce
glucocorticoids 38
 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) increases skin
pigmentation although its exact role in humans is unknown.
 Releasing hormone from hypothalamus increases MSH
release from the anterior pituitary
 Secreted by corticotroph cells
 Function not certain in humans

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  Although the posterior
pituitary gland does not
synthesize hormones, it does
store and release two
hormones.
 Hormones made by the
hypothalamus and stored
in the posterior pituitary
are oxytocin (OT) and
antidiuretic hormone
(ADH).

The neural connection between the hypothalamus and the

neurohypophysis is via the hypothalamohypophyseal tract
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 Two target tissues both involved in neuroendocrine reflexes

 During delivery
 baby’s head stretches cervix
 hormone release enhances uterine muscle contraction
 baby & placenta are delivered

 After delivery
 Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterus and ejection
(let-down) of milk from the breasts.
 Nursing a baby after delivery stimulates oxytocin release,
promoting uterine contractions and the expulsion of the
placenta (Clinical Application).
 suckling & hearing baby’s cry stimulates milk ejection

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 Stimulation of uterus by baby
 Hormone release from posterior
pituitary
 Uterine smooth muscle contracts until
birth of baby
 Baby pushed into cervix, increase
hormone release
 More muscle contraction occurs
 When baby is born, positive feedback
ceases

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 Antidiuretic hormone stimulates
water reabsorption by the
kidneys and arteriolar
constriction. Also known as
vasopressin.
 The effect of ADH is to decrease
urine volume and decrease sweat
production. Also conserve body
water and increase BP.
 ADH is controlled primarily by
osmotic pressure of the blood

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 Dehydration
 ADH released
 Overhydration
 ADH inhibited

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Principles of Human Anatomy and
45
Physiology, 11e
 The thyroid gland is located just below the larynx and has
right and left lateral lobes
 Histologically, the thyroid consists of the thyroid follicles
composed of follicular cells, which secrete the thyroid
hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), and
parafollicular cells, which secrete calcitonin (CT)

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 Follicle = sac of stored
hormone (colloid) surrounded
by follicle cells that produced
it
 T3 & T4
 Inactive cells are short
 In between cells called
parafollicular cells
 produce calcitonin

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 T3 & T4
 thyroid hormones
responsible for our
metabolic rate, synthesis of
protein, breakdown of fats,
use of glucose for ATP
production
 Calcitonin
 responsible for building of
bone & stops reabsorption
of bone (lowers blood levels
of Calcium)

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 Negative feedback system
 Low blood levels of hormones
stimulate hypothalamus
 It stimulates pituitary to release
TSH
 TSH stimulates gland to raise
blood levels

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Principles of Human Anatomy and
51
Physiology, 11e
 The parathyroid glands are embedded on the posterior surfaces
of the lateral lobes of the thyroid
 principal cells produce parathyroid hormone
 oxyphil cells … function is unknown
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulates the homeostasis of calcium
and phosphate
 increase blood calcium level
 decrease blood phosphate level
 increases the number and activity of osteoclasts
 increases the rate of Ca+2 and Mg+2 from reabsorption from
urine and inhibits the reabsorption of HPO4-2 so more is
secreted in the urine
 promotes formation of calcitriol, which increases the
absorption of Ca+2, Mg+2,and HPO4-2 from the GI tract
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 4 pea-sized glands found on back of thyroid gland 53
 Principal cells produce
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 Oxyphil cell function is
unknown
 Blood calcium level directly
controls the secretion of
calcitonin and parathyroid
hormone via negative
feedback loops that do not
involve the pituitary gland
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 High or low blood levels of Ca+2 stimulate the release of different hormones ---
PTH or CT
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Principles of Human Anatomy and
56
Physiology, 11e
 The adrenal glands are located superior to the kidneys
 3 x 3 x 1 cm in size and weighs 5 grams
 consists of an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
 Cortex produces 3 different types of hormones from 3
zones of cortex
 Medulla produces epinephrine & norepinephrine
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The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones,
each of which secretes different hormones .
 The zona glomerulosa (outer zone)
 secretes mineralocorticoids.

 The zona fasciculata (middle zone)

 secretes glucocorticoids.

 The zona reticularis (inner zone)

 secretes androgens.

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 Cortex derived from mesoderm
 Medulla derived from ectoderm

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 95% of hormonal activity due to aldosterone
 Functions
 increase reabsorption of Na+ with Cl- , bicarbonate and water
following it
 promotes excretion of K+ and H+
 Hypersecretion = tumor producing aldosteronism
 high blood pressure caused by retention of Na+ and water in
blood

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 95% of hormonal activity is due to cortisol
 Functions = help regulate metabolism
 increase rate of protein catabolism & lipolysis
 conversion of amino acids to glucose
 stimulate lipolysis
 provide resistance to stress by making nutrients
available for ATP production
 raise BP by vasoconstriction
 anti-inflammatory effects reduced (skin cream)
 reduce release of histamine from mast cells
 decrease capillary permeability
 depress phagocytosis

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 Negative feedback

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 Small amount of male hormone produced
 insignificant in males
 may contribute to sex drive in females
 is converted to estrogen in postmenopausal females

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 Chromaffin cells receive direct innervation from
sympathetic nervous system
 develop from same tissue as postganglionic neurons
 Produce epinephrine & norepinephrine
 Hormones are sympathomimetic
 effects mimic those of sympathetic NS
 cause fight-flight behavior
 Acetylcholine increase hormone secretion by adrenal
medulla

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Principles of Human Anatomy and
67
Physiology, 11e
 The pancreas is a flattened organ located posterior and
slightly inferior to the stomach and can be classified as both
an endocrine and an exocrine gland
 Histologically, it consists of pancreatic islets or islets of
Langerhans and clusters of cells (acini) (enzyme-producing
exocrine cells).

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 Organ (5 inches) consists of head, body & tail
 Cells (99%) in acini produce digestive enzymes
 Endocrine cells in pancreatic islets produce hormones
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 Exocrine acinar cells surround a small duct
 Endocrine cells secrete near a capillary
 1 to 2 million pancreatic islets
 Contains 4 types of endocrine cells
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 Alpha cells (20%) produce glucagon
 Beta cells (70%) produce insulin
 Delta cells (5%) produce somatostatin
 F cells produce pancreatic polypeptide

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 Regulation of glucagon and
insulin secretion is via
negative feedback
mechanisms
 Low blood glucose
stimulates release of
glucagon
 High blood glucose
stimulates secretion of
insulin

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Principles of Human Anatomy and
73
Physiology, 11e
 Ovaries
 estrogen, progesterone, relaxin & inhibin
 regulate reproductive cycle, maintain pregnancy &
prepare mammary glands for lactation

 Testes
 produce testosterone
 regulate sperm production & 2nd sexual characteristics

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Principles of Human Anatomy and
75
Physiology, 11e
 Small gland attached to 3rd ventricle of brain
 Consists of pinealocytes & neuroglia
 Melatonin responsible for setting of biological clock

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 Melatonin secretion producing sleepiness occurs during darkness
due to lack of stimulation from sympathetic ganglion
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Principles of Human Anatomy and
78
Physiology, 11e
 Important role in maturation of T cells
 Hormones produced by gland promote the proliferation &
maturation of T cells
 thymosin
 thymic humoral factor
 thymic factor
 thymopoietin

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 Several body tissues other than those usually classified as
endocrine glands also contain endocrine tissue and thus
secrete hormones.
 Example other hormone: Eicosanoids
 Example growth factors : epidermal growth factor (EGF),
platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth
factor (FGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), tumor angiogenesis
factors (TAFs), Insulin-like growth factor (IFG), cytokines

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Principles of Human Anatomy and
81
Physiology, 11e
 The stimuli that produce the general adaptation syndrome
are called stressors.
 Stressors include almost any disturbance: heat or cold,
surgical operations, poisons, infections, fever, and strong
emotional responses.
 Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome
1. Alarm reaction (fight or flight response)
2. Resistance reaction

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 Stress response is set of bodily changes called general adaptation
syndrome (GAS)
 Any stimulus that produces a stress response is called a stressor
 Stress resets the body to meet an emergency
 eustress is productive stress & helps us prepare for certain
challenges
 distress type levels of stress are harmful
 lower our resistance to infection

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 The alarm reaction is initiated by nerve impulses from the
hypothalamus to the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system and adrenal medulla
 Dog attack
 increases circulation
 promote catabolism for energy production
 promotes ATP synthesis
 nonessential body functions are inhibited
 digestive, urinary & reproductive

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 Initiated by hypothalamic releasing hormones (long-term
reaction to stress)
 corticotropin, growth hormone & thyrotropin releasing
hormones
 Results
 increased secretion of aldosterone acts to conserve Na+
(increases blood pressure) and eliminate H+
 increased secretion of cortisol so protein catabolism is
increased & other sources of glucose are found
 increase thyroid hormone to increase metabolism
 Allow body to continue to fight a stressor
 Glucocorticoids are produced in high concentrations during
stress. They create many distinct physiological effects.
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 Exhaustion is caused mainly by loss of potassium, depletion
of adrenal glucocorticoids, and weakened organs. If stress is
too great, it may lead to death.
 Resources of the body have become depleted
 Resistance stage can not be maintained
 Prolonged exposure to resistance reaction hormones
 wasting of muscle
 suppression of immune system
 ulceration of the GI tract
 failure of the pancreatic beta cells

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 Stress can lead to disease by inhibiting the immune system
 gastritis, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome,
peptic ulcers, hypertension, asthma, rheumatoid
arthritis, migraine headaches, anxiety, and depression.
 people under stress are at a greater risk of developing
chronic disease or of dying prematurely

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