B U I L D I N G TECHNOLOGY

The Span Of a roof truss is the distance between the centers of the supports and its rise is the
distance between the apex of the truss and tho line joining the points of support. The pitch of a
roof truss Is the ratio of the rise to the span for a truss symmetrical about its center line. The
slope of an Inclined member is the tangent of the angle of Inclination with the horizontal, usually
specified in Inches rise por 12* run.
The portion of the roof between two adjacent trusses is called a bay.

4 .7 .2 T Y P E S OF T R U S SE S

A. RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE MEMBERS

C OM P O SI N G T HE T R U SS .

1. Complete Frame. A complete structural frame, or truss, is one in which Is made up

of the minimum number of members required to provide a complete system of
triangles fixing the relative positions of a given number of panel joints. If the number
of panel points In the given structure and n the number of necessary members. n
= 2p 3—

2. Incompl9te Frame. One in which the number of members is less than that required
by the equation given above.
3. Redundant Frame. A redundcnt frame is one which contains more members than
that required by the equation given above.

B. RELATIVE TO FORM.
1. Triangular
2. Quad angular
3. Crescent
4. Scissors
5 . Arched

C . R E LA T I V E T O M E T H OD OF SU P P OR T
1. Simple Truss. A truss supported at each endpoint.
2. Overhandina end span. A truss supported at one end-joint and other joint not an
end-joint.
3. Cantilever span. A truss where the entice support is at one end Only.

, Panel Length „. Peak

Truss Plate Continuous Lateral Brace

Too Chord _
Slop.?
He&
Web P,tch
•
^ Chord .• Splice Wedge Block
bearing Point Panel roan
Span (Out to Out of Bearings) Cantilever
Overhang Bottom Chord Length

D. RELATIVE TO ARRANGEMENT OF THE WEB -BRACING SYSTEM

1. Fink 5. Hammer-beam
2. Howe 6. Sa w tooth
3. Pratt 7. W a r r en
4. Scissor,. 8. P e tt i t

August - December 2005 VII - 240

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

__ _._
RC,/
_Ili 1. f ____ J
HO fttril0 '14

Warren
Pennsylvania or Pen

Cock Wane.).-1

/
K IRAs

1
Parker Cr tl:crriel.bock

4.7.3 RIGID FRAMES

Ricecl frames consist of two columns and a beam or girder that are ngidly connected at the;r
Joints. Applied loads produce axial, bending and shear forces In all members of the frame since
the rigid joints restrain the ends of the members from rotating freely. In addition, vertical loads
c a u s e a r i g i d fr a m e t o d e v el o p h o r i z o n t a l t h r u s t s a t i t s b a s e . A r i g i d fr a m e I s s t a ti c a l l y
indeterminate and rigid only In Its plane.

crown
Ri. .4• of l numb for crown dcpth: k40

Pi tch 1'1210 4'12

C o n n ect i o n bo te d or w el de d t o re s i i n m om e nt

Sho..Aciar

WC; Height. 88 to 30 ft (2440 to 9145)

Bate: 8' to 20r (205 to 510)

Typical span. c = 30 ft to 120 t (Se to 3c1m)

4.8 STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEMS

4.8.1 STRENGTHENING THE FRAMING SYSTEM

The framing system can be stiffened against horizontal forces in the following three (3)
metnods:

1. The structure is'composed of rigid frames which may comprise some hinged joints but there
must be sufficient rigid joints to ensure that none of the nodes of the frame is free to move
sideways. The members may be straight or curved and a variety of shapes may be chosen
for such framed structure.

August - December 2005 241

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

.•.- 1 1
.:.--...+ -,,A ' 4. -
.-

I
 It" .
-4.- I. i.r•••■■• m•
I•-‘
4 1., .. .'
'

, 1," i -- ..Y
..... 4 :
:I 'Li :‘ .. tj 4—, tj
—..
to tj —"' 7

2, A bracing system which consists of a triangulated framework of rolled sections will Hold the
joints together and further strengthen the framework against lateral loads. The center lines
of members converging at a Joint should intersect at one point. The Jo ints themselves are
conventionally assumed to be hinged, so that the members are either ties or struts, loaded
purely In tension or compression, respectively. However, the overall bracing effect of a
lattice system can be enhances by constructing it with t iff members and rigid Joints.

fib. ' .* "

 ■
) .1 f% f 7 1 Peril;

 1 .

 •
B

3. Finally, shear walls in the form of more or less solid diaphragms, usually of reinforced
concrete, transmit the wind and earthquake forces by shear and bending.

17,
Vt.
1'. •
14..
.

4.8.2 The Ultimate Structures for Skyscrapers — THE TUBULAR FRAME

The high-rise building conceived as a rigid tube --- ek.A. i)e.

If a high-rise building is of suitably compact shape on plan (circular, square, not too narrow a
rectangle), the extemal columns can be structurally merged with the external lattice bracing or
with spandrel girders so as to form a vast rigid tube. This stiffening system is particularly effective
and economical. This is due not only to the optimum distribution of the bracing, but also more
particularly to the co-operation of all the columns and bracing or spandrel girders in the external
walls.

August - December 2005 VII - 242

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

The John Hancock Center,

Chicago ;architects: Graham
and Skidmore, Owings arid
the tube in its
framing system. In this 335 m
high 100-story building, all the
horizontal forces 2re
transmitted through external
bracing, wheroby a
substantial saving has been
3chiavad in comparison wit a
bracing system located in the
interior. The external lattice
members form a distinctive
arc hi tec tu ral feat ure.

August - December 2005 VII - 243

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY.

4 Swopl•fgecf dotfol of S . 1 1 , 4 , , , 1 0 • 0 1 et, thv vooteln.11 loite•t9 topktuni 101 Ila•

jninit lAtinCuG:t C u n l o s . C h ■L o w o L I S A ( N u e g . 221 10) It comp...vs ho)ovy
o l l 1 6 0 • 1 s l O c c r y • l i n i W i l p u s s u t 0 1 . 1 : o b wor n G a nn.. .4 7 1 4 ot . ♦
rl., C O h i r M l % Anfl duls).1f1.111. ow I....IVY wrl Jrxt I •S11C1,1.1N. Oil Of WhICII
, 1,1Ve 1.10,001 Cf1S111()N trntl Sit,“•1 0•1,11 C1,1,11

4.9 JOINING OF STEEL MEMBERS

Steel shapes can be Joined in the building frame using any of the following fastening methods.

4.9.1 RIVETING

A rivet is a short pin, of malleable metal such as iron, steel, or copper, with a head at one end;
used to unite two metal plates by passing it through a hole in both plates and then hammering
down the point to for a second head.

In structural riveting, a hot steel rivet with a formed head is inserted in holes through two
members to be joined; its head is then held with a hand hammer with a cup shaped depression,
while a pneumatic hammer drives a rivet set" repeatedly against the other end to form a
second head. The rivet shrinks as it cools, drawing members tightly together.

The types of rivet heads are:

 Co u nt e rs unk , ra is ed
 Countersunk, flat
 Button, coned neck
 Button, straight neck
 Pan, coned neck
 Pan, straight neck COUNTERSUNK, COUNTERSUNK, BUTTON,
RAISED FLAT CO NED N E C K

BUTTON, PAN, PAN,

STRAIGHT NECK CONED NECK STRAIGHT NECK

r i v et h ea d s
1c1C.v-Vk

12
Rivet set, rivet snap, settoind punch, snap - o too/ for shaping the head of a rivet.

August - December 2005

vll - 244
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

4 .9 .2 B OLTI N G

The bolts commonly used in steel frame construction falls into two general categorles:

 carbon-steel bolts — or common bolts; are similar to the ordinary machine bolts.
Carbon steel is steel having no specified minimum content of alloying elements;
minimum copper content not exceeding 0.40%.
 High strength bolts are bolts made of either high-strength carbon steel or quenched
- —

and tempered alloy steel; steel; tempered meaning, heat treated during manufacture to
develop the neces ry strength. It is usually tightened using pneumatic or electric
impact wrench.

A major problem in high St Origth bolting or friction type connections is how to verify the
necessary tension has been chieved in all the bolts in a connection.

There are several ways to a (eve proper tightening:

 T ur n -of-W me thod
 Load indicator washer
 Tension control bolts

FLAT HEAD 510VE BOLT SOUAFIEFIE AD UACHNE BOLT

bolts, I

4 .9 .3 W ELDI NG

Welding has become fully accepted as a means of joining steel structural members in buildings
because it has the inherent advantage of fusing the metals to be joined, thereby simplifying
connections and fabricating operations.

A. DEFINITION OF FUSION WELDING (ELECTRIC ARC WELDING)

The fusion welding process mploys an electric arc, wherein energy in the form of heat is
supplied by establishing an a between the base or parent metal (the parts to be joined) and a
metal electrode. As the arc is onned, tremendous heat is concentrated at the point of welding.
Instantly, the materials are at melting-point temperature. The parent metal melts in a small pool
and additional metal supplied by the electrode is transferred through the arc an deposited in the
pool. As the electrode continues along the joint, the molten metal left behind solidifies to form
the weld.

B. C O AT E D E L E C T R O D E S

Most welding is done with costed electrodes. The function of the coaling is to form a gaseous
shield, which protects the arc and molten metal from contact with the air. Oxides and nitrides
resulting from contact with the air tend to produce brittle weeds. The coating also forms a slag-
fuse shield, which floats above the molten metal, protecting it from the atmosphere. The slag Is
easily removed after the weld has cooled.

August - December 2005 VII - 245

a=c4p
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

The size and strength of weld is determined by the length of its leg.

For an e64 electrode on A38 steel, the allowable stress may be computed on the basis of
800 pounds per linear inch per 1/18 inch of leg size.

For A38 steel or higher-strength steels up to Fy = 80 fr,s1, an E70 electrode should be used
8nd the the allowable stress may.be computed.fr the basis of 030 pounds per linear inch per
1/16 Inch of leg size

fed flectrode
Ce 4/ Corr --

CO..1/o0y

Weld

Pepoa

•I .• •

Cr el er -" L
bos• Meal
Fig 13. Weleing •••4•1.

C. TYPES OF W ELD

 FILLET WELD — is of approximately triangular section pining two surfaces approximately at

right angles to each other. The fillet weld is the most common type of weld used in structural
work.

 GROOVE WELD — is made by depositing filler material in a groove between Iwo members be
joined. The standard types of grooves are square, V, bevel-U, and J. With the ex•:.aption of
the square groove, all grooves may be either single or double.

 PLUG or SLOT WELD — is made of a circular hole (plug) or an elongated hole (slot) in one
member of a lap joint, joining that member to the portion of the surface of the other member that
is exposed through the hole.

vFericRL fiorizo ✓ r4. , ..

/-44r ,

r
.de" . left
N_°[17
1111
S/Aar,\)
j

 ■■■■•.0 . .
, 111..

 aztD\ fizz/a IVELO

1,00,511...., Bar r
Wet 0
earr oyez() \--oyezwavo

D. W ELD POSITIONS

There are four positions in welding. In order of economy, they are the flat, horizontal, vertical,
and overhead positions. Overhead welds, which is the most difficult, should be avoided
whenever possible.

August - December 2005 VII - 246

 Suit. ING TECHNOLOGY
E . WE L D J OI N T S
The three most common joints sed In structural work are the butt. T, and jap Joints. Other
types are the edge and c•r e olnts. Fillet welds are applicable to T, lap, and corner joints;
groove welds are applicable to Joints with the exception of lap joints.

F INISH SYMBOL • . „ GROOVE ANGLE OR

CONTOUR INCLUDED ANGLE
R 0 0 7 O P E N I N G , - DEPTH / OF COUNTERSINK
OF . FOR PLUG WELDS
FOR PLUG AND
SLOT WELDS , ,LI ENG
zr IN N C H EFri
S OF WELD
SIZE . IN INCHES --N \ F
REFERENCE LINE \ Ttr 7/ -
0
•
/P ICTECNHT E( R
C ESNPTAECRI N-G
T )O
/ OF WELDS
t7) R
. 0)
s3 FIELD WELD SYMBOL

- c>L0
B A S I C W E L D S Y M B O L -1
-.
c°
sy•
(lc)
cc v,
OR DETAIL REFERENCE
a
ARROW CONNECTING
REFERENCE LINE TO
-•—•-■■•
AR R O W SIDE O F J OI N T
(ALSO POINTS TO
OTHER REFERENCE • GROOVED MEMBER IN
B E V E L ANO J G R O O V E D
PROCESS, OR NO% \ JOINTS)
TAIL (MAY BE OM:7 TFO 1 1, \-
WELD ALL AROUND
SPECIFICATiuN, . 0 SYMBOL

wHEN REFERENCE. IS :I
NOT U SED I

Sta nd r d Weld ing Synib ul s

II i: 1/
I I
t St ql: , r. • 1.•*A:iv
SIZE or riLLil wELDH evir. ,C tiro!. 0 eAl i f I I . C .

sizr r f.or nat - f I LLLT wi-o

rmi

u v, WWI :1 ...LI, 1.s.v. s• •

C O N I iNu Ou S rI t t Er WEI . Sr v d u -
; 1 ZL Or LOUAL DOUnt C- rit t CT vat OS
-t •
_1.
CL •■ e.• %Aire v -.Lt.'. •
LENGTH Or VILLE r WELD 5121 or UNEOUAL 00,181.f - I C 1 WELD!:
 VII - 247
August - December 2CO5
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
Welding Symbols — Examples of Use

SECTION
APPLICATION °MAE° wELO o R (No ELEVAT ION PLAN
 AROLR•SIOE
 11.,LET *EL°
FRIEI, SQU A RE G kOOvE, :. ti C. 13EW :l

C y -
c l e -

OR
7.01-$10C ,--L-
FILLET w(i.0

scH..•:140ES FILLET
iczt
.‘1.C.C141( JUIM1
EEn-
G R O O VE swaps

eR,Tb,-SIOCS FiLLLT

wo.D. TwO JOINTS A

—i1.- II
—.4_,
I,R010*•SIDE
SOU•ACCR O0 v(
W ( 1 .0 rr
10 E3 Sculmt
FIIF
s r m e oL s r o c

GROOVE *ELO
RA-
ARRO W -SI DE O E vE L .

UROOV( WELD

eeTu-SIOES IlEvEt. AR.

GROOVE LLELo siboxin „
V C-
curlew.s1:,1
 - 4 A 00V ( W E L D

IY-7—. ---77--
SY N( 6 0 1 5 FO R v - G R O O v E , J - G R o o v E

pric_x_
RoTR.$101.5 v- 0:111.11t
GRJOvE 'REL.() RIO'''. n___X--
LC
w n . c s

TV-
ARAO..SICE PrNi N ti
J • VIO O VC WELD
40
.T.•1.0E5
I.."'
A N O

..•04o0v( R1Lo [11K-- 5 - - - -

111 1
 AROW-SIOE .0101
9. ,,,,
, 0.
[r./,„____ =
u•GROOvE WILD

80TR•SIOES . . . w" °
V GROOVE WILD loop / X
9 I

'END

August - December 2005 i@digrif) VU 24E1

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
Example IsIMBEffiLM vapor baffler, one layer at six mils (0.006) thick, with 300 mm
overlapping.

3. Water reOelling or water sealing - applying, by brush or low-pressure spray, a clear

silicon water repellent or sealant to porous surface material such as cement plaster
and bricks to. preventymthedid or the growth of algae and moss. Example is
nigtermsmi Water Seal.
'"•0`•
4. nmoglimegitauti - method of it balling thermal barriers In surfaces of structures to
keep the heat or cold away from the interior spaces.

5. DiErnite(gray! pf2gfinct -

 Soil nolsonrUg - treating the soli surrounding the structure in touch with the
ground (footing bed and slab on fill) with a chemical. Example is LENTREK TC
Tennicide Concentrate; dilution rating: 1 part LENTREK TC to 50 parts water.

 FeCtOrif-arched wood oresolyetiit - factory pressure-applied wood

preservatives; such as katmiatt; IMAM preservative or Nktalighl
preservative of mATtmco Wood (Manila Timber Company).

 §,lte-applied wood preservative - application of a chemical liquid on the wood

surface (Sol num) to protect it against pest intrusion, such as termites and beetles
(bukbok), and decay-causing fungi, such as sap stain and
L•

 Termite• shields Installing a shield o

-

non-corroding metal or inorganl

FLOOR JOIST
material, used as protection against ther
infiltration of termites in a building; sol
placed as to prevent their passage,
usually as a projecting shield on a
masonry foundation or pier (or under a TERMITE
SHIELD
wood sill or beam which it supperts), or
around pipes which enter the building.

o
void* ,M.W

6. Rat proofing a method of protecting rooms against the intrusion of rats and other
-

small destructive animals from gnawing the wooden parts of the house and habitating
the under-ceilings and under-floors of houses and buildings.

7. art 2rtm1lng - application of cover motorists to structural steel components or

systems to provide increased fire resistance. Also called sprayed fireproofing.
Example is FLAMESHIgLD F1F',EPROOFING Filipino Invented, non-asbestos fiber
mix on non-Organic binder, 1' thk for 2-hourfim rating, T thk fcr 3 hour fire rating and
 thk for 41-hour fire rating. Another example is MONOKOTE MK-6, a gypsum-
based, cementitious spray applied fireproofing product, from Grace Construction
Products.

5
lIcittb2dra .- 1. Changes in color, texture, strength, chemical composition, or other properties of a natural or artificial
metteitaitstrato tbalicticvr ofthirweathei#2, The cover applied to a pert of a*tructure to enatile t t to shed rainwater.
6
eze,s7,1%iiondtionof wood wiikii? hes decayed to powder, or has been eater, by worms which leave holes full of
rwcierf. ' V
n!

.*)111!"tPff*S"All#4 44" " '1 .. C ''''''*I. ' )4," t t : ' A ' ' 74 8' '
)( 4 k
. 1' , - •
,_ El •■ a :•'. 1
,, .. . . in-wOld britfrigitifteOwirskiboiganlittrts: reduciess. . lind hardriiis. ti
..
* .: -ht
1•
, ;, ‘, .. ,

i sit. ia 1
 , :ill, i
August -Deoembet 2005 :ityro, • V11-223 -
 UILDINO TECHNOLOGY
Protected Root Assemblies
Beam & Sleet OeCk Joist & Steel Deck

Soctbon A-A

Roof Assemblies
Crinctierli
lighlweight Insulalinc Beams 111•:■ ,1:111111I B(Wirit;
Joists .1( wIls Beams
r... •
••. • . .
— . • • - - - •
 •1••••••

• . •
 •
. .

Beam Only & Joist Only Designs

Beams Joists
Floor Protected Floor Unprotected Floor
Protected Floor Unptol
•

Columns

Wide Flange Tt.itya Pic

8. EloorAixttgath2n - a method of protecting,finish floor surfaces from wear and tear or

from chemical abrasions due to heavy use.
9. paltomoling — a method of protecting the steel and other ferrous materials from
corrosion.

10. k L — a method of removing old paint by the

use of akkfilultmgyiev '; and stains, rust, algae or even cement build-up on fonns or
equipment, by the use of a chemical .1*!_wW or descaler10
.

.. •

*applied to a.dty paintor varnish to cause it to soften or lose whiniest el, thq1m.ybe
ee " At" • •.;•.,•• •••■
•

'W
o chiita o andlor savior action.
:404aliiiii4isople4habformeton'the Inside :of i?crt water heetergtbalertiyla+
. 1.• • •^

:August - Damn. bs;;70r.0

 IBUILDING TECHNOLOGY

1 .9 .2 WA T E R P R OOF I N G

1 . A p p l ic a t i on L oc u ti o ns :
 Top of roof clacks
 Top of concrete terraces, balconies, ledges and canopies
 Under-sheathing for wood shingle and tile roofing
 Interior surfaces of water t a n k s
 Exter ior s ur faces of c oncr ete roof gutters
 I ns id e s u r fa c es o f p l a n t b o x e s
 Kitchen floor
 Toilets
 Basement floor and walls
 Elevator pits
 Swimming pools and fish ponds
 M a c h i ne , me c h a ni c a l a n d p u m p r o om s
 R e fr ig e r a ti on a nd c o ld s tor a g e r ooms

2. Four Types of Waterproofing

 intearal type powder form waterproofing compound mixed with the cement -
—

aggregate mixture_' For example one bag of integral waterproofing compound,

such as SAHARA or SApcURA is added to 98 kilos off Portland cement.
Membrane tom — a hot or cold membrane applied to the surface; for example
asphalt paper laid with hot asphalt or ;elf sealing asphalt paper. Examples from
WR Grace Co. are BITUTHENE CP for toilet stabs and BITUTHENE 3000 for
roof decks; and ICE AND WATER SHIE.12 setf-seallng and self-adhering
nibberized membrane for main entrance canopies made of metal.
Fluid type a f lu id applied e lastomeric coati ng formulate d to waterpr oof and
—

preserve the substrate of concrete, wood, and steel. The wide temperature range,
withstands extreme thermal movement, settling and cracking; resists puncture
and teanng: and can be applied by roller, brush, spray or squeegee. Examples of
exposed type liq . rembrane waterproofing from WR Grace are NEVVFLEK and
ledges.
CementitkW5 tvEse, — powder form waterproofing compound mixed with water
and spoiled by bctish to„the surface to be waterproofed. Examples from WR
Grace are MORTASEAL and HYDRATITE tot concrete gutters, ledges and end
walls.

FOUNDATION AND SUB-STRUCTURE WATER PROOFING

r %Mr.. IA. O. • •

11.4 M.t 111.4 ,....nr

0,1
I . . . . 1 ‘ , P J

lo M

.•

II.. •
Ja•

.101.04.W..reor,
 ,•••• • . . • or .

FOUNDATION WALL
WATER PROOFI NG

August - December 2005 VU-225 •

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

• oft. 1•!..d.ovs

GROUND BEAM
WATFR PROOFINC;
BASE SLAB - PIPE PENETRATION ; • • • • I.••
WATER PROOFING

'THROUGH WALL" PENETRATION

WATER PROOFING
August - Docember 2005 VII-226

••71.—
dorml■=7..1.2

liP
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

FLAT DECK WATER PROOFING

Of ••

■■•■••1 •••■• 1.• • .• ••• • .1

M•- •••1. 5••

 fi-. P.4 .1 •
. •. t

vow

0.1e.

UPSTANO DETAIL-SHEAR MEMBER

.14.1”.4 .  . t••• v
COM.,. % NO Oli :4 • I.
4..•v52 •

.• .

 ■ ■ ■ 4 1 1 . .
I . . . . v . , V I. 4 1

.•

I-La Li n 41-
rl 11 C, n n ti

55.., 44. • 5.

TYPICAL DRAIN DETAIL

August. December2005 VII -227 •

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

•••••
II. ...I .
e so •

r
TYPICAL PIPE DETAIL THROUGH ROOF
SLAB (LIQUID MEMBRANE DETAIL)

CP

TYPICAL PIPE DETAIL THROUGH ROOF SLAB

(SHEET MEMBRANE DETAIL)

.•,......•,.•

••■•j I I

••10
 . f : 14. 11p o n .

 1.1 JC

04•••■•

 ‘.{ .., it• of • wi nt ic al

ire
' 1000 Jle,

EXPANSION JOINT COVER

DECK OR WALL JUNCTION

August. December 2005

CrC VII -228
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
3.9.3 THERMAL INSULATION.

1 . A pp lic a tion Loc a tions of hea t I nsula tor s:

 T op o r b o t t om o f r oo f d ec ks
 Below roofing sheets
 Above suspended ceiling

2 . T yp e s of T her mal Ins ula tor s

 Loose Fill — fibrous type and granular type

 Blanket Insulation — is made from fibrous materials such as mineral wool, wood
fiber, cotton fiber or animal hair and made into bate or boards. Example is
PARSEC Thermo Brite II for underneath metal roofing insulation.
 Block or Rigid Slab Insulation — stiff and inelastic such as foamed plastic,
callular glass, foamed concrete, etc. Example is STYROFOAM ROOFMATE
e x t r u d e d p o l y s t e r e n e b o a r d a s m a n u f a c t u r e d b y D OW C h e m i c a l s , f o r
Inaccessible roof decks.
Foamed-In Place Insulation — a polyurethane product made by combining a
polyisocyanate and a polyester resin. This type of insulation can be applied either
by pouring or by spraying. The basic ingrecLents for both are drawn from their
containers, measured and mixed by machine.
Spraved-on Insulatioll — materials used are polyurethane foam asbestos fiber
mixed with inorganic binders; vermiculite aggregate with a binder such as
Portland cement or gypsum and periite aggregate using gypsum as a binder.
Machines are used for blowing these insulations into place and as a result, the
shape and irregularity of the surface being insulated Is of little consequence.
Example is MBA SPRAYED-ON POLYURETHANE INSULATI ON; 25 mm thick x
1.5 pct density for accessible roof decks.

4. STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION

4 .1 STRU CTUR AL ST EEL SHAP 1; S

the most common shapes of structural steel used in buildings are the American Standard Steel
Shapes such as:

,1) Square Bars

2 ) R ou nd B a r s

3 ) Plate Bars

4 ) A n g l e Ba r s

5 ) Channels — The standard channel has the shape of unsymmetrical balance consisting of two
flanges on one side. It requires lateral support to prevent its tendency to buckle. Channels are
generally used as parts of built-up sections for columns and are also suitable for framing
around floor openings, spandrels and lintels attributed to the absence of flanges on the other
side. The channel section is identified as C 15 x 20 which means that the channel has a depth
of 20 cm and weights 15 kg per meter length.

6 ) I-Beams — The use of a standard I-beam as a column is uneconomical because the whirl or
revolving action of the member about an axis through the centroid of the web is comparatively
small.

" pert Insulation — A flexibki blanket- type thermal insulation, commonly used as snsulation between studs or joints in
frame construction; also used as an acoustical material or a component in sound-insulating constitiction. Usually made
from rock, slag, or glass libers. Sometimes has a vapor barrier on one side or entirely enclosed in paper with a vapor
barrier on one side.

August - December 2005 VII - 229

 B UI LDI NG T E C h N O L O G Y

7) Tee Beams

8) ff-CO luM r18

9) Wide Flanges — Wide Flange sections are designated as W 12 x 24 which mean that the
flange has a depth of 24 cm and weighs 12 kg per meter length. All wide flange sections are
generally with parallel face flange except those with 5% slope Inside face produced by
Bethlehem Steel Company. Comparatively, wide flange sections are more efficient than
standard I-beams with respect to bending resistance.

10) Zees — The zee section is another structural form In a letter Z which Is not frequently used In
building construction except for the fabrication of steel windows and other frames.

4.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING

Structural steel girders, beams, and columns are used to construct a skeleton frame for structures
ranging In size from one-story to skyscrapers. Because structural steel Is difficult to work with on
site, it is normally cut, shaped, and drilled in a fabrication shop according to design specifications;
this can result in relatively fast, precise construction of a structural frame. Structural steel may be
left exposed in unprotected non-combustible construction, but because steel can lose strength
rapidy in a fire, fire-rated assemblies or coatings are required to qualify as fire-resistive
construction.

The three major types of framing systems are the following:

4.2.1 One-Way Beam System — each pair of external columns supports a long -spanning
beam or girders. This form of construction is suitable for long, narrow buildings,
especially when a column-free space is desired. The absence of columns in the Interior
is an advantage in structures such as car parks, as freedom from obstruction makes for
greater and safer maneuverability, besides allowing the layout of the parking spaces to
be altered at any time.
f_ris-dA c o \ / - ^"
(AvY ‘Dv-rxe-N
I I t t t t t • • •

• • . . . . . . I •

4 . 2 . 2 Tw o - Wa y B eam S y st em — a t wo -l ayer s ys tem , where beam s f ram e i nt o girders,

increases floor depth considerably and provides more space for mechanical systems.
Steel girders span the short axis of a building bay thus contributing to the lateral
stability of the structure.

August - December 2005 VII - 230

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

•
.•
.•

 " " " " -••■• ••••■•••• -

•
./ • --
r-r•- • -- I .
. . •
 •;

/ • r
0,--% • r'
 /4. -

4.2.3 Three-Way Beam System — is used when a large column-free space Is required,
where long-spanning plate girders or trusses can be used to carry the primary beam,
which in turn support a layer of secondary beams.

/ • r
0,--% • r'
 /4. -

Ill
August - December 2005 VII- 231
 B UILD ING TECH NO LO GY

4.3 STEEL COLUMNS AND CONNECTIONS

4.3.1 STEEL COLUMNS

Steel columns are of the following types:

a. rAngLat2nsuElyailastin. These are used for compression members in roof trusses, light
towers, and lattice girders. The two angles of a double struts are riveted together by rivets
driven through washers placed between the two angles at intervals of 4 to 6 ft.

b. Staved analec of two or four connected by batten plate spaced at intervals of 3 to 4ft.
These are used to support the light loads.

c. Latticed Columns made up of channels or angles connected by lattice bars are often used
where light loads are to be supported on long columns.

r_

d. Rolled H-columns. These are obtainable with depths ranging from 6" to 16" and are now
commonly usea instead of built-up columns in steel skeleton construction.

L ________ 1
Built-up Columns. These are usually of H-shaped section formed by a combination of
plates and angles although box columns with two or more webs are not uncommonly used
in heavy building frames.

1-1
August - December 2005 LJ _________________________ J
1 VII - 232

1
)
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
f. Top Chord sections of heavy trusses arc usually unsymmetrical and are made of two
lolled or built-up channel sections and a cover plate. The open (bottom) side of the section
Is latticed.

g. Columns for bents are sometimes made up of a pair of channels and an I – beam with
batten plates at Intervals of 3 to 4 ft. connecting the flanges of the channels. Columns made
Of (our angles and a web-plate are commonly used in mill building bents.

leg

h .tt e n ed c ol um ns a re t hos e i n which t wo c om ponent parts of t he c olum n are c onnect ed

only by batten plates. They are decidedly inferior to latticed columns and should be avoided
if a continuous plate or latticing can be used instead.

 •
 •

In the design of steel columns the following should be taken

into consideration: No part of a steel column should be less than 114' thick. No material
whether in a body of the column or used as a lattice bar or stay plate, shall be of less thickness
tnan 1/32 of its unsupported width, measured between centers of rivets transversely, or 116 of the
distance between center of rivets in the direction of stress. Tie -plates are to have not less than 4
rivets and are to be spaced so that the ratio of length to the least radius of gyration of the parts
connected does not exceed 40, the distance between nearest rivets of two stay plates in this
case being considered as length. In built-up columns the thickness of any outstanding member
(for example, the outstanding legs of angles) shall not be less than 1/12 of the width of the
outstanding portion.

Base plates for steel column are usually made of steel plates and shapes. Cast -iron bases are
sometimes used for very heavy columns. Ribbed cases may also be used instead of plates and when
bolted to the columns, add greatly to the stability of the supporting members because of their greater
width.

4.3.2 LALLY COLUMNS pr,F 611-7

These are columns made up of a cylindrical steel - gLt. c .r,1

pipe shell filled with 1:1-1/2:3 Portland cement concrete.
The standard type of tally column is reinforced with only
the steel pipe shell. Special
types of columns are obtainable with additional
reinforcement consisting of steel pipe, reinforcing bars or
structural steel shapes. The light weight column is 4" in
outside diameter with a shell t hi ck ness of 0. 134' , whi l e ZAL_Ln-41s,
t h e h e a vy - we i g h t columns are from 3-1/2 to 12-3/4 inches
in outside

August - December 2005 VII - 233

Orin
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
diameter with shell thicknesses of 0.216 to 0.375
inches.

4 .3 .3 C OM P O SI T E CO LU M N S

These are columns in which a concrete core Is further reinforced with a steel or cast -iron core
designed to support a part of the load. Steel cores may be structural H-sections or four angles,
latticed or battened; cast-Iron cores are usually either sold shafts or hollow pipe sections. The
coluinr, may be further reinforced by vertical rods or bars placed at the circumference and
enclosed by spirals.

4.3.4 STEEL COLUMN CONNECTIONS

Column Spices

As the load on a column dim♦rishes,

dfferert flange thicknesses may be
used at a column-to-column connection.

Welded butt
connection

When a change A backer Plate o keep

In the nominal plate can columns
size of o make up the aliened m ill
column occurs. difference In welds ara
a thick butt fltnga formed
plate welded to thicicr.esses
both column at a bottea
sections is connection
used to transfer
the load.

Column Bases

Column i■ Stiffeners may Base plates for A seismic

welded to its be required large columns foundation
steel base plate when a column are set on connection
after the plate bears 011 a thin leveling nuts utilizes Siftener
is leveled on a base plate. •before grouting. plates and
bed of anchor bots sal
nonshririldng Into a concrete
grout. foundation.

4.4 STEEL. BEAMS AND CONNECTIONS

4.4.1 STEEL BEAMS

Steel beams may be rolled in the shape of the letter I (I-beams), channel beams or Andes.
Deems of T shape were formerly used but have now been restricted to minor uses. The I-beam
is the ideal type of steel beam. The horizontal portion is the web. Channels are sections of this
shape: They vary In depth from 3' to 15', and in weight from 4.11b. per ft. to 551b. per ft.

j..qAti II: L..

August - December 2005
VII - 234
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
r--

1Pii
fdf=1,44.)1X-
r
e AI-1

Girders may be built up of angles and plates riveted together for long spans and for unusual
cases of very heavy loading. Those are of two types:

a. Plate Girders. A plate girder Is a beam composed of a wide plate, known as a yap, at the
top and bottom of which are nveted angles and plates. The simplest type of plate girder
00nSiSts of a web and four flange angles. If this does not give sufficient flange area, cover
plates may he added. The weo may be frequently reinforced against buckling by angles
riveted to its sides, known as stiffener angles.

5. Box Girders. This is a built up beam in which more than one web plate is used.

Beams and girders may be connected to columns by either seated

connections or framed connections. )
t....,.
in a Leafed connection the bottom flange of the beam rests on and
is field-riveted to an angle lin
shop-riveted to the flange r web of the column. Another angle is
field-riveted to the column and to the top flange of the bea .
In a framed connection the web of the beam or girder is connected
by angles or by gusset -plates to the column. In framed connections, angle seats are usually
shop-riveted to the columns to hold the beam or girder during erection.

4 .4 .2 ST E E L BE AM C ON N E CT ! ON S

1. Moment Connections – AISC Type 1 – also called Riqid

Frame connections are able to hold their original angle under loading by developing a
specified resisting moment, usually by means of plates welded or bolted to the beam flanges
and the supporting column.

August - December 2005

VII - 235
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Moment Connections - AISC Type 1

(Rigid Frame)

Top and bosom henget etiflencr paten veiled

StIftensr Statue Welded to coismn to se►rrin and eel •11 to
vvrieee to ookenn
beam farces

/
Tub pate waded to cok.iren •1 Welded as around
and holed to board wit

I
oldie winded to boat Shear tab welded '
„ A7.
sitranar pates
Boted to WO 1, column and
bolted to boam
e ac en g bar ;14 .) wA Mat artale440P
StIrlunar • -

2. Shear Connections — AISC Type 2 — Simple Frame connections are made to resist only
shear and are free to rotate under gravity loads. Shear walls or diagonal bracing Is required
for lateral stability of the structure.

Shear Connections - AISC Type 2

(Simple Frame)

stabiaano Sheer connection can be made I. 2 imolai shop-wardad

angle to beam web and tea
%eh a lee. or 2 angles, or a
lab plate ...Aided to co/Art.1n „ # , welded to colUmn
$r:^ Bees hold bear, In

3. S e m i R i g i d C o n n e c t i o n s — A I S C T y p e 3 — S e m i - R i g i d F r a m e c o n n e c t i o n s a s s u m e
beam and girder connections possess a limited but known moment resisting capacity.

Semi-Rigid Connections — AISC Type 3

End pieta welded to

Deem al arcartd and
bolted to splumn

NI waded connections an AISC Type 3- Serni-Ripld Frame

authief oily platens. esplocielly *her COTOCIII011 ammo beam SM etockw
pound smooth. but they can be very connections possess • Imbed but
••••n• b eabrioate lino., moment-melding c•pacty.

August - December 2005 /- place until welds

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 3

3. HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE; PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE AND STEEL CONSTRUCTION

3.1 FOUNDATION SYSTEMS (Deep and Shallow Foundation)

The foundation system transfers the lateral loads on the superstructure to the ground. The
horizontal component of these lateral forces is transferred largely through a combination of soil
friction on the bottom of footings and the development of passive soil pressure on the sides of
footings and foundation walls. Foundation systems are classified Into two broad categories --
s ha llow found a tions and deep founda tions .

Shallow Foalda:lons

4 Deep Foundehorre

3 .1 .1 SH A LLOW F OU N DA T I ON S - Sha llow o r s p r ea d found a tions ar e e m p loy e d w he n

stable soil of adequate bearing capacity occurs relatively near the ground surface. They are
placed directly below the lowest part of a superstructure and transfer building loads directly to
the supporting soil by vertical pressure. The types of shallow or spread footings are:

1. I n d i v i d u a l o r i s o l a t e d f o o t i n g s — are spread footings supporting free-standing

columns and piers.

a. B l oc k o r s q u a r e f oo t i ng s

b. S t e p p e d fo o t in g s

August - December 2005 VII- C8

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

c. Slope or pyramidal footings

2. Strip footings - are the continuous spread footings of foundation walls. §_t_qpind !mina
are strip footings that change levels to accommodate a sloping grade and maintain the
required depth at all points around a building.

L.
" STRIP FOOTINGS

STEPPED FOOTINGS

3. Combined footings .

a. Combined footings. supporting two or more

.7$r• " • "Zz.
columns. This type of footing is used where it
is not possible to center the footing beneath its
supported column as in the case of columns
located at or very near the property line. In AL-

such case, the nearest interior column is

selected and a combined footing constructed
under both columns. The footing is so
designed so that the center of gravity of the
combined loads passes through the center of +It -p. -— 0-
•11'
gravity of the footing area. Combined column --- -1- T- e l- -?
r I
footings are usually reclanqular or trapezoidal
in shape. ue _ 
_.• • ‘ •

b. Candlevered footings. This type of footing

may be used in place of a combined footing
under the same conditions. In this type of
construction, the footings of the exterior and
interior columns are connected by a tie-beam
or strap which is so extended to support the
exterior column. The top of the beam or strap
is usually placed level with the top of the
footings.
K
-? • rf l . C 7S. - . 1 - " Y

~ LINO

August - December 2005 VII - 109

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

c . Continuous fOc li nus . T he s e may b e:

( 1) s upporti ng e li ne of c ol umns
( 2) supporting all of the columns by strips at right angles to each other.

They may be Invert9d slab or Inverted tee continuous footings.

Mt*

4. Ma t or R a ft Founda tions

Mat foundations, like continuous footings are used on soil of low bearing power where there
is a tendency towards uneaual settlement due to unequal loading of soi!. in this type of
foundation all parts of the foundation are so tied together so that they will act as one and
assist each . other in keeping level and plumb. Mat foundations may be divided into the
following general Gasses:

a . F la t s la bs of p la in or r einforc ed c oncr ete

b . B e a m s or g ir d e r s wi t h a s l ab u n d er n e a t h

c . Seams or girders with a slab on top

August - December 2005 V0.190

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

4. SIEEL GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

When it is desired to avcid the deep excavation required for concrete and masonry footings,
and when the load hss to be distributed over a wide area of support, steel rails or beams are
used to give the required moment of resistance with a minimum of depth.

Trot- Gew..../
r

II I r SMTL 0. .. .10 ruwr -

4
1 1
L• 1114,41,

For steel-grillage foundations the foundation bed should first be covered with a layer of concrete
not less than 6" in thickness and so mixed and compacted as to be nearly impervious to
moisture as possible. The beams are placed on this layer, the upper surface brought to a fine
and the lower flanges carefully grouted so as to secure an even bearing. Su bsequently,
concrete should be placed between and around the beams so as to permanently protect them.
The berm must not be spaced so near as to prevent the placing of concrete between them. The
clear space between the flanges of the top layer of beams should not be less than 2' and
should be somewhat more for the lower layers .

3.1.2 DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Deep foundations are employed when the soil underlying a shallow foundation is
unstable or of inadequate soil bearing capacity. They extend down through unsuitable
soil to transfer building loads to a more appropriate bearing stratum of rock or dense
sand and gravel well below the superstructure. The types of deep foundations are pile
and caisson foundations .

1. PILE FOUNDATIONS — A p:le foundation is a system of end bearing or friction

piles pile caps', and tie beams for transferring building loads down to a suitable
bearing stratum.

COLUMN LOAD

LOAD BEARING WALL

REINFORCED CONCRETE
GRADE or TIE BEAM
. - .

) :•:1.

il
REINFORCED CONCRETE
PILE CAP
Pile Cap — 1 A slab or connecting beam which covers the heads of a grob r of piles tying them together so that the
structural load is distributed and they act as a single unit. 2. A metal cap which is placed as temporary protection over the
head of a precast pile while it is being driven into the ground.

August • December 2005

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

O J
C)

.1 •
• 1;
END BEARING PILES

L FRICTION PILES

SAMPLE OF FILE CAPS

End bearing piles — depend pnricipally on the bearing resistance of soil or rock
beneath their feet for support. The surrounding soil mass provides a degree of
lateral stability for the long compression member.

Friction sites — depend principally on the frictional resistance of a surrounding

earth mass for support. The skin friction developed between the sides of a pile and
the soil into which the pile is driven is limited by the adhesion of soil to the pile
sides and the shear strength of the surrounding soil mass.

A . WOOD P I LE S

HUTT DIA 1'()

3'

I'll •I1A1 I. 1•I

l•II IAA r11' ss I
Ni r:/(1 1.111: AI/11

. • IA. •••

DIA

Wood-pile Foundations. When it is required to build upon a compressible soil saturated with
water and of considerable depth, the most practicable method of obtaining a solid and enduring
foundation for buildings of moderate height is by driving wooden piles. Wooden piles are ma de
from the trunks of trees and should be as straight as possible, and not less than 5" in diameter
at small end for light buildings, or 8" for heavy buildings.

The p iles are drive n by mea ns of a dr op -hammer or with a steam -hammer, a succ ess ion of
blows being given with a block of cast iron or steel called the hammer, which slides up and
down; the uprights of the machine is placed over the pile Oliver. The machine is placed over
-

August - December 2005

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
the pile so that the hammer descends fairly on its head, the piles being driven with the small
end down.

INOTE. C4T TOPS OP PILES TO PILE AxiS AND

APPLY 2 GOATS c MATGAINS TREATMENT.

1.
•• •
. •

. • • • •
. 4 .

I i[

-
_--TREA ED TifreER P,LE-
GAP DETAILS (TYPJ
REiNrORC.iNd, SEE PILE

1 -7
SE_ '0iLiNS NOTES'
1
112-COMPRFS5.141LELLIi.

In driving wooden piles with a drop-hammer, the hammer is generally raised by steam-power
and is dropped either automatically or by hand. The weight of the hammers used for driving
piles for building foundations is usually from 1,500 to 2,500 lb., and fall vanes from 5 to 20 ft.,
the last blows being given with a short fall. Steam hammers are to a considerabl e extent taking
the place of the ordinary drop -hammers as they will drive more piles In a day, and with less
damage to the piles. The steam -hammer delivers quick, short blows, from 60 to 70 to the
minute, and seems to jar the piles down, the short interval between the blows not giving time for
the soil to settle around them.

Ti•P
wo-6ri Ii

\)
I n (h i v in g p i l es c are sh ou d b e to k en t o k ee p I hem p lu mb ,
a nd wh e n th e pe ne l i a l io n bec om es small, the fall should be
reduced to about 5 ft., the blows being given by rapid succession. W h e n e v e r a p i l e r e f u s e s t o
s i n k u n d e r s e v e r a l b l o w s b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e a v e r a g e d e p t h , i t s h o u l d b e c u t o f f a nd a n o t h e r
p i l e d r i v e n b e s i d e i t . W h e n se v e r a l p i l e s h a v e b e e n d r i v e n t o a depth of 20 ft. or more or refuse
to sink more than '/2 in. under 5 blows of a 1200 lb. hammer falling 15 ft, it is useless to try them
further, as the additional blows result only in brooming and crushing the heads and points of the
piles, and splitting and crushing the intermediate port ions to an unknown extent.

When the penetration is less than 6 in. at each blow the top of the pile should be protected from
brooming by putting on an iron pile ring'. about 1 in. less in diameter than the head of the pile,
and from 2-1/2 to 3 in. wide by 5/8 in. thick. The head should be chamfered to fit the ring .

I n d r i v i n g i n s o f t a n d s i l ty s o i l s , t h e p i l e s d r i v e b e t t e r w i t h a s q u a r e p o i n t . W h e n d r i v e n i n t o
comoact soil, such as sand, gravel, or stiff day, the point of the pile should be sho d with iron or

2
Pile Rinq - also called a drive band' a stool bend which encircles the head of a timber pile to prevent it from splitting
when being dnven.

August - December 2005

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
steel. This is usually in the form of a cast conical point about 5 in. in dia., secured by a long
dowel with a ring around the end of the pile.

Piles tha t are d riven in or expos ed to sa il wa ter should be thoroughly Imp regnated wi t h
creosote, dead oil or coal-tar, or some mineral poison to protect them from tenado or shipworrn
which will completely honeycomb an ordinary pile in three or four years.

Piles should not be spaced less than 2 ft. on centers; usual spacing is from 2 to 3 ft. When long
piles are driven closer than 2 ft. on centers, there is danger that they may force each other up
from their solid bed on bearing stratum. Driving the pil e s dose together also breaks up the
ground and diminishes the bearing power. Maximum allowab le load on wood plies Is usually 20
tons.

The top of the piles should be cut off at or below the low water mark, otherwise they will soon
commence to decay. They should then be capped, either with concrete, or with timber or steel
grillage. The usual practice is to use the reinforced -concrete cap, the method being to excavate
6 to 12" below the tops and one foot outside of the piles. Concrete is then placed around and
above the plies. Approximately 3" above the top of the piles a layer or reinforcement running in
both directions is placed. Caps are usually 18" or more in thickness.

Heavy timber grillages may also be used for capping. These are bolted to the top of the piles
and the concrete footings laid on top of it. The timbers for the grillages should be at least 10" x
10" In cross-section, and should have suffiderit transverse strength to sustain the load from
center to center of piles. The' should be laid longitudinally on top of the piles and fastened to
them by means of driftbolts'. The advantages of timber grillage are that It can b3 easily laid
and effectually holds the top of piles in place. tt also tends to distribute the pressure evenly over
the piles, as the transverse strength of the timber will help to carry the load over a single pile,
which for some reason, may not have the same bearing capacity as the others. Where timber
grillage. is used it should be kept entirely below the lowest reco rded water line, as otherwise it
will rot and allow the building to settle.

Steel beams embedded in concrete are also sometimes used to distnbute the weight over piles,
but this is too expensive a method to be commonly used.

B. CONCRETE PILES

Concr ete Piles. Conc re te piles, either p lain or reinforc ed, poss ess ma ny ad vantag es over
wooden piles and, in general, can be used in all places where wooden piles can be driven.
C o n c r e t e p i l e s a r e g e n e r a ll y u s e d w h e r e w o o d e n p i le s w o u l d b e s u b j e c t t o d e c a y o r
deterioration by the action of marine worms. They are especially advantageous for foundations
on land where the permanent ground water is at a considerable depth. Wooden piles must cut
of under water as, when subjected to an atmosphere which is altern ately wet and dry, they will
decay. This is unnecessary with concrete piles, and foundations under such conditions need not
start so low as would be the case if timber piles were used.

In practice concrete piles are generally reinforced. Reinforced -concrete piles are of two general
types: thos e mold ed in plac e a nd those molded befor e driving. Spac ing for concrete p iles
usually from 2' — 6" to 4'. Concrete piles are extended at least 4" into the concrete of the footing,
and where a steel casing surrounds the pile, 3 to 4 in. of concrete is required between the top of
the piles and the footing reinforcement, unless the casing is trimmed back at a distance, in
which case the case reinforcement is allowed to lie directly upo n the butts of the piles.

Drift bolt — a short rod or square bar driven into holes bored in timber, for attaching adjacent sticks to each other or to
piles; vanes from 1 to 2 ft (300 x 600 mm) in length; often provided with a head or with a sharpened end; also called a drift
or drfftpfn.

August - December 2005 VII - 194

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

1) pRE-CAST PILES

T O 2V 1 ): ,4

12 - TO 24 - DIA

NOTE HEIN■ onci

MAY 111 PHE•STRESSE0

12' 10 $4 01A.

U N-TAN:It MAY OOE OMI I 14:0

C AS T I( C it s5 V I:S t m. (*NOS , si t

roit,T
Pre-cast Piles These are usually moulded in a yard or at the site allowed to cure for 4 weeks
before using. In driving, a pre-cast pile is provided with a cast-Iron point, and a driving head Is
used In which a cushion of sand, rope or other material Is placed between a driving block of
wood and the concrete in order to prevent the crushing of the pile. Concrete piles are often sunk
by means of water-jet. This method is made possibly by inserting an iron pipe in the center of
the pile.

2) CAS T- IN- PLACE PILES

Cast-in-place Piles Cast in place piles are constructed in the ground in the position they are to

• !C)
LL.,
tiliA:Y1

CONCRETE lEASING 1 • 10 DIA

c0.1 PACTE13 COTIOL* •
NY 11ASIMISG GATED
SHELL
OA PIPC
"KOS)
.1 .1'(710:.1
C u uurc AT ED S HE LL
1 - 1111"k‘.1:S5 12 A.
2,12
8

!•IIAFT

CA.
1 1 . I N ,

' ' :.:::1.s• N111A1611-1

.111 TAN urn
I
occupy, and are often reinforced. Practically all cast in
place piles are covered by patents .

Cast-in-place piles may be formed by any of the following methods:

a) A hollow cylindrical steel tube usually furnished with a tight -frtting collapsible steel core
or mandrel, is driven into the soil. The core is then collapsed and removed, and the

August - December 2005 VII - 195

 BUI'_DING TECHNOLOGY
steel shell filled with concrete. Thus there is a shell or form for every pile, e.g. McArthur
piles, Raymond piles (this uses a No. 24 gauge shell in which a spiral of No. 3 wire Is
encased). This Is also commonly called a casod pile,
b) A steel tube Is fitted at the bottom with a driving point and is driven Into the ground to
the required depth. Concrete Is than pcured Into the hole thus formed as the steel tube
Is gradually withdrawn. The driving point may be either a conical cast-Iron point that Is
left in place or a hinged cutting-edge called an alligator point which opens as the tube Is
withdrawn, e.g. Simplex piles. This is called an sinorlistle,
ro MA.%)

t4
lfa

(Z) (3 I

c) A steel pipe or shell is first driven into the ground. The steel driving core is then
removed and the bottom of the shell is filled with concrete to a height of about 5 ft.
from the bottom Press ure is then applied to force out the conc rete into the
surrounding soil as the core is withdrawn. These are known as pedestal piles.
C . ST EEL P I LE S

CPI
C

H
CR 003 C CTKUt

Steel-nine Piles. These are concrete -filled steel pipes which are made to bear on rock or hard
pan. The pipes are generall y 10 to 18 inche s in diamet er, having a thi cknes s of 3/ 8 to 5/8
incnes. The pipe is driven in sections with a steam -hammer and, as additional sections are
required, these are attached to the driven section by means of a cast-iron or steel internal
sleeve a n d re-ariven. When the pipe has reached its bearing level it is cleaned out by b l o w i n g
or dug out by means of augers or similar tools. The pipe is then pumped out and concreted.

August - December 2005 Di VII - 196

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

O.

V TO I4 • ".A

ulan,

OF ♦ .w.1 /1 rert rill

IMK *MM.! ,
II • to

rat
cram; 71%."non
or /II, 1'11 r.

0001[r •{,j1,
W1711 ( O AT

u...0•74 MILT
.‘
1
 CA 1
roll
Ct.064.1C
MAY 0 , 1(114 1 .

I: • TO I•

 l.t1A1.4. r f•It
. t 1: •
I • • V) t

I
1 •1?Wf
 .1)
Ttl 1)• NINA.  0 ,,,,,

 11 711 1 •
T • t 1 C 4 1 . 1 1 1 1 0 (

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e
 r11 AC.hIT
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UN lir nil A

Composite Plies. These are combination timber and concrete or steel and concrete piles. Thcy
may be composed of timber piles with concrete coatings held in position by steel reinforcements
in the shape of .expanded metal or wire netting. The latter are to be considered as timber, rather
tnan concrete, piles.

2. CAISSON FOUNIIATIONS

Caissons are cast-in-place, plain or reinforced concrete piers formed by boring with a large
auger or excavating by hand a shaft in the earth to a suitable bearing stratum and filling the
shaft wan concrete. For this reason they are also referred to as drilled piles or piers.

r Caisson1

[ Su i t a bl e Rock caissons are

socketed caissons that
I nave a steel Ft-section
bearing stratum core within a concrete-
of soil or rock tilled pipe casing

August • Dece mber 2005

VII - 197
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

3.2 FOUNDATION WALLS, BASEMENT CONSTRUCTION, CISTERNS

FoundetiOn Walls provide support for the superstructure above and enclose a basement wall
or crawl space partly or wholly below grade. In addrtion to the vertical loads from the
superstRicture, foundation walls must be designed and constructed to resist active earth
pressure and anchor the superstructure against wind and seismic forces.

FOUNDATION WALLS

i —
Wall System f ""

• _____ F l o o r S V c i f i f f l
Slope f i n i s h gr a d e t o I
Positive anchorage
dr a i n su rf a c e w a te r
required to resist
D a m ppr o o f in g
Of vaitarproofing

Active soil p r e s s u r e

Cast-in place concrete or

concrete masonn/ units

Subsoil

Concrete
Ground slab

drainagesystem Size of looting is based

- - - - -

.....
k ,1
1
. :-I
on the foundation watt
load and the allowable
s o il be a r i n g c a pa c i t y

BASEMENT WALLS

A u gu s t • D e c e m be r 2 0 0 5 VII-198
 B U IL D I N G T E C H N O L O G Y
Section of C ern

600w600mm 1900.1253
0.60
IttICEL WARHOL' COVER
1 2mm • WARS SPACW 0.70. 3.19
0 0 .2 0 m . 9 0 n i V i A YS 19

;11.20„

0
O -

HO

4
4

1 6mm• STARLESS
STEEL LADDER RUNGS
6rnm OW. BARS 0 0-40m OC
0 0.20m 0.C.

PROVIDE WATERPROOFING
(SPECS' Er OTHERS)

1 6mm DI& • 0 .2 0m 5
EF HOR1ZOKTAL BARS
8
1 6mm CAA. OARS
O 0.10m O.C.

0 25
1 6rnen Di. BARS
0 0 20m O.C.
((OP & BOT1 OU )

rtuiP. BARS 5P.

0 0 .3 0m ON CENT ER Pv e

H•

3 - 1 6 m ” , M A BA R S
EACH rACE 95% LIDO
PROVIDE 1 5Ginm 1 60 (rouParnfull
no( GRAVEL BED

3.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS

There may be short columns or long columns.

 Short columns — occur when the unsupported height is not greater than ten times the
shortest lateral dimension of the cross section.
 Long columns — occur when the unsupported height is more than ten times the
shortest lateral dimension of the cross section.

3.3.1 TYPES OF RC COLUMNS

Reinforced-concrete columns may be classified into five types:

1. Tied Columns. These are columns with longitudinal bars and lateral ties. The ratio of the
effective cross-sectional area of vertical reinforcement to the gross column area should not

August - December 2005 V I I - 199

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
be less than 1% nor more than 8%, and should consist of at least 4 bars of a minimum size
of #5. Lateral tiles shall be at least 3/8" (10 mm) diameter and shall be spaced apart not
over than 18 bar diameters, 48 tie diameters, or the least dimension of the column. Wher e
there are more than four vertical bars, additional ties should be provided so that every
longitudinal bar will be firmly held in its designed position. The reinforcement for tied
columns shall be protected by a covering of concrete, cast monolithically with the core, of at
least 1-1/7 (38 mm) thickness.

VD3T. OARS
4444- 6

8 - --Ai TES

473,11
:t / - - - - t

Fv<` ; V,
.11
4T.L.

REINFORC£WENTS:
vERT. BARS- 8-20mm.0
TIES .. o.: lOmm0 010Ornm0.C.(2 SETS)
TIES "b": lOmm0 0150mmO.C.(2 SETS)

: s /2

:s h,/4
100 MM

H/2
s < 6b
Splice - d
.allowed 150 mm

A , 0 3(sh r I HA /A 1)
A = 0 09sh I )
h, <h

h2

REQUIREMENTS OF RC TIED COLUMNS

SUBJECTED TO EARTHQUAKE LOADING

August - December 2005 ea p V I I - 200

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

g W • 31. __

UXAlt mawmco on
yrso ■ YOU/
110A

2. Spiral Columns. These are columns with longitudinal bars and closely spaced continuous
spiral hooping. For spiral columns, the ratio of the area of the vertical reinforcement to the
gross column area shall not less than 1% nor more than 8%. The minimum number of bars
shall 6, and the minimum bar size shall #5.

The spiral reinforcement, with min size of

3/8- shall consist of evenly spaced
continuous spirals held firmly in place by
at least three vertical spacer bars. The
center to center spacing of the spirals
shall not exceed 3" (75 nun) nor be less 75 mm should be
than 1 -3/T (35 m m ) or 1 -1/ 2 tim es the Clear spaang
larger of 25 rrrn or
maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
1.33 times
Protective covering for the column TWO mum
reinforcement shall not he less than 1-1/2(38 aggregate size
mm).

z041•4?AO/v.% I

REQUIREME
NTS OF RC TIED COLUMNS
SUBJECTED TO EARTHQUAKE LOADING
Au g u st - D ecemb er 2005 VII - 201
 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

3. Cor:Mite Columns — where struciun31 steel columns are embedded Into the concrete
core of a sclral.column.

4. Combined CD!Limns.— whore structural steel Is encased In concrete of at least 7 cm thick,

reinforced with wire mess surrounding the column at a distance of 3 cm inside the outer
face of the concrete cover.

S. Lally Columns — are fabricated steel pipes provided with flat steel plates which holds a
girder or girt, and is filled with grout or concrete to prevent corrosion.

3.3.2 DOWEL BARS

Dowd bars are short bars used to transfer the stress at the bottom of the columns to the
footings. When dowel bars are used, there should be at least one . dowel bar for each column
bar, The total cross-sectional area of dowels should not be less than the cross -sectional area of
longitudinal reinforcement In the column. The dowels shall extend Into the column and Into the
pedestal or footing not less than 50 bars diameter for plain bars or 40 diameters for deformed
bars

- t..r
1)..1.v . rnaal liars

rrt
p€4417 . .C.

3.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS

3.4.1 SUSPENDED SLABS

In general, there are six types of reinforced-concrete floors systems:
1. One way solid slab and beam
2 One w a y j o is t s lab or r ibb ed s l ab
3 Tw o w ay s o l id s lab an d b eam
4 . Tw o w ay wa ff l e sl ab
5 . Two way flat plate
6 . Two way flat slab

Each particular system has its distinct advantages, depending upon the spacing, of columns,
the magnitude of the loads to be supported, lengths of spans, and the cost of construction.
Although the arrangement of the plan of a building frequently determines the column spacing,
approximately square bays are desirable. Column spacing of 20 ft., more or less, has proved to
be most economical, but this, of course, depends on the type of floor construction to be used.

1 . O N E -WAY S LAB S
Probably the most commonly used type or reinforced concrete construction consists of a solid
slab supported by two parallel beams, the beams framing into girders, and the girders in tuns
framing into columns. The reinforcement slabs runs in one direction only, from beam to beam,
hence the slab is known as one-way slab. The number of beams in a panel depends upon the

August • December 2005 VII- 202

 B U I L D I N G TECHNOLOGY
column spacing and the live load to be supported. The beams are spaced uniformly and
generally frame Into the girders. at the center, third or quarter points. This type of framing is
called the beam-and-girder floor. It is readily constructed and the formwork is simple. The one -
way slab Is economical for medium and heavy live loads for comparatively short spans, to 12 a
ft. For light live loads, 40 to 60 psf, the spans may be increased , but long spans for one-way
slabs results in comparatively large dead loads.

The main tensile reinforcement (running along the short direction) In fully continuous slabs are
alternately bent up, usually at an angle of 3C to 45 degrees, at the fifth points of the span and
extend over the supports to the quarter points of the adjoining span. The remaining bars are
straight, placed in the bottom of the slab. For single span slabs the bars are bent up at the
quarter paints. Another method of placing the reinforcement Is to place straight bars at the
bottom of the slab and the other straight bars at the top of the slab over the supports. tf the bent
bars are used, bent bars from the adjoining bars are extended over the supports, thus providing
the same amount of reinforcement over the supports as at mid-span.

In addition to the tensile reinforcement, temperature bars are also provided running along the
long direction. These serve to provide against the effect of shrinkage and changes In
temperature and also to distribute possible load concentrations over larger areas. The size and
spacing of temperature bars depends upon the slab thickness.

Minimum protective covering for slab reinforcement is 20mm (W).

uE
.Itt .=...„

L
i Tensile
Reinforcement

t
Slab is supported on two srdes by beams
1 or load-bearing wats; beams, in turn. may
';,, ' be supported by g irders or c olumns
\)-7, •

T I P s

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to • i l l 2 • M O 1 ,C OC
• 7064 CC 1CIP

e t t TVP 9 . NEM @ CONNERS

s . „
NOT SCALE

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1 1S 40, SCA,

August - December 2005 VII - 203

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
GAO GRID
Ceti) CRtD
I 0•C•••• Iva •
1.440 2.14
,
I UM l21 ;
I I -
T V 1.4 • 44/4—,
 WI

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II II s mt.
t
e 1i k V/. '
un I

2 7197. SUB SECTION

3_,. Nor TO S C A L E

50
- - " -
--
c.a.) •

 5
spActl-
?AGO- •
-

Th. 2Lb\R SP/ACSM DE1TML

1•4 "Or 10 SCta

2. ONE WAY JOIST OR RIBBED SLABS

For medium span lengths with light or medium live loads, ribbed slabs have proved to have an
economical type of floor construdion. They are not so well suited to heavy concentrated loads as
the solid one or two-way slabs. A one-way joist slab consists of relatively small adjacent T -beams.
When the open spaces between the webs or rings are filled w ith clay tile, gypsum tile, concrete filler
block or steel forms, the floor system is called a ribbed slab.

Tens;le
Pans are reusable metal or -1 Af \ reinforcement
occurs in the ribs
fiberglass molds, tapered

r
sides allow for easier Tapered endforms are used t o
removal t h i c k e n j o i s t e n d s f o r g r e at e r
, sh e a r r e s is t an ce

Distribution rib is formed

perpendicular to the joists in order
to distribute possible bad
concentration ov e r a larger area

August - December 2005 VII • 204

 BtilLOING TECHNOLOGY
i
Clay tile fillers are generally 12' x 12" In plan with depths of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 15 In. The usual
practice Is to place the tiles 1 • o.c., thus making the web 4' wide. The layer of concrete placed
on top of the tile is generally or 2-1/2 In. thIci:. Reinforcement for this type of cxms1ructIon may
consist of two bars placed in he lower part of the web, one bent and one straight, or of /straight
bars placed In the top and bottom parts of the web.

uzz$ uT 441 , 6 A s T s a , iov W I T H A

TTorv,i'„ilyrea:a"T ,
FILLER 134_0C K

Metal tile fillers are frequently used for ribbed floors. This is commonly known as tin-Dan
constwtIon. The metal forms are usually 36' long, with 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 in. depths. They are
placed on centers in such a manner as to make the web 4 to 7 in. wide at the lowest point. Form
widths are generally 20 or 30 In.; a common condition Is a form 20 In. wide, placed 25 In. on
centers, to make a web 5' wide at the bottom.
The metal forms may be re eyed or left in place after supporting formwork has been taken
down. To provide a greater web area near the supports, where the shearing stresses may
exceed the allowable. special metal cores with the sides tapered in plan are used. The degree
of tapering generally is such that the web is increased 4' in width. As in the case of day -tile
fillers, a 2, 2-1/2, or 3 in. slab is placed over the metal tile forms, the slab and web forming a T-
section.

Gypsum-tile fillers have theojiadvantage of providing a relatively lightweight ribbed with a flush
ceiling. Although they are ma e in various sizes, a common width is 19', placed 24' o.c., with
webs 5' wide. When block 12' wide are used, they are placed 16' o.c., thus forming 4' — wide
webs.

with REmovaauf STEEL FORMS

POW' wilt, 3/5" 71 7 'HAI 1:11ANI•k • . •

',Pt( 66f S. 61 I 56,.. r

&0 6 0 , 4. 61 1. SIM KW h ,

AF

*X • •••

4V11.641:11 4 I: !AV (43

v44•0 Ott Its Ke4 •s • 54 16

I 117:Sr . M I •-•

ti•: •OA t • t• pa

VII - 205

August - December 2005

 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

C-Joist on Top of Roan'

5041 6 1 Tide Concrete Slo b with a merlin -item 31,•nivh of 3000 psi
 " — ' C • i o. i w. i 6 3/ 8 ' 0 7 W . t • s : t o r td G r o d • 2 70 1 1 1

1.  – ''' 0 mm 0 WIrenwsh of ISOmta O.C. Each Way —

•
•

I0 nen 0 ()owe: Butt o' 600wro 0 C

Robot —
boom

C Joist on Corbel Type Beam

-

5011.1•11 Ihl. COMV011 Slab willt o rn.nirnven Set•ngthof 3020 pi.

6 ma 0 W000.nh of 150o,tn 0.0 Foci% Woy
' C10:0 will. 3/8' 0 7. Wo•ttooftd 0fork 270Ip
C

• St

t•boe

10riens 0 Dowel Bows

R C Boom

C-Jeist. on Steel I - Beam

30oo, 114 Corersoks Slob eissh re weneweos Seetnyek ". 300c i ‘
.

O t- en 0 Weterwesk as• 1 I, ...... 1 l t o t s Y e , .

w,d• 3:e• o 7 vv... ••••:•c 2701,s

3 . T WO - W AY SL ABS

When a floor panel is square or nearly so, having beams or walls on four sides, it is generally
economical to use two sets of reinforcing bars placed at right angles to each other. These bars
in two directions transfer the loads to the four supporting beams or walls. Slabs thus reinforced
are known as two way slabs or slabs supported on four sides.

For square panels, with supports of equal rigidity, the live and dead loads are distributed equally
in both directions and the reinforcements are the same each way. When the panel is oblong or
r e ct an gu la r, the greater part of the load is transmitted by the transverse or short reinforcement.
If the length of the slab exceeds 1.5 times its width, the entire load is usually assumed to be
carded b y the short reinforcement, and the long reinforcement used for shr inkage and
temperature reinforcement only: hence the slab would become a one -way slab.

August - December 2005 VII - 206