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This paper was presented at the 71st Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers.
For the complete history of this paper, refer to the next page.
Presented at the
71st Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers
College Station, Texas
March 26–29, 2018
Abstract—Current transformer (CT) saturation, while a fairly understanding of CT saturation must extend beyond the
common occurrence in protection systems, is not often clearly knee point.
understood by protective relay engineers. This paper forgoes the
usual physics equations to describe how CTs saturate in a simple
and intuitive way. We explain the differences between II. CT SATURATION THEORY
symmetrical and asymmetrical saturation and how remanence To understand CT saturation, it is very important to
accumulates in the core of a CT. We then describe the CT understand the basic concept of how CTs work and what is
equivalent circuit and how it results in the familiar CT excitation actually happening when they saturate. This section describes
graph. ANSI ratings of CTs are explained, and we show how to
analyze the performance of CTs using simple equations and tools. what happens in the core of a CT during symmetrical saturation,
Finally, we explain how CT saturation can affect relay operation asymmetrical saturation, and remanence. It then explains how
and show how to detect CT saturation in protective relay event this core activity corresponds to the CT equivalent circuit,
reports. Real-world event reports are presented where correct ANSI voltage ratings, and the familiar CT excitation graph.
relay operation was compromised as a result of incorrect current
values from saturated CTs. A. How CTs Work
In its simplest form, a CT consists of two sets of wire
I. INTRODUCTION windings around an iron core, as shown in Fig. 1. The concept
Current transformer (CT) saturation is not a new topic, and is the same for a window or bushing CT, which consists of a
there have been many papers, books, application guides, and secondary winding around a core, with the primary winding
tutorials written on the subject. Sorting through this vast array being the primary conductor that passes through it.
of information to piece together a complete understanding of Transformers work based on the principle of electromagnetic
the topic is a time-consuming task and may not be realistic with induction. This principle states that an alternating magnetic flux
the schedules and demands placed on many practicing in the presence of a loop of wire induces a voltage across that
engineers. Because of this, engineers’ level of understanding is loop. Magnetic flux is simply the amount of magnetic field
often limited to the familiar CT excitation graph. The following passing through a material such as a transformer core.
is a list of common questions related to CT saturation: When alternating current IP flows in the primary winding of
• Why does a CT saturate (Section II, Subsection B)? a transformer, it generates an alternating magnetic field H,
• What is remanence, and do I have to worry about it which corresponds to an alternating magnetic flux Φ, around
(Section II, Subsection C)? the transformer core. This alternating magnetic flux passes
• What does it mean when a CT is a C800 (Section II, through the secondary winding. What happens next depends on
Subsection F)? the load connected to the secondary winding.
• I have a C800 multiratio CT tapped at 400/5. Is it still If the secondary is connected to a burden, the alternating
a C800 (Section II, Subsection F)? magnetic flux in the core induces an alternating voltage VS
across the secondary winding. This causes a corresponding
• How do I make sure my CT will not saturate for my
alternating current IS to flow in the secondary winding. The
worst-case fault current (Section III)?
alternating current in the secondary creates its own alternating
• The knee point determines the saturation voltage of a
magnetic field and alternating magnetic flux that oppose those
CT, right (Section II, Subsection E)?
created by the primary winding. These primary and secondary
• Will saturated CTs cause my relay to misoperate?
fluxes cancel, leaving a negligible amount of net flux in the
What if they just saturate a little bit (Section V)?
core. This occurs until the core becomes saturated.
• After a misoperation, how do I know if CT saturation If the secondary is open-circuited, the alternating magnetic
was a cause (Section IV)? flux in the core induces a very high alternating voltage VS
• Can modern relays prevent misoperations due to CT across the secondary winding. VS remains on the terminals with
saturation (Section VI)? no secondary current flowing, which is why it is very dangerous
The goal of this paper is to explain CT saturation to the to open-circuit an in-service CT. Because IS cannot flow, it
protective relay engineer and to answer these questions in a cannot create an opposing magnetic field, leaving a net flux in
clear and practical way. As this paper demonstrates, a proper the core equal to the flux created by the primary current.
2
The example in Fig. 3 shows the primary current decreasing saturates. This limit is defined by a symmetrical sine wave with
in magnitude every cycle. The point of this is to show that if a fixed voltage magnitude and fixed area under the curve in
primary current magnitude decreases, the CT is saturated for both the positive and negative directions. As long as the actual
less time. The lower magnitude in the second cycle of Fig. 3 CT waveform does not exceed this positive or negative volt-
generates a weaker magnetic field, requiring less flux density time area, the CT will not saturate. Consider the dc offset of the
to replicate the current correctly. Because fewer magnets are asymmetrical current in Fig. 4. This dc offset will result in an
used, IS reliably replicates IP for a longer time until all the accumulating positive volt-time area that eventually reaches the
magnets are aligned. In the third cycle, the magnitude of IP has maximum that the CT can handle at Point d, where saturation
been lowered to the point that the CT does not saturate and occurs.
replicates current correctly the entire time.
IS
IP
Current
Time
a b c d
Current
measured.
Time
The effect of remanence on CT saturation is shown in Fig. 7.
In this example, the CT is sized to perfectly handle an ac current
signal of a certain magnitude without saturating. In addition,
Fig. 6. Saturated waveshapes for resistive (a) and resistive-inductive (b)
there is some remanence left over in the core of the CT. Before
loads the current is applied, between Points a and b, some of the
magnets in the core are already aligned in the positive direction
C. Remanence
because of remanence. Between Points b and c, as IP starts to
If a CT has reached saturation and a switch is opened to flow in the first positive half cycle, the remaining magnets also
remove the primary current, we would expect the magnetic field line up in the positive direction. Because there is a change in
(H) to disappear and the flux density (B) to reduce to zero. flux during this time, the current IS matches IP divided by the
However, flux density does not go to zero when the primary turns ratio. Before the positive half cycle is over, at Point c, all
current stops flowing. When primary current is removed, the the magnets available in the core are lined up in the positive
magnetic field that causes the magnets to change orientation direction and the core has reached saturation. At this point, even
disappears, and the magnets in the core remain in their present though IP continues to flow, there is no more change in flux and
orientation. The magnets will not move again until exposed to VS and IS drop to zero. IS stays at zero until IP begins to flow in
another magnetic field. The amount of flux density remaining the negative direction, reversing the magnetic field and
in the core is called remanence. The fact that the magnets still allowing flux to accumulate in the opposite direction. This
point in the direction they were in when the magnetic field was occurs at Point d, where magnets begin to align in the negative
removed gives the core “memory” (like a permanent magnet). direction and the changing flux allows IS to follow IP again. By
This remanence remains in the core until primary current is the time IP reaches its negative peak at Point e, only half of the
reapplied. If the reapplied current is opposite in polarity from maximum core flux is aligned in the negative direction. This
the original, flux density is created in the opposite direction of allows IS to continue to follow IP until all the magnets are
the prior remanence. aligned in the negative direction, at Point f. Although we have
The example of a switch being opened to remove primary reached maximum flux density again, this is where IP changes
current is exactly what happens when a relay trips a circuit direction and we start accumulating flux in the positive
breaker during a fault. Recall that when a breaker operates, direction.
current is interrupted at a zero-crossing. In Section II, IP
Subsection B, we show that for both symmetrical and
IS
asymmetrical currents, there is a positive or negative flux
density in the core when the current zero-crossing occurs. This a b c d e f g
flux density can be significant during high-magnitude
asymmetrical current (when a dc transient is present). This
remanence remains in the CTs after the breaker opens and
affects their behavior the next time they are energized.
Remanence can either help or hinder a CT’s performance,
depending on whether the remanence is of the same polarity or
opposite polarity of the next current that the CT measures. It a–b b–c c c–d d–e e–f g
takes more time for the CT to saturate if the remanence is the Fig. 7. Primary currents, secondary currents, and magnetic dipoles in the
opposite polarity of the current and less time if it is the same core with remanence
polarity. As we can see from this example, saturation as a result of
Examination of the example B-H curve in Fig. 2 shows remanence is short-lived, lasting about half a cycle. Because of
another factor that causes the magnetic core to have remanence. this short saturation time, remanence has little effect on
Note that the curve follows a loop trajectory. The flux density standard protection algorithms and is normally neglected in CT
(B) lags the field intensity (H) as it goes through a power system saturation calculations [4] [5]. Any relaying algorithm that
cycle. This phenomenon is called hysteresis. performs faster than this should include some level of built-in
protection against CT saturation.
5
D. CT Equivalent Circuit when the ZE impedance is large (during normal conditions) and
We can represent the behavior of the C-class CT shown in large when the ZE impedance is small (during saturation). The
Fig. 8a with the simplified equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 8b. current measured by the load (IS) is what is left of the ratio
current (IST) after the error current (IE) is lost through the
(a) Secondary
magnetizing impedance (ZE). Therefore, the current the relay
sees is accurate during times of high ZE impedance (low error
current), and it is much lower than expected during times of low
ZE impedance (high error current). This behavior gives us the
Primary
classic saturation waveform shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 9, adapted from [6], explains the saturation process in
the time domain. The graph in Quadrant III shows the primary
Fully Distributed Windings current IP being applied to the CT. The graph in Quadrant II
IST RS IS
shows the flux density over time. At time t0, when the CT is
(b)
first energized, the flux density starts to increase from whatever
IE
remanent value was left in the CT at the last de-energization.
Flux density continues to rise in the CT during the positive half
IP VE VS ZB
ZE cycle and decreases during the negative half cycle. Time t3 is
the point of maximum flux density, when the CT is fully
saturated. The graph in Quadrant IV shows the excitation
N1 N2
(error) current over time. We can see that the highest excitation
Fig. 8. Class C CT (a) and Simplified CT equivalent circuit (b) current occurs at the point of maximum flux density. The graph
IP (the primary current), VS (the secondary CT terminal in Quadrant I shows flux density versus excitation current and
voltage), and IS (the secondary load current) are is made up of the intersection of points between the graph in
self-explanatory. N1 and N2 represent the turns ratio of the CT, Quadrant II and the graph in Quadrant IV. The graph in
and the ratio current IST is the primary current divided by this Quadrant I is not time-dependent, but simply shows the amount
ratio. The circuit connected to the secondary of the CT is the of excitation current that is measured for a given flux density.
burden represented by ZB and includes the impedance of the This graph shows that when the flux density is low, the
relay and CT leads. The resistance RS represents the secondary excitation (error) current is low (because ZE is a high value). As
winding resistance of the CT. The magnetizing behavior of the flux density increases and the CT approaches saturation, the
core of the CT is represented by a varying reactance, ZE. This excitation current increases substantially (because ZE is a lower
impedance changes as the CT saturates, resulting in varying value), meaning less current will be available to the burden.
secondary excitation voltage VE and varying exciting branch Notice that the graph in Quadrant I corresponds directly to the
current IE. (Although ZE technically has a real and reactive B-H curve in Fig. 2, where the excitation current IE is
component, most practical CT analysis is close enough when proportional to the magnetic field strength H.
neglecting the angles of the impedances.) The flux density in Fig. 9 is directly proportional to both the
In the CT equivalent circuit in Fig. 8, the constant current flux and the excitation voltage VE. We can therefore interpret
source IP drives the total secondary current IST as determined by the graph in Quadrant I as the instantaneous relationship
the turns ratio. IST is the current that is measured by the load if between VE and IE, and use it to understand the changing
the CT is ideal. However, we must take into account the impedance of the CT excitation branch (ZE). The slope of the
magnetizing behavior of the CT core that is represented by the curve is the ratio of VE/IE, which Ohm’s law allows us to
varying impedance ZE. Because magnetization is nonlinear, characterize as ZE. We can easily visualize that the curve is
different values of impedance (ZE) must be used for different made up of two linear sections and that the knee point is where
states of operation (normal conditions vs. saturated conditions). the two linear sections transition. The steep part of the curve,
We can think of ZE as a varying impedance that changes with where the ratio of VE/IE is high (ZE is high), represents where
flux density. It has a very high value under normal conditions the core is not saturated. This is called the iron-core reactance
and a very low value (basically a short-circuit) when the CT is region of the curve. The flat part of the curve, where the ratio
saturated. The excitation current (IE) is the current that is lost of VE/IE is low (ZE is low), represents where the core is
through the magnetizing branch and corresponds to the CT saturated. This is called the air-core reactance region of the
error. We can also refer to this as “error current.” IE is small curve because the saturated iron core has no better permeability
than air.
6
2) Saturation
The area of saturation is along the low linear slope portion
of the excitation graph, where a small change in VE results in a
very large change in IE. We select a random point on the line in
this region as (IE = 10 A, VE = 496 V) and apply these values to
the equivalent circuit, as shown in Fig. 12. We then solve for
ZE = 49.6 Ω, which is a very small impedance. If we connect a
burden of 4 Ω, we can solve for IS = 124 A and IST = 134 A. We
Fig. 10. Example excitation graph for a C400 CT [7] see that because the error current is so large, the ratio current
(IST) is not very close to the current the load actually sees (IS),
meaning the CT is behaving poorly.
7
increase in current delivered to the load. The definition also of the CT has a much lower terminal voltage at 10 A of error
states that assuming a 5 A nominal CT, 100 A is delivered to a current than the full 2000/5 tap. For multiratio CTs, the voltage
standard burden when VS matches the voltage rating of the CT. rating of a tap is directly proportional to the CT ratio
IEEE defines standard burdens for relaying CTs as 1, 2, 4, and corresponding to the tap divided by the full CT ratio (assuming
8 Ω. Consequently, the standard voltage ratings for 5 A nominal the windings are fully distributed around the core). For
relaying CTs are C100, C200, C400, and C800 (20 times the example, if a C400, 1200/5 CT is operating on a 600/5 tap, the
5 A rated secondary current) [9]. For example, a C400 accuracy voltage rating at 600/5 is calculated as shown in (2).
class on a 5 A CT means that the ratio error will not exceed 600 / 5
VTAP C400 • C200 (2)
10 percent for any current up to 100 A secondary (20 times the 1200 / 5
rated current) as long as the burden does not exceed the 4 Ω
standard burden. This means that the CT supports a voltage of 200 V at 20
From this definition, the voltage rating of a CT defines times rated secondary current of 100 A, which results in a
voltage VS, burden ZB, and current IS in the example shown in standard burden of 2 Ω.
Fig. 13 for a C400, 5 A nominal CT. The definition also tells us A final note on CT ratings and the knee point: notice that the
that at this voltage, the ratio error (IE / IS) is a maximum of knee point of the graph in Fig. 10 is VE = 200, which is half of
10 percent. If we assume this worst case, then IE must equal the ANSI voltage rating of the CT (C400). In fact, 400 V is not
10 A. We can then back-calculate to find IST = 110 A, which is even on the high linear slope portion of the graph. Recall again
the primary current divided by the turns ratio. If we go above that the knee point only shows where the CT behavior starts to
this, we will start getting more than 10 percent error on the become nonlinear, while the ANSI rating defines the point of
output, and the current the connected load reads will not be 10 percent error. The ANSI rating, not the knee point, defines
reliable. Similarly, increasing the burden ZB to a value greater the practical threshold for saturation. Because the knee-point
than the standard burden will also result in an increased error. voltage is normally 46 percent of the saturation voltage, a
When applying CTs, a simple rule of thumb to avoid a popular rule of thumb to avoid saturation is to ensure that the
symmetrical saturation error over 10 percent is to use a burden ANSI rating is twice the terminal voltage developed by the
equal to or less than the standard burden and ensure that the maximum fault current [8]. This ensures operation near the
worst-case secondary fault current is less than 100 A. knee point for the maximum symmetrical fault current.
IST = 110 A RS IS = 100 A
III. ANALYZING CT PERFORMANCE
IE = 10 A
When a CT saturates, it provides distorted information to the
IP VS = 400 V ZB = 4 Ω
connected relay, which can cause the relay to behave
unexpectedly. When selecting a CT for a protective relay
application, it is important to check if the CT saturates for the
levels of fault current that will occur on the system. This section
Fig. 13. Example for a C400, 5 A nominal CT explains an equation that can be used to determine if a CT will
saturate for given fault conditions.
IEEE defines common CT voltage ratings as C100, C200,
C400, and C800. Because the ratings are defined at specific A. CT Steady-State Performance Analysis
voltage levels, not all CTs with the same voltage rating are Equation (3) is the criterion to avoid CT saturation for
created equal. For example, a CT with a terminal voltage of symmetrical fault currents. Real-world faults are rarely
810 V and a CT with a terminal voltage of 1,000 V would both symmetrical, so this equation should never be used practically
be classified as C800. The CT with the excitation graph shown to analyze CT performance. It is explained here and derived in
in Fig. 10 has an excitation voltage of 496 V at an error current Appendix B as a basis for the more practical equation in
of 10 A. To get the terminal voltage VS, we subtract the voltage Section III, Subsection B. Equation (3) can be used to
drop across the secondary winding resistance (RS • 100 A) from determine the maximum allowable fault current for a given
the excitation voltage of 496 V. If the resulting terminal voltage burden or maximum allowable burden for a given fault current.
is over 400 V, we classify the CT as a C400 CT [2]. I FAULT ZB R S
It is important to note that these voltage ratings only apply • 20 (3)
I PRI ZB STD R S
to the full winding ratio of the CT, and tapping down a CT
reduces its accuracy. Because both windings are distributed The terms in (3) are defined as follows:
around the same core, they are each subject to the same flux and IFAULT is the maximum fault current in primary amperes
the voltage induced across every turn of any winding is the for a given fault.
same. That is, the maximum volts per turn the CT can support IPRI is the primary current rating of the CT (e.g., for a
without symmetrical saturation is fixed by the cross-sectional 2000/5 CT, IPRI is 2,000.)
area of the core. If we choose to tap a CT at anything other than ZB is the actual burden of the CT’s secondary circuit.
its full winding, there will be less voltage available at the
RS is the internal resistance of the CT secondary winding.
terminals because not all of the available turns are connected to
ZB STD is the standard burden of the CT (e.g., for a C800
the load. In Fig. 10, for example, we can see that the 300/5 tap
CT, the ZB STD is 8 Ω).
9
ZB includes both the impedance of the connected relay and in less saturation. Therefore, a value over 20 in this equation
the impedance of the leads from the CT to the relay. does not mean that the CT will saturate for that fault current—
Microprocessor-based relays have a negligible burden, but just that it could, assuming the fault current had the worst-case
electromechanical relays do not. The impedance of the leads is dc offset.
determined by the wire gauge, the length of the leads, how the
C. What About Remanence?
CTs are connected, and the fault type. #10 AWG copper wire
has a resistance of 0.9989 Ω per 1,000 feet. Reference [10] There is no way to predict the value of remanence that may
shows how to calculate the resistance of other wire gauges. exist in a CT at a given instant in time. As described in
When using wye-connected CTs and performing the calculation Section II, remanence can either impair or improve the CT
for a single-phase-to-ground fault, a two-way lead burden behavior for a given fault. The worst case is when a fault
should be used because the fault current has to make a full loop produces flux of the same sign as the remanence. In this case,
through the CT circuit (phase and neutral) and back to the relay. the flux change required to saturate the CT equals the difference
When using wye-connected CTs and performing the calculation between the core saturation flux and the remanence.
for a three-phase fault, a one-way lead burden should be used Regardless of how much remanence exists in a CT, recall
because the fault current for a single phase sums with the other from Section II that the effect remanence has on saturation only
two phases at the neutral point of the wye connection and no lasts about half a cycle. Modifications to (5) have been made to
current will flow through the neutral. This is derived in [5], account for the effects of remanence by derating the CT, but
which also shows how to calculate the burden when using delta- they are only valid for the first half cycle of the fault [2]. Using
connected CTs. these modifications to size CTs is unnecessarily conservative
RS, the secondary winding resistance of the CT, is specified and often yields impractically large CTs. Be aware that because
on the CT data sheet. The RS value is directly related to the of the random nature of remanence, even a CT that was properly
resistance of the wire and the number of turns and is therefore sized using (5) may still saturate momentarily. This saturation
dependent on the tap for multiratio CTs. will be short-lived and should have little effect on the
ZB STD is the standard burden of the CT and must be adjusted performance of standard relay algorithms.
if the CT is not tapped at its full ratio. In these instances, the Despite the best intentions, there are certain times when the
standard burden must first be multiplied by the ratio of the tap use of (5) to select CTs that will never saturate becomes an
rating to the full rating. For example, for a C800, 2000/5 CT exercise in futility. One such example is on applications near a
tapped at 1200/5, the standard burden is shown in (4). The generator bus. Here, the X/R ratios and fault current magnitudes
resulting C-rating for the tap would be 4.8 • 100 A = C480. are extremely high, and it is usually impossible to avoid
asymmetrical saturation even with the largest CTs.
800 1, 200 Reference [2] recommends selecting the highest practical rating
ZB STD • 4.8 (4)
20 • 5 2, 000 for the CTs and always matching the CTs on the terminal and
neutral sides of the generator to each other (same ANSI voltage
B. CT Transient Performance Analysis
rating, CT ratio, and connected burden). This way, even though
Section II shows that symmetrical fault currents are not the we know the CTs will saturate, they will saturate in the same
only risk for CT saturation. Fault currents with an exponentially way and the saturated waveforms will cancel each other out in
decaying dc offset, caused by the X/R ratio of the system, can the differential calculation. Because not all CTs with the same
produce significant CT saturation. Selecting CTs based only on voltage rating are created equal, it is important to make sure that
symmetrical fault current is not advised because it ignores the both CTs have the same excitation curve, knee-point voltage,
risk of heavy CT saturation when the fault current includes dc and terminal voltage at 10 A of excitation current. See
offset. Section III, Subsection D for an example illustrating this point.
To account for dc offset, we can improve (3) by including Another example of not being able to avoid saturation is in
an extra X/R term, resulting in (5) [5]. This extra term is the low- and medium-voltage switchgear applications, where fault
X/R ratio of the entire Thevenin equivalent of the system, from currents are high and space requirements force the use of small
the source to the fault, through the particular CT. Equation (5) and poorly-rated CTs. Refer to [11] and [12] for selection
only considers dc offset from sinusoidal fault current, not offset criteria for low-voltage applications. For more information on
from nonsinusoidal sources like transformer inrush. selecting CTs for various protection applications, see [1], [2],
Appendix C gives an example of using (5) to analyze [7], [10], [13], and [14].
asymmetrical saturation in a CT.
D. Transient Performance of Different CTs With the
I FAULT ZB R S X
• 1 20 (5) Same Rating
I PRI ZB STD R S R
To illustrate the point discussed in the previous section about
The initial magnitude of the dc offset that occurs is trying to make sure that the terminal and neutral-end CTs on a
determined by the fault incidence angle, and the time it takes generator differential have the same excitation curve, we can
for the dc offset to decay is determined by the X/R ratio of the look at two different C800 CTs manufactured to two different
system. Equation (5) is quite conservative and assumes a worst- designs. Fig. 14 shows two CTs that are both classified as C800
case, completely offset waveform, which is not often the case because they each deliver 800 V to a standard burden of 8 Ω at
in the real world. Any fault other than the worst case will result 100 A secondary current. The construction of the two CTs,
10
18, 000 A 1.2 Ω + 1 Ω Fig. 16 shows the calculated operate and restraint values for
• • ( 25 + 1) =
57.2 (6)
2, 000 A 8 Ω + 1 Ω a differential relay connected to these two CTs. We can see that
the false differential current reaches over 25 A secondary for
We get the following for the CT in Fig. 14b (larger RS): almost 1.5 cycles. This relay would have to have a fairly high
18, 000 A 1.2 Ω + 2 Ω slope ratio of 40 percent to ride through the transient differential
• • ( 25 + 1) =
74.9 (7) current from these two CTs with the same rating.
2, 000 A 8 Ω + 2 Ω
100
Even though the CT in Fig. 14b has more iron (VE is higher),
90
transiently, (5) predicts that it will saturate more severely.
Current (secondary A)
80
70
(a) IST = 110 A RS = 1 Ω IS = 100 A Restraint
60
IE = 10 A 50
40
30
IP VE = 900 V VS = 800 V ZB = 8 Ω
20
10 Operate
0
0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.010
Time (seconds)
(b) IST = 110 A RS = 2 Ω IS = 100 A
Fig. 16. Operate and restraint values from a differential relay connected to
IE = 10 A the CTs in Fig. 14
Fig. 17. Simulation in the “CT Saturation Theory and Calculator” spreadsheet for a C400 CT [15]
Fig. 18. Simulation in the “CT Saturation Theory and Calculator” spreadsheet for a C800 CT [15]
3) Two CTs In addition to these tools, other software exists to model the
The authors of [8] developed a program that simulates the transient behavior of CTs—many of which are described in
transient behavior of two CTs in a differential circuit. The [17].
program was originally written in BASIC programming
F. Mitigating Saturation
language, but has since been converted to an executable
program that can be run on a Windows® operating system If any of the analysis in the previous subsections proves that
(shown in Fig. 20). In addition to plotting the output of the CTs, CT saturation is a concern, there are several practical solutions
the program produces ASCII and COMTRADE files that can that can be used to mitigate the situation. The most obvious
be used to play the signals into a relay for testing. solution is to use a CT with a higher accuracy class, but
sometimes these CTs are simply too large physically and do not
fit in the given space requirements. Another option is to reduce
the CT burden by adding another set of CT cables in parallel.
Halving the burden has the same impact on saturation as
doubling the accuracy class. Another option is to use CT taps
to double the turns ratio. This has an even larger impact—the
same as quadrupling the accuracy class. This is because
doubling the turns ratio results in halving the secondary current
as well as doubling the available voltage at the CT terminals to
drive that current through the connected burden. Whenever the
turns ratio is increased, ensure that the currents the relay
measures during normal operation are still high enough that
sensitivity is not lost.
Fig. 20. Two CTs simulation program
13
Relay Iunsat
0
Isat
Cosine Protection
A/D
Filter Algorithms
when analyzing a relay operation, and always download both the B-phase CT is saturated slightly, and in Fig. 25c, there is
raw and filtered event reports after a fault. severe CT saturation on all three phases.
In addition to whether the event report is raw or filtered, it is
a) 20
important to be aware of the sampling rate of the data in the 15
10 2:IA69
event report. Fig. 23 shows CT saturation error between two
Current
5 2:IB69
CTs that only lasts for a quarter cycle but manages to cause a 0 2:IC69
–5
misoperation [21]. This could easily have been missed if the –10
user was looking at a 4 sample-per-cycle event report. It is –15
important to always download the highest resolution data b) 600
400
possible after a fault. 200 1:IA_A
Current
0 1:IB_A
1:IBW –200 1:IC_A
8,000 –400
1:IBX_NEG
–600
Current (A)
4,000
–800
0 c) 600
400
–4,000 200 1:IA
1:IB
Current
–8,000 0
25.030581 25.040581 25.050581 –200 1:IC
–400
1,400 1:IB_SUM –600
Current (A)
1,000 –800
Time
600
200 Fig. 25. Inrush currents with no CT saturation (a), slight CT saturation (b),
–200 and severe CT saturation (c)
25.030581 25.040581 25.050581
Time (s) 2) Look for Frequency Changes
Depending on the level of CT saturation and how long it
Fig. 23. Difference error from CTs lasting for a quarter cycle
persists, it may not always be as obvious as what we have seen
B. How to Detect Saturation in an Event Report so far. Light saturation, while capable of still causing relay
To determine if CTs have saturated, relay event reports can misoperations, does not always give us the typical sawtooth
be inspected for several known characteristics. waveforms shown previously. Fig. 26 shows a current
waveform from a saturated CT that might not be immediately
1) Look for the Characteristic Waveform obvious. In cases like this, we can use the fact that saturated
The simplest way to detect CT saturation is to look in the CTs output currents rich in harmonics to our advantage. One
raw event data for the characteristic “sawtooth” current way to detect higher-level harmonics is to look for frequencies
waveforms shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 24 shows a CT that saturated above 60 Hz.
and then recovered during a phase-to-phase fault [22]. This We can detect a change in frequency by using time cursors
waveform is very similar to the textbook cases, and CT in event analysis software to create a one-cycle “window” in
saturation should be immediately suspected. the raw event report. The two blue vertical lines in Fig. 26 are
100 one cycle apart in time (with one cycle being based on a 60 Hz
60
nominal frequency). Now, we look at the waveform between
1:ICW2 the two cursors to see if a full cycle of the waveform fits inside
Current (A)
20
that window. In other words, if we start the window at a
–20
negative current peak, does the end of the window fall on
–60
another negative current peak? In Fig. 26, it does, which means
–100
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 the current is a true 60 Hz signal and the CT is not experiencing
Cycles saturation.
Fig. 24. C-phase CT saturates and recovers during a phase-to-phase fault 30,000
20,000
Realize that the currents the relay sees will vary depending 10,000
Current (A)
but does not end on a current peak. It actually ends after a Just like with frequency changes, CT saturation is not the
current peak, which shows that the signal is now more only cause of harmonic content in current waveforms. The
compressed (a higher frequency than 60 Hz) than before. This inrush condition shown in the previous section also generates
could be a sign that the CT is saturating. large amounts of harmonic content that the relay will measure.
30,000
Measuring harmonic content is just one method that can be used
20,000 when trying to determine if a CT has saturated.
10,000
Current (A)
0
1:IC
4) Look for False Residual
–10,000
–20,000
False residual current is one sign of CT saturation that can
–30,000 be found in filtered event reports. CT saturation in any of the
–40,000 three phase CTs throws off the balance between the phases and
–50,000
1 2 3 4 5 creates false residual ground current. Fig. 29 shows a filtered
Cycles event report from a delta-wye transformer after an external
Fig. 27. Frequency is greater than 60 Hz when more than one cycle of data phase-to-phase fault on a downstream feeder [22]. The top
fits in a one-cycle window traces (W1) show the phase and residual currents on the wye
This same technique can be applied to filtered event reports side of the transformer. CT saturation is suspected because we
to a certain extent. When a saturated waveform gets passed would not expect zero-sequence current to exist for a phase-to-
through the cosine filter, there is some distortion in the output phase fault. Also notice how the residual current slowly decays
compared with when a nonsaturated waveform gets passed with time, which corresponds to the CTs coming out of
through. For example, the angle of the filtered current phasor saturation. The bottom traces (W2) show the phase and residual
will start to go in the leading direction. It is important to note currents on the delta side of the transformer. We also suspect
that distortion in a filtered waveform may not be the result of this to be a false residual current because we would not expect
CT saturation—that is just one possible cause. Step changes in zero-sequence current to exist on the high side of the delta
magnitude or current reversals from sequential breaker opening connection for this fault. Note that only unexpected residual
(that result in a step change in angle), and evolving faults can current (calculated by the relay as the sum of all three phase
cause similar results. However, this distortion is a good hint to CTs or wired into a relay input in a residual connection) is a
download and analyze the raw event report and check for CT sign of CT saturation—unexpected neutral current through a
saturation. core-balanced CT is not. Whenever CT saturation is suspected
from filtered event reports, the raw data should be downloaded
3) Look for Harmonic Content to verify.
Another way to detect if a CT has saturated is to look at the
individual harmonics. Asymmetrical saturation produces a 60
IAW1
large amount of even harmonics and symmetrical saturation 20 IBW1
5ICW1
produces mainly odd harmonics [23]. Event analysis software –20
can be used to show the amount of harmonic content in the two –60
10:01:17.615000 AM
–2
one-cycle window where the CT is saturating (Fig. 27). Notice 80
that there is significantly more second-harmonic content in the 40 IAW2
IBW2
waveform when the CT has saturated. 0 5ICW2
–40
a) b) 10:01:17.615000 AM
100 –80
1:IB 12
80 37.58%
1:IB 8 IRW2.Mag
Percent
60 134.4199 (rms)
4.61% 4
120 Hz
40 4.1226 (rms)
Second Harmonic 0 10:01:17.615000 AM
120 Hz
20 Second Harmonic –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 Cycles
0 120 240 360 0 120 240 360
Hz Hz
Fig. 29. False residual current appears when CTs saturate during an external
fault [22]
Fig. 28. Second-harmonic content of current waveform when CT is not
saturated (a) and is saturated (b)
16
5) Differential Applications: Look for and Winding 2 data points, as shown by the black traces
Unmatched Currents in Fig. 31.
Most misoperations of differential applications occur when
CTs saturate during external faults. To detect saturation in 40 IBW1
differential events, we must remember that the differential 20 NEG_IBW2
5
principle is based on the expectation of the current entering a PARTIAL_IBT
0
zone of protection being equal to the current leaving the zone
of protection during normal conditions. Fig. 30 shows a raw –20
Current (A)
IBW1 and ICW1 currents near the 670 ms vertical (orange)
time marker. Although the change looks minor, it was enough
for this relay to misoperate. 60 ICW1
NEG_ICW2
80 40 5
PARTIAL_ICT
IAW1
20
40 IBW1
5
ICW1 0
0 –20
A. Generator Differential Trips During Inrush generator and the differential to be balanced for this external
A utility feed and a bank of backup generators both feed a inrush event. The fact that this is not the case caused the
switchgear bus. Seven 2,500 kW backup generators are differential element to measure false operate current and trip.
connected to the 13.8 kV generator bus along with a load bank 800
breaker, per Fig. 32. During testing, a 3,500 kVA transformer 400
IA87
IB87
is connected to the load bank breaker, the breaker is closed into 0
5IC87
the dead generator bus, and the generators are started. The relay
–400 7:39:07 PM
Current (A)
protecting the first generator to close in trips on its differential
element. 600
IA
200
IB
5IC
–200
–600 7:39:07 PM
Generator Fig. 34. Raw event report recorded when generator relay trips during startup
Switchgear
Recall from Section II that the presence of asymmetrical
fault current can result in CT saturation. This is because of the
dc offset in the primary current causing flux to accumulate in
A1 one direction more than the other, resulting in the CT eventually
Switchgear hitting its positive or negative volt-time area limit. An inrush
waveform (Fig. 34) is harder on CTs than asymmetrical fault
current because all of the currents are monopolar. The C-phase
current, for instance, only allows accumulation of flux in the
Fig. 32. One-line diagram of utility feed and backup generators
positive direction, resulting in hitting the maximum volt-time
area much faster than if the current waveform dropped below
The differential relays for each backup generator are zero for some period of time to allow the CT to partially
connected as shown in Fig. 33. recover.
Generator Fig. 35 shows each phase current from the bus-side CTs
52 Switchgear compared with its corresponding phase on the neutral side. The
A
B
bus-side CT signals have been flipped 180 degrees to account
G
C
for the difference in CT polarity. We can see that the signals
start out completely equal to each other (which is expected) and
then fall away as the neutral CTs saturate. C-phase is the worst
IC IC87 offender, and it is the phase that tripped the relay.
IB IB87 350
IA IA87 250 IA
IA87_NEG
150
Fig. 33. Connections of differential relays on backup generators 50
Fig. 34 shows the raw event report that the differential relay –50
7:39:07 PM
recorded. Notice the difference between the bus-side currents –150
IB
classic, although saturated, inrush waveform (as described 400
IB87_NEG
previously in Section IV, Subsection B), which makes sense 200
Upon investigation, it was found that the CTs in fact were currents remain steady throughout a fault, is an indication of CT
sized the same on both sides of the generator—both 200/5, C20, saturation [22].
intentionally sized to the generator’s full-load ampere rating of
2
150 A. With CTs rated similarly, it is unlikely that one set IOP1
IRT1
would perform so differently than the other. It was then found 1
that the length of the CT secondary leads between the CTs and
the relay were considerably different. The one-way lead length 0
Current (A)
IOP2
IRT2
burden of the neutral-side CTs (2.44 Ω for the neutral side vs. 0.4
0.17 Ω for the bus side) and resulted in the difference in 0
saturation behavior.
The ideal solution to this problem is to match the lead length 1.2
IOP3
burden on both sets of CTs to where they saturate similarly and 0.8 IRT3
balance each other out. Until that could be accomplished, a 0.4
0
temporary measure was taken by forcing the relay into high
–4 –2 0 2 4 6
security mode for a short time during startup, when the Cycles
generator breaker first closed. High security mode was then
programmed to have a higher minimum operate current and a Fig. 37. Filtered differential event shows decreasing operate current over
time
more secure slope setting than the standard settings.
Fig. 38 shows the raw event report. Here we can see that the
B. Transformer Relay Operates During DC Offset
A-phase currents on Winding 1 and Winding 2 have a
In March of 2017, a transformer differential relay significant amount of dc offset at the beginning of the fault.
misoperated on an external A-phase-to-ground fault on the low After about seven cycles, the dc offset goes away and the
side of a 138/69 kV wye-wye autotransformer. The filtered waveforms balance out. Note that this dc offset cannot be seen
event report from this operation is shown in Fig. 36. The relay in the filtered event report because it is removed by the cosine
and CTs are configured such that the taps on both sides are filter. The dc offset itself does not cause the misoperation, but
equal, and thus we would expect the A-phase currents on it does cause the CTs to saturate. The bottom graph in Fig. 38
Winding 1 and Winding 2 to be equal and 180 degrees out of shows the A-phase current on Winding 1 compared with the
phase with each other. We can tell from the waveforms on the inverse of the A-phase current on Winding 2, and it proves that
bottom of Fig. 36 that this is not the case. We would also expect these signals are not equal and 180 degrees out of phase because
the nonfaulted phases to remain balanced, with 120-degree the CTs have saturated. Notice that the period of the event that
separation—but, Fig. 36 shows that this is also not the case. We has the most difference between the current signals in Fig. 38
can suspect CT saturation, but we will not know for sure until corresponds to the period in the event with the highest operate
we look at the raw signals. current in Fig. 37. It is this difference in CT behavior that
10 causes false operate current and results in the relay tripping on
6 IAW1 its differential element. A very similar event is shown in [22]—
2 IBW1
–2
5ICW1 an external phase-to-ground fault on the wye side of a delta-
–6 wye transformer with significant dc offset.
6:19:22.971000 AM
–10
15
15 5 IAW1
IBW1
Current (A)
5 IAW2 5ICW1
IBW2 –5
5ICW2
–5 –15
6:19:22.971000 AM 6:19:22.971000 AM
–15 –25
15 25
IAW1 15 IAW2
IBW2
Current (A)
5 IAW2 5ICW2
5
–5 –5
6:19:22.971000 AM 6:19:22.971000 AM
–15 –15
–3 –1 1 3 5
Cycles 15
IAW1
5 IAW2_NEG
Fig. 36. Filtered event report for external A-phase-to-ground fault
–5
Fig. 37 shows the filtered differential event report. Here, we
–15
see the restraint currents steadily decreasing throughout the 6:19:22.971000 AM
event, while operate currents increase and then decrease. –25
–5 –3 –1 1 3 5
Decreasing operate current over time, while filtered phase Cycles
Several solutions could be implemented to prevent this type B. External Fault Detector Enables High Security Mode
of misoperation. In this case, the utility chose to temporarily When an external fault occurs and causes the CTs to
raise the minimum operate current threshold and slope setting saturate, there is a small window of time when the fault first
in the differential relay. At a later date, they plan to increase the occurs that the CTs have not yet saturated. During this time
taps of the CTs to allow for a higher voltage before saturation period, IRT increases because of the elevated fault current, but
(from 300/5 to 800/5 on the 138 kV side, and from 600/5 to IOP does not. We can use this to our advantage to develop logic
1200/5 on the 69 kV side) and return the slope to its previous that detects an external fault before the CTs have had a chance
setting. The external fault detection algorithm described in the to saturate. When the relay detects a large change in IRT with no
next section would also have prevented this misoperation (or very small) change in IOP, it declares an external fault. This
because restraint current increased in all three phases is shown in Fig. 39. The success of this logic depends on CTs
significantly before the operate current increased. This would providing valid output for some amount of time (2 ms to a half
have put the relay into a more secure mode with a higher slope cycle) [14] [21].
setting and kept it there until the dc offset decayed.
DIO PR
+
∆IOPR DIO P
VII. RELAY ALGORITHMS ACCOUNT FOR SATURATION DIO PP –
200
80 A • There are two types of CT saturation: symmetrical
A/D Output Cosine Filter Peak Filter
150
INST saturation and asymmetrical saturation. Symmetrical
saturation is caused by symmetrical fault currents high
100 in magnitude, while asymmetrical saturation is caused
by fault currents with dc offset.
50
• When a breaker trips during asymmetrical current
Current (A)
IX. APPENDIX A Therefore, the actual secondary current coming out of the
To meet the IEEE C57.13-1993 standard, a CT must not CT must be greater than or equal to 90 percent of what we
exceed 10 percent ratio correction (PRC) [27]. The standard expect it to be. This means that only 10 percent of the expected
defines the following: signal can be lost as error.
• The ratio correction factor (RCF) is the ratio of the IEEE C57.13-2016 states that CTs must have ≤10% ratio
true ratio to the marked ratio. The primary current is error to meet the standard [9]. Ratio error is defined similarly
equal to the secondary current multiplied by the to PRC in IEEE C57.13-1993, but with an added sine term to
marked ratio times the RCF. account for the fact that IE and IS are not exactly in phase for
• The percent ratio correction (PRC) is the difference cases when the connected burden has a resistive component.
between the RCF and unity, expressed in percent. When the connected burden is not purely inductive, IE and IS
We can write the definition of RCF as shown in (10), where cannot simply be added algebraically, and this extra term is
CTR is the marked ratio of the CT. needed for accuracy.
IEEE C57.13-2016 also defines the composite error the
I P / IS same way IEEE C57.13-1993 defines PRC, and it says that this
RCF =
CTR can be used in place of ratio error for ring-type cores of low
(10)
IST reactance. For more on CT measurement errors, see [28].
RCF =
IS For simplicity in this paper, we define ratio error the same
as PRC, as shown in (16).
We can write the definition of PRC as shown in (11).
IE
PRC
= ( RCF − 1) •100 (11) Ratio Error (%) =
IS
•100 (16)
Using the equivalent circuit in Fig. 41 and the definition of Because we are concerned with primary fault current values,
the ANSI voltage rating, we know that the ratio error will not we can incorporate the CT ratio and convert the first term in
exceed 10 percent as long as the secondary terminal voltage VS (27) to primary values. This results in (28).
is less than the secondary terminal voltage rating VSTD, as I FAULT ZB R S
shown in (18). • 20 (28)
I PRI ZB STD R S
VS VSTD (18)
where:
The voltages VS and VSTD are driven by the core excitation IFAULT is the maximum fault current in primary amperes
voltage, VE. Therefore, we can also write the relationship in for a given fault.
(18) as (19), which considers the voltage drop across the IPRI is the primary current rating of the CT (e.g., for a
secondary winding resistance RS. 2000/5 CT, IPRI is 2000.)
VE VE STD (19) ZB is the actual burden of the CT’s secondary circuit,
which includes both the impedance of the connected relay
We can write the definition of VE STD as:
and the impedance of the leads from the CT to the relay.
VE STD 20 • IS RATED • ZB STD R S (20) RS is the internal resistance of the CT secondary winding.
We can write the actual voltage VE as: ZB STD is the standard burden of the CT (e.g., for a C800
CT, the ZB STD is 8 Ω.)
VE IS • ZB R S (21)
Equation (28) can be used to evaluate CT performance for
Therefore, based on the relationship in (19): symmetrical fault currents but should never be used in practice.
(22) This derivation of (28) is shown simply as a basis for (5).
IS • ZB R S 20 • IS RATED • ZB STD R S
Equation (28) is not adequate for analyzing how a CT will
Rearranging terms, we obtain: behave in the presence of (typically asymmetrical) fault current,
IS ZB R S and (5) should always be used in practice. For even better
• 20 (23) accuracy, use a transient modeling program to model CT
IS RATED ZB STD R S
behavior in the time domain.
To make this equation useful, we must write it in terms of Note that the basis for (28) was first introduced in [1]. Later,
the secondary fault current, which is IST in Fig. 41. IST is the in [5], the original equation was adjusted to consider the CT
sum of IS and IE. For the worst case right at the saturation point, secondary resistance RS, resulting in the more accurate analysis
[9] defines the error as 10 percent (IE/IS ≤ 0.1). Using this reflected here.
relationship, we can define:
IS 0.909 • IST (24) XI. APPENDIX C
We can then write (23) as: Equation (5), repeated in (29), is used to analyze CT
saturation resulting from fault current with dc offset.
0.909 • IST ZB R S A C800, 2000/5 CT with RS = 0.5 Ω is connected to a 1 Ω
• 20 (25)
IS RATED ZB STD R S burden (including relay and lead resistance). The system X/R
ratio is 12. What is the maximum primary three-phase fault
If we define IST as the secondary fault current If sec, (25)
current that can be applied to this CT without exceeding the
becomes:
maximum flux density (which is proportional to the volt-time
If sec ZB R S area)?
• 22 (26)
IS RATED ZB STD R S To determine the maximum fault current, set (5) to the
maximum of 20 and solve for IFAULT, as shown in (29) and
We can use (26) to solve for the maximum fault current
(30).
(If sec) that the CT can handle before it goes into saturation. We
can also use it to solve for the maximum burden for a given I FAULT ZB R S X
• 1 20 (29)
fault current. I PRI ZB STD R S R
In development of (26), we assumed an inductive burden.
I FAULT 1 0.5
Therefore, IS and IE are in phase and can be added algebraically • 12 1 20
2000 8 0.5 (30)
to get IST. This assumption also allows us to use the simplified
error equation for ratio error in Appendix A. Using modern I FAULT 17.4 kA
resistive burdens with these simplified equations produces
errors. To account for these errors, a more conservative form of
(19) is used:
If sec ZB R S
• 20 (27)
IS RATED ZB STD R S
23