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The study of these flows in which change in density and temperature are important is
known as compressible fluid flow or gas dynamics (Compressibility effect are
usually important only in gas flow)
Fundamental Assumptions:
1 Gas
1. G is i ttreated
t d as continuous
ti medium.
di (N
(Nott ttrue ffor rarefied
fi d flflow where
h d
density
it iis
very low e.g. flow over spacecraft flying at high altitudes.)
2. No chemical change occur in flow field. (No combustion or ionization of molecules)
3 Gas
3. G is i perfect
f t andd obeys
b perfect
f t gas law:
l p=ρRT RT (R ffor airi = 287 J / kkg K)
4. Specific heats are constant (Not for high Temperature flow OR if ∆T is high) i.e.
gas is calorically perfect.
5 Gravitational,
5. Gravitational Magnetic and Electrical effects are negligible.
negligible (Not for MHD etc etc. flows)
6. Overall effect of viscosity is small.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 1
Streamtube: Streamtube is defined by considering a closed curve drawn in flow.
Series of streamlines will pass through this curve. Further downstream these
streamlines
t li can b
be jjoined
i db by another
th curve. SiSince th
there can b
be NO flflow normall tto
streamline, streamlines passing through curve define “walls” called as streamtube.
1- D flow: It is flow in which reference axis is chosen in such a way that velocity vector
1
has only one component e.g. flow in constant area duct.
Strictly speaking, flow in variable area duct is NOT 1-D;
but can be assumed 1-D if rate of change of area and
curvature are small enough such that one component
of velocity is dominant over other velocity components
e g flow in C-D
e.g. C D nozzle
nozzle. Such flow are referred as
“Quasi-one dimensional” flow.
Co se at o laws
Conservation a s for
o 1- D steady flow:
o
1. Continuity equation:
Since there can be NO mass transfer across streamtube,
m const
AV ( d )( A dA)(V dV )
Neglecting higher VAd AdV VdA 0
order terms
d dV dA
0 (1)
Kuldhir Singh Bhati V A 2
2. Momentum equation:
Net force in x-direction due to pressure and frictional forces acting on control surface is
Fnet m (V dV ) V
Ad dF AVdV
Adp (2)
If effect of friction is neglected, dp
VdV 0 (3)
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 3
This is Euler equation for steady flow. (Bernoulli equation for incompressible flow
can be derived from this.)
V12 V22
h1 q h2 w (h c pT )
2 2
We will restrict our attention to flows in which NO work is done
done.
V12 V22
c pT1 q c pT2 (4)
2 2
Applying this to control volume (shown in figure)
V2 (V dV ) 2
c pT dq c p (T dT )
2 2
c p dT VdV dq (5)
For adiabatic flow,
c p dT VdV 0 (6)
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 4
4. Equation of State:
p RT
Taking logarithm, ln p ln ln T ln R
dpp d dT
Differentiating
Differentiating, (7)
p T
5. Entropy consideration:
5
Entropy places limitation on which flow process is physically possible and which is NOT.
Subtracting equation 3 from 5,
dp
c p dT Tds
dT dp
ds c p R (8)
T p
T2 p2
Integrating, s2 s1 c p ln R ln (9)
T1 p1
s2 s1 T2 1 p 2 R
ln ln c p =
Kuldhir Singh Bhati
cp T1 p1 1 5
1
s 2 s1 T 2 p1
ln
cp T1 p 2
1
T2 p 2 p2 1
For isentropic flow ∆s=0,
T1 p1 p1 2
p2 2
(1 0 )
p1 1
p
co n st (1 1 )
This is true only if flow is also adiabatic (apart from being frictionless) i.e. for isentropic
flow because in momentum equation frictionless flow was already considered.
Example 1:
Consider isothermal flow of air through variable area duct. At certain section velocity,
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 6
pressure and temperature are given as 200 m/s, 25°C and 120 kPa respectively. If
velocity is decreasing at this section at rate of 30% per meter, find dp/dx, ds/dx & dρ/dx.
A
Ans: B
By equation
ti 55,
c p dT VdV dq Tds
ds V dV
For isothermal ∆T=0
dx T dx
It is given dV V ds 0.3V 2
0.3
0 3
dx dx T
From equation 3
3, dp
p dVV pV dV
V
V
dx dx RT dx
From
o equat
equation
o 7,, d 1 dpp
dx RT dx
d dA dV
0 (1)
A V
c p dT VdV 0 (6)
dp d dT
((7))
p T
p
const (11)
T
Using equation of state, const
1
24349V 2 1 586.7
V 0.155 m / s
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 15
Example 3:
Air flows through converging diverging duct with inlet area of 5 cm2 and exit area of
3 8 cm2 .At
3.8 At inlet
i l t section
ti V,V p and
d T are 100 m/s,
/ 680 kPkPa & 333K
333K. Fi
Find
dVV,p,ρ & T att exit.
it
Ans:
A1
By continuity, 2 V
2 1
V 1
A2
p2 A1 p1
M 2 RT2 V1 936.2 2
936 2 kg / m s
RT2 A2 RT1
p2 M 2 R
936.2 13404.3 kg / m 2 s c2
T2
By isentropic relation,
T2 1
p2 p1
T1
Substituting this in above equation,
M 2T23 13282812.5 K 3 c3
T2 2 RT2
2673 0.3*38002
1
T2 2*1.3*903.8T2
T2 830 K
4.33
p01 T01 1 2673
p2 T2 830
p01 15823 kPa
Kuldhir Singh Bhati T p2 A 100* (0.15) 2 kN 7 kN 18
Effect of area on flow velocity:
From equation 16,
dA dV
( M 1)
2
A V
Because A and V are positive
positive,
Area Velocity
M<1 I
Increases D
Decreases Diff
Diffuser
(Subsonic) Decreases Increases Nozzle
M>1 Increases Increases Nozzle
(Super Decreases Decreases Diffuser
sonic)
dA A
( M 1)
2
dV V
If M = 1, dA/dV = 0 i.e . A become maximum or minimum.
dA V 1
A
dV RT V
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 19
Differentiating this w.r.t. V,
d2A 1 1 A V2 A
A 2 2 1 ( M 1) 2 0
2
RT V V RT
2
dV V
Because second derivative is positive,
positive Area will be minimum at M = 1
1.
V aM
Taking log and differentiating,
dV da dM
(30)
V a M
By equation 13 & 15,
dT 2 dV
( 1) M (31)
T V
1 2 dV dM
1 2 M V M
Multiplying this with equation 16,
1 2 dA dM
1 2 M A ( M 1) M
2
(32)
a 1
sin
u M
There will be jumps in values of
flow variable when flow reaches cone.
Cone is therefore termed as conical Mach wave.
This result is sometimes used in measurement of Mach no. of gas flow.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 26
*Speed of sound:
Speed of sound is the rate of propagation of infinitesimal pressure pulse through a still
fl id It iis a th
fluid. thermodynamic
d i property
t off a flfluid.
id
Ratio of flow velocity to speed of sound is important dimensionless number known as
Mach number. M < 1 ; Subsonic flow
M ~ 1 ; Transonic flow
V
M M > 1 ; Supersonic flow
a M > 5 ; Hypersonic flow
p1 1 1
1
p 2 2 ( 1) M 12 1
p1 2 ( 1) M 22
This is same as equation 22. Hence it is not necessary to consider momentum equation
in 1-D steady isentropic flow, once you are considering energy equation and equation of
state because momentum equation was already used to derive isentropic relations.
Stationary shock wave is one which is not moving relative to coordinate system used.
Continuity
m 1V1 A 2V2 A ((38))
V1 2
V2 1
Momentum p1 A p2 A m (V2 V1 )
p1 p2
Using eq 38, p1 p2 1V1 (V2 V1 ) V1V2 V 2
(39)
1
1
p1 p2
p1 p2 2V2 (V2 V1 ) V V1V2
2
(40)
Adding eq 39 & 40
2
2
1 1
V V ( p1 p2 )
2 2
(41)
1 2
2 1
V12 R p1 V22 R p2
(42)
2 1 1 R 2 1 2 R
2 p1 p2 1 1
( p1 p2 )
Multiplying by ρ2/p1
1 1 2 1 2
2 2 p2 p2 2
1 1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati
1 1 p1 p1 1 35
Rearranging,
2 2 2 p2 p2 p2 2
1 1
1 1 1 p1 p1 p1 1
2 p2 2 2 p2
1 1 1
1 p1 1 1 p1
1 p2 1 p1
1
V1 2 1 p1 p2 1 p2
Using eq 38 = (43)
V2 1 1 p2 p1 1 p2
1 p 1
1 p1
By gas law & eq 43, 1 p2
T2 p2 1
1 p1
(44)
T1 p1 2 1 p1
1 p2
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 36
Ratio p2/p1 is often termed as strength of shock wave (always>1) and equation 43 & 44
as Rankine-Hugoniot normal shock wave relations.
B equation
By ti 9 9,
T2 p2
s2 s1 c p ln R ln
T1 p1
1 p2 1
p1
Using equation 44
s2 s1
ln 1 p1 (45)
R p2 1 p1
1 p2
Variation of (s2-s1)/R with p2/p1 is plotted. As
p2/p1>1, s2>s1 i.e. entropy across shock wave
increase. Hence p2/p p1<1 is infeasible.
By equation 44 one can easily see that, for
p2/p1>1 T2/T1>1 (Numerator>Denominator).
Analyzing equation 43 we can say that ρ2/ρ1>1
and V2/V1<1
We have seen that stagnation temperature across shock wave doesn’t change because
flow across it is adiabatic. To see how stagnation pressure is changing consider a
situation:
A l i conservation
Applying ti llaws,
Continuity m 1V1 A 2V 2 A
V1 a1 M 1 2
(46)
V2 a 2 M 2 1
Momentum p1 A p 2 A mV 2 mV
1
p1 p 2 2V 22 1V12
a12 1 a 22 2
Byy equat
equation
o 36, 1V12 2V 22
2 2
a2 2 a2
Dividing by a12/γ, 1 1 M 1
2
2 2 M 2
a1 a1
2
a2
1 1 M 2 1 M 22
1
2
1 1
2 2
a2 a2
Multiplying by (γ-1)/a12, ( 1) M 2 ( 1) M 2
1
2 2
2
a1 a1
2
a2 2 ( 1) M 12
(49)
1
a 2 ( 1)
1)MM 2
2
2 2
Using equation 48, M 2 1 M 2 ( 1)) M 12
2
1
1
M 1 M 22
2
( 1) M 2
2
( 1)( M 22 M 12 ) 2 M 12 M 22 2 0 M 2 M1
2 M 12 ( 1)) M 22 ( 1)) M 12 2
2 ( 1) M 12
M2
2
(50)
2 M 1 ( 1)
2
2
p2 2 T2 2 a2
p1 1 T1 1 a1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 45
Using equation 47,
p 2 1 M 12 1 M 12
p1 1 M 2 2
2 ( 1) M 12
1
2 M 12 ( 1)
1 M 12 2 M 12 ( 1)
2 M 12 ( 1) 2 ( 1) M 12
1 M 12 2 M 12 ( 1))
2 M 12 1 2 M 12 M 12
1 M 12 2 M 12 ( 1)
(1 M 12 ) 1 M 12
p 2 2 M 12 ( 1)
(52)
p1 1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 46
p2 2 T2
By gas law,
p1 1 T1
2 M ( 1) 2
2 2 M 1
2
( 1)
2 ( 1) M 2
1
Using eq 51 & 52, 1
1 1 ( 1) 2 M 12
2 ( 1) M 12
((53))
1 2 ( 1)M 12
Applying concept from example 2, flow is isentropic on either side of shock wave.
p02 p02 / p 2 p 2
p01 p01 / p1 p1
2 ( 1)M 22 1 p 2
Using
g equation
q 25, 2
2 ( 1) M 1 p1
Using equation 52, 2 ( 1) M 22 1 2 M 12 ( 1)
2
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 2 ( 1) M 1 1 47
Using equation 50,
2 ( 1) M 12 1
p02 2 ( 1) 2 M 2 ( 1) 2 M 2 ( 1)
1 1
p01 2 ( 1) M 12 1
4 M 2 2( 1) 2( 1) ( 1) 2 M 2 1 2 M 2 ( 1)
1 1
1
2 ( 1) M 1 2 M 1 ( 1)
2 2
1
( 1) M 1
2 2 1
2 M 1 ( 1)
2
2 ( 1) M 1 2 M 1 ( 1)
2 2
1
1
p02 ( 1) M 12 1 2 1 1
2 M1
2
((54))
p01 2 ( 1) M 1 1 1
Equation 50 to 54 give property ratio across shock wave in term of upstream Mach no.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 48
From example 5,
s2 s1 p02
R ln
l
R p01
Using equation 54,
1
s2 s1 2 1 ( 1) M 1
1 2 1
R ln M1
2
2 (55)
R 1 1 2 ( 1)) M 1
This variation is plotted in figure. Since s2-s1>=0, it
follows from figure that M1> >=11. From eq 50
50, M2<1 ii.e.
e
flow is always subsonic downstream & supersonic
upstream of normal shock wave (since 1<γ<2).
For
o st
strong
o g sshock
oc wave,
a e, M2>>1. Eq q 50 to 53 g
give:
e
(by substitution 1/M2=0)
1 T 2 ( 1) M 2
M 22 , 2 1
,
2 T1 ( 1) 2
p2 2 M 12 2 1
,
p1 1 1 1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 49
Weak shock wave: Since for shock wave to exist, M1>=1. Hence limiting case of shock
wave will that in which M1->1. Substituting this in equation 50, 51, 52 & 55 we get M2->1,
T2~T
T1, p2~ p1, s2~s1 i.e.
i iin weakk shock
h k case flflow iis iisentropic
t i across th
the shock.
h k
1 1
Using eq 20 & 36 in 46, M 1 a2 T2 1 T2 T2 1
M 2 a1 T1 T1 T1
1
T0
Using isentropic relations (eq 18),
1 1
p1
R p0 p1
V1 2c pT0 1 2 1
p0 1 0 R p0
1
2 p0 p1
V1 1 (56)
1 0 p0
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 52
Using this eq in continuity: 1
1
1 p1 2 p0 p1
m 0 1 1 0
AV A1 1
0 p0 1 0 p0
1
2
2 p1 p1
m A1 p0 0 1 (57)
1 p0 p0
This give mass flow rate in terms of pressure, area of a section and stagnation condition.
Since mass flow rate is constant in steady state, writing eq 57 for two different sections:
1 1
2
2
2 p1 p1
2 p2 p2
A1 p0 0 1 A2 p0 0 1
1
p0 p0 1 p0 p0
Convergent Nozzle:
Consider the following figure. If back pressure pb is initially equal to supply pressure p0,
there will be no flow through nozzle. As back pressure pb is decreased, subsonic flow
starts.
sta ts Till Me<1,, p
pressure
essu e at e
exitt p
plan
a pe iss equal
equa to pb a
and
d
reduction in pb produce increase in mass flow rate.
When pb is reduced to critical value p* given by equation 59,
exit Mach No. Me=1. Further reduction in pb has no effect on
pe ,Me and mass flow rate & nozzle is said to be chocked.
However expansion from pe to pb happen outside the nozzle.
Why reduction in pb has no effect on mass flow rate once exit Mach No. reaches unity? It
is because effect of changes in pb are propagate up into nozzle at sonic speed w.r.t. fluid.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 56
Hence once Me=1, effect of changes in pb cannot propagate up into nozzle. This mean
that reduction in pb (below p*) is not “sensed” by nozzle. Therefore, mass flow rate does
nott change.
h We
W have
h two
t cases:
a) Me<1 (pb > p*)
Velocity at exit and mass flow rate are given by equation 56 & 57 i.e.
p e pb
1
2 p 0 p e
Ve 1
1 0 p0
1
2
2 pe
pe
m Ae p0 0 1
1 0 0
p p
b)) Me=1 (pb <= p
p*))
pe p *
pe ,Ve and mass flow rate are given by equation 59 to 61.
Convergent-Divergent Nozzle:
As pb is varied, four separate flow regime can be identified.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 57
a) If back pressure pb is initially equal to p0, there
will be no flow through nozzle.As back pressure pb
i d
is decreased,d subsonic
b i flflow continue
ti till th
throatt
pressure pt>p*.Mass flow rate increases when pb is
Decreased. Because nozzle is designed for sonic
flow at throat
throat, area of throat will be equal to critical
area A*. Equation 58 gives,
1
pt
1 1
Ae pt 0
p
*
1
(63)
A pe pe
1
0
p
b)) If pb is further reduced, pt=p*.
p Byy equation
q 63,
1 1 1
Ae pb crit pb crit 2 1 1
1 ( p e pb crit )
A* p0 p 0 1 1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 58
Mach no. at throat will reach unity but diverging section will still be operating as diffuser.
Further reduction in back pressure will not be able to effect upstream condition and
mass flow
fl rate.
t Nozzle
N l iis, th
therefore,
f chocked
h k d once bbackk pressure iis ddecreased d tto pb crit.
c) As back pressure is reduced below pb crit, region of supersonic flow start developing
downstream of throat
throat. Because back pressure is still high enough
enough, this region of
supersonic flow is terminated by normal shock wave. With reduction in back pressure,
shock wave move down the diverging portion of nozzle.
d) Eventually, pb drop to value at which shock wave is on exit plane of nozzle. Flow in
nozzle is now isentropic throughout. If pe & pb are pressure before and after shock wave,
pe can be found using isentropic relation (eq 62):
p0 p0 1 2 Ae
Once pe is known, Me can be obtained by this relation:
1
1
pe Te 1 2
1 Me
0
p T0 2
i.e.
1
2 p0
Me 1
1 pe
pb can be calculated from Normal shock result
e) With decreasing pb, pe remain
unchanged
g but shock wave move outside
the nozzle. Compression from pe to pb
take place through series of oblique
shock waves outside the nozzle and
nozzle is said to be “over-expanded”.
1 p1 1 p1
N1 2 p2 1 p2 T 1 p2
(96) and 2 (97)
N 2 1 p1 1
p2 T1 1 p2
1 1
p1 p1
From velocity diagram,
i
N1 V1 sin
N 2 V2 sin( )
Substituting this in equations 93 to 95, we get equation identical to normal shock
equations except that V1sinβ & V2sin(β-δ) appear in place of V1 and V2 respectively.
Hence oblique
q shock relation in term of Mach no are obtained from equation
q 50 to 53 by
y
replacing M1 by M1sinβ and M2 by M2sin(β-δ) .
Further it was proved using entropy consideration that for normal shock p2/p1>=1. Using
equation 52,
p2 2 M 1 ( 1)
2
1
p1 1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 63
2 M 12 ( 1) 1
2 M 12 2
M1 1
ii.e.
e upstream conditions has to be supersonic if shock wave appear
appear. For oblique shock
this condition is
M 1 sin 1
1
90 sin 1
M1
For minimum shock wave angle β, shock wave is mach wave as p2=p1.
Now let us see how δ changes between these two limits. From velocity diagram;
N1 N2
tan & tan( )
L1 L2
Using this and equation 93,
tan( ) 1
X (let )
tan 2
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 64
tan tan
X tan
1 tan tan
tan tan X tan X tan 2 tan
(1 X ) tan (1 X tan 2 ) tan
((1 X ) tan
tan
1 X tan 2
2 cot ( M 12 sin 2 1)
tan (98)
2 M 1 ( cos )
2 2
For limiting case of β i.e. 90° and sin-1(1/M1), there is no turning of flow.
Lookingg at p
plot one can say y that there is maximum angleg throughg which g gas can be
turned at given M1. For flow over body involving greater angle than this, a detached
shock occur which is curved in general. If a body involving a given turning angle,
accelerate from a low to a high Mach number, shock can be detached at low Mach and
become attached at higher Mach. If δ< δmax there are two possible values of β at given
M1. Solution giving larger β is termed as ‘strong shock’ solution.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 65
Example 7:
Air is flowing over a wedge. Mach no, pressure and temperature in air stream are 3,
50 kP
kPa and d -20
20 °C respectively.
ti l If wedge
d iincluded
l d d angle
l iis 4° which
hi h llead
d tto th
the
formation of an oblique shock wave, find the Mach number, pressure and temperature in
the flow behind the shock wave.
Ans: Solving equation 98 iteratively for M1=3 and δ=4
δ=4°,
We obtain weak shock solution β=22.54°.
M N 1 M 1 sin 11.15
15
From normal shock table
MN2=0.8751, p2=68.82 kPa, T2=277.4 K
i ( )
M N 2 M 2 sin(
M 2 M N 2 sin( ) 2.752
2 ( 1) M 2
sin 2
M 2 sin ( )
2 2 1
2 M 12 sin 2 ( 1)
p2 2 M 12 sin 2 ( 1)
p1 1
From M2 and δ, determine M3 and p3/p2 .In real fluids, boundary layer exist on wall where
velocity start from zero. Hence flow is subsonic adjacent to wall and cannot sustain
pressure discontinuities due to shock
shock. This cause spreading out of pressure distribution
distribution.
This interaction can also cause local separation bubble in boundary layer.
Another
ot e popointt co
concerning
ce g reflection
e ect o o of sshock
oc wave
a e is
s
that for a given M1 there is maximum angle through
which shock wave can turn flow and this angle δmax
decreases with Mach no. Therefore it is p possible for
a situation to arise that δmax for M2 is less than angle
required to bring flow parallel to wall. In such case
Mach reflection occur near the wall.
1 1 1 2
tan ( M 1) tan 1 M 2 1
1 1
The value for θ are listed in isentropic tables. To calculate the flow change produced by
Prandtl-Meyer expansion adopt the following procedure:
1. Find
d θ co
corresponding
espo d g to M1. This s is
s equ
equivalent
a e t to assu
assumingg tthat
at tthe
e initial
t a flow
o was
as
generated by an expansion around hypothetical corner from a Mach no. of 1 (reference
Mach no) to M1.
2. θ2= θ1+δ
3. Find downstream Mach no. M2 corresponding to this value of θ2.
4. Any other downstream property is obtained by noting that expansion is isentropic.
5. Boundaries of expansion wave is calculated by noting that they are Mach lines i.e.
M1 M2
c p dT VdV dq c p dT0
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 73
“Equation of state” is given by equation 7:
dp d dT
p T
Using equations 100 & 101 in this:
V dV dV dT
p V T
dT dV V dV
T V RT
dT T 1 M 2 dV
V
Using this in energy equation
V2 dV
dq c p T 1 M 2
c pT
V
d c p T 1 M
dV
dq 2
c p dT0
V
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 74
If heat is added at M<1, velocity increases while at M>1 heat addition cause decrease
in velocity. As dT0 has same sign as dq, T0 is maximum at M=1 as shown in below figure.
T0 is maximum at M2=1.
1 M 2 2
T 0 m ax 1 1
T 01 2(1 ) M 12 1 ( 1) M 12 / 2
1 M 2 2
*
T 1 1
0
T 01 ( ) M 12 1 ( 1)) M 12 / 2
2(1
Stared values (M=1) are taken as reference value.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 76
Adiabatic flow in duct with friction:
Effect of viscosityy has been neglected
g in precedingg discussion. This is often adequate
assumption when dealing with flow through nozzle or short duct. However for long duct
effect of fluid friction at wall can be dominant. Friction cause pressure drop along flow
direction. This cause density change in compressible flow and hence velocity change.
Dividing by ρAV2:
dp w P dV
dx
V 2
V A
2
V
Using a2=γp/ρ
dV 1 dp w P
d 0
dx (64)
V M p V A
2 2
d dV
0 (1)
V
c p dT VdV 0 (4)
dp d dT
(7)
p T