REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN TO BUROCODE 2REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN to Eurocode 2 February 2012‘This module is preliminary edition and is not officially published by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). Itis intended for internal use by civil engineering students in UTM studying structural design. Constructive suggestions from readers for improving this module in any manner will be warmly appreciated. @2012 by Mohamad Salleh Yassin & Ramli Abdullah All right reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or bby any means without prior permission in writing from the authors. iePREFACE ‘This module is written primarily for students on civil engineering undergraduate courses to assist them to understand the principles and methods of design of reinforced concrete structures. This module set cut design theory and illustrates the practical applications by the inclusion as many useful examples as possible ‘The contents of this module conform to the latest Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures (EN 1992: 2004) of the European Committee of Standardization. Eurocode 2, which consists of four parts also adopt the limit state principles similar to previous British Stancard BS 81/0. This module refers primarily o part lof Eurcode 2, dealing with general rules for buildings, Eurocode 2 must be used in conjunction with other European Standards including Eurocode 0: Basis of structural design that deals with analysis and Eurocode I: Actions on structures that covers loadings. This module has thirteen chapters, which cover the fundamental topics in reinforced eonerete design, generally taught in a first course in B. Eng. (Civ) curriculum in Malaysian universities. ‘Although it des contain necessary information required to face examination, the emphasis here is on conceptual clarity and strength in fundamental. The students is encouraged to raise questions, to relate to field experience, to develop a ‘structural sense’, to appreciate proper ‘detailing’, to analyze results, and to synthesize knowledge. The students also urged to consult all other possible sources of reference to obtain a fll and thorough understanding of the subjects express my gratitude to all, including colleagues, students, friends and family members, who contributed in making this module possible, I welcome suggestions from readers for improving this module in any manner. May Allah forgive me for any error in this humble work and may He bless our effort with mercy and acceptance. Mohamad Salleh Yassin February, 2012CONTENTS Preface t Notation vii 1 INTRODUCTION 11 Reinforced Concrete \ 12. Structural Design 2 13 Project Procedure 2 14 Reinforced Concrete Structures 4 13 Code of Practice 5 U6 Design Lite 6 17 it State Design 7 18 Design Situations 8 19 Actions: 8 1.9.1 Design Action 1.92 Combination of action 1.10 Materials Strength u 1.10.1 Conerete 1102 Reinforcing steel 1.103 _ Design strength LIL Stress-Strain Relation b LiL Concrete 1.11.2 Reinforcing Steel 1.12 Behaviour of Beams in Bending 4 1.13 Basie Assumption in Reinforced Concrete Design 15 1.14 Distribution of Stesses and Strains 16 1.15. Types of Failure 1s Problems 9 2 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE 2.1 Introduction 2 22 Rectangular Section 21 2.2.1. Singly reinforced section 22.2 Doubly reinforced section Stress in compression steel Moment redistribution Derivation of equation 22.6 Design Procedure for Rectangular Section 23 Flanged Section 28 23.1 Analysis of section 33.2 Design procedure for flanged section Examples M Problems 3 —3 DESIGN FOR SHEAR 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Shear in a Homogeneous Beam 3.3. Design Method 34 The Diagonal Compressive Strut 3.5. The Vertical Shear Reinforcement 3.6 Additional Longitudinal Force 3.7 Design Procedure 3.8 Shear Between The Web and Flanged of a Flanged Section 3.9 Design Procedure 3.10 Section Not Requiring Design Shear Reinforcement Examples Problems 40 41 42 DEFLECTION AND CRACKIN Introduction Deflection 4.1.1 Limiting span to depth ratio Cracking, Examples Problems 5 DURABILITY AND DETAILING REQUIREMENTS 5.0 Introduction 5.1 Concrete Cover 52 Minimum & Maximum Area of Reinforcement 53 Spacing of Reinforcement 54 Curtailment and Anchorage of Reinforcement 3.5. Lap in Reinforcement Problems 6 61 62 63 63 64 DESIGN OF BEAMS Introduction Preliminary Size of Beam Estimation of Actions ‘Simply Supported Beams Continuous Beams 45 45 46 47 47 48 48 so 30 2 3 61 61 6 66 68 69 69 B 4 7 B 2» 2» 80 81 8365 64.1 Load arrangements 64.2 Method of Analysis Moment Redistribution Examples Problems DESIGN OF SLABS 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Design Procedure 72.1 Analysis 722 Design of flexural reinforcement 7.2.3 Shear 72.4 Deflection 725 Cracking 7.26 Detailing 73. Design of Solid Slabs 73.1 One-way spanning slab 73.2. Twoeway spanning slab Examples Problems, 8 DESIGN OF STAIRS 8.1. Introduction 82 Types of Stair 83 General Design Considerations Examples Problems 9 9. FRAME ANALYSIS Introduction 9.2 Types of Frames 9.3. Methods of Analysis 9.4 Actions and Combination of Actions 9.5 Analysisof Frames for Lateral Loads 9.6 Calculation of Wind Load Examples Problems 87 88 122 128 138 158 159 160 161 164 183 185 187 187 189 191 191 194 2381 0 DESIGN OF COLUMNS 10.1 Introduction 241 10.2 Classification of Columns 241 10.2.1 Braced and unbraced columns 10.2.2 Slender and non- slender column 10.2.3 Slenderness ratio 10.2.4 Effective length of column 10.2.5 Limiting slenderness ratio 10.3 Area and Number of Reinforcement 246 10.4 Requirements for Links 246 10.5 Axial load and moment in column 248 10.6 Design Moments 248 10.7 Design of Longitudinal reinforcement 251 10.8 Biaxial Bending 253 Examples. 256 Problems 204 1 1 DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS 11.1 Introduction 215 11.2 Types of Foundation pie 11.3. General Design Considerations 278 114 Design of Pad Footing 278 ILS Design of Pile Foundation 282 Examples 287 Problems 318 1 2 DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS 12.1 Introduction 319 122 Types of Retaining Walls 319 123 Analysis and Design 322 123.1 Stability Analysis 12.3.2 Element Design and Detailing Examples 326 Problems 333vi 13 INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 13.1 Principles 13.2. Method of Prestressing 82.1 Pre-tensioned 8.2.2 _ Post-tensioned 13.3 Materials 83.1 Concrete 83.2 Tendon 13.4 Prestressing System and Equipment 13.5 Applications 13.6 Advantages and Economic of Prestressed Concrete 13.7 Section Properties, Notations and Sign Conve 13.8 Basie Theory 13.9 Stress Distribution 13.10 Basic Inequalities 13.11 Section Modulus 13.12 Limitation of Concrete Stress 13.13 Losses of Prestress 13.14 Design Procedure Examples Problems References Appendix 335 336 351 351 352 357NOTATION ‘Accidental action Cross-sectional area of conerete Cross-sectional area of reinforcement Cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement Overall width ofa cross-section Width of the web on T. Tor L beams Effective depth Eccentricity Compressive strength of concrete Design strength of concrete Characterste strenath of eonerete Mean tensile strength of concrete Tensile strength of reinforcement Characteristie tensile strenath of reinforcement Yield strength of reinforcement Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement Design yield strength of reinforcement Design yield strength of shear reinforcement Overall depth of a cross-section Radius of gyration Spacing of the reinforcement Strength reduetion factor for concrete cracked in shear Uniform loading ‘Neutral axis depth Lever arm of internal forces "Yong modulus of conerete Initial value of modulus elasticity Secant modulus of elasticity of conerete Young modulus of strand Design value of modulus of elasticity of reinforcing steel Second moment of area of conerete section Second moment of area for composite section Length of span Bearing length Moment due to loading Bending moment under the action of the unit point load Moment due to self weight and slab weight Moment due to self weight Bending moment due to prestressing force Moment due to service load Loss in prestressing force Prestressing force Remaining prestressing force Prestressing force First moment of area for beam section First moment of area for composite section ‘The maximum shear force ‘The design shear resistance of the section without shear reinforcement Ultimate dead load acting on beam Section moduli for bottom of the member Section modulus for bottom fibre00, to) by eeu uk Bottom section modulus for composite sect Section moduli for top ofthe member Section modulus for top fibre ‘Top section modulus for composite section ‘Top section modulus for beam Creep coefficient Final value of creep coefficient Short term losses factor “Transmission length coefficient Transmission length coefficient Long term losses factor Shrinkage strain Ultimate compressive strain inthe concrete Characteristic sain of enforcement or pressing sel a ‘maximum load Reinforcement ratio for longitudinal reinforcement Compressive stress in the conerete from axial load or prestressing “Tendon stress just after release ‘Nominal diameter of tendonIntroduction | 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Reinforced Concrete Reinforced concrete is one of the principal materials use in many civil engineering application such as the construction of buildings, retaining walls, foundations, water-retaining structures, highways and bridges. It is a composite material, consis:ing of steel reinforcing bars embedded in conerete. These ‘two materials have complementary properties. Concrete, on the one hand, has high compressive strength but low tensile strength. Steel bars, on the other, can resist high tensile stresses but will buckle when subjected to comparatively low compressive stresses. Steel is much more expensive than concrete. By providing steel bars predominantly in those zones within a concrete member which will be subjected to tensile stresses, an economical structural material can be produced which is both strong in compression and strong in tension. In addition, the concrete provides corrosion protection and fire resistance to the more vulnerable embedded steel reinforcing bars, Atypical reinforced concrete element is illustrated in Figure 1.1. The tensile strength of conerete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength. Reinforcement is designed to carry these tensile forces, which are transferred by bond between the interfaces of the two materials. If this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the concrete and there will not be a composite action, Thus reinforced conerete members should be detailed so that the concrete can be well compacted around the reinforcement during construction, Figure 1 Composite action of ‘concrete and steel Concrete_— 2 | introduction Structural Design iructural design is @ process of determination of reliable structural system, selection of suitable se etermination of optimum member sizes for the structure to be built The aim of materia Gesign isto ensoe thatthe structure will perform satisfactorily during its design fe. The rneria whieh the stracture should satisfy may be summarized as follows; 1. Fitness for purpose - The arrangement of spaces, spans, ceiling height, access, and traffic Tow must complement the intended use. The structure should fit its environment and be aesthetically pleasing. safety and reliability ~ A structure must be strong enough to safely support all antiipated Joadings and it must not defleet, overturn, tlt, vibrate or erack in a manner that impairs its usefulness, 3, Beonomy ~The overall cost of the structure should not exceed the client's budgets. The {sstener should take into account not only the cost of materials, but also the buildabity the construction time, the eost of temporary structures and the cost of maintenance. 44, Maintainability — A structure should be designed to require a minimum of maintenance and to be able to be maintained in a simple fashion. Project Procedure Reinforced concrete construction project is an outcome of collaborative venture involving the client, aainaererseh the structural engineer and the contractor. Other specialists may also have to be consulted, wih regard to soil investigation, water supply, sanitation, fie protection, transportation, venilafon, wi onditining, acoustics, electrical services, etc. Typically, a construction project involves three phases as follows; 1. Planning phase ~The planning normally carried out by the architect to determine the rangement and layout ofthe building to meets the client's requirements with due regard 10 aesthetic, environmental and economic: considerations. 2. Design phase ~ Once the building form and arrangements have been approved, the details of the project have to be worked out by various consultants, In the case of structural fnuineer/eonsultant the tasks involved are (). Seletion ofthe most appropriates structural Spstem and idealization of the structure into frames and elements. (i). Estimation of Joading Gin Analysis to determine the maximum member forces i.e moments, shears, torsion ete iy) Design of sections and reinforcement arrangements forall structural elements. (¥), Production of arrangement and detail drawing and bar schedules. Construction phase ~ The plans and design conceived on paper get translated into reality. Goncture may be well-planned and well-designed, but it also has 0 be well-built, The esponsibility fr this not only les with the contractor who is entrusted with the execution, but false with the construction engineers who undertake supervision on behalf of the consultants ‘The summary ofthe design process and project procedure may be illustrated by Figure 1-2 and 3 respectively.Introduction | 3 CLIENT / PROJECT ARCHITECT MANAGER ro yp yy « Determine the | ‘arrangement and layout ofthe structure fo meet the clients requirements 1 Produce architecture drawings QUANTITY SURVEYOR STRUCTURAL ENGINEER + Determines the best structural systems or forms fo bring the architect's concept Into being + Analysis and design the stuctre + Produce the structural drawings + Prepare bil o ‘quantities, specification and contract documents, Design Steps: i, Idealization of the structure into frames and elements a ii, Estimation of loads CONTRACTOR iii, Analysis to determine the ‘moments and forces + Construct the structure under the iv. Design of elements supervision of engineers and v. Production of detail drawings architects. and bar schedules. Figure 1.2: Design processnn EEE 4 | Imroducton Project Manager / Client { Architect | |_| octal ana Mechanical | Cnt ena ictal eee Quantity Surveyor leery | coneatr Prt Engine, Can of Work, ‘Ste Supevaor,Conewacion woes). Figure 1.3: Project procedure 1.4 Reinforced Conerete Structures Reinforced concrete structures consist of a series of individual members that interact to support the Toads placed on the structure, The complete building structure can be broken down into the following elements; 1. Beams horizontal members carrying lateral loads 2. Slabs horizontal plate elements carrying lateral loads 3. Columns: vertical members carrying primarily axial loads but generally Subjected to axial load and moment 4. Walls vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or in-plane loads 5. Foundations: pads or strips supported directly on the ground that spread loads from columns or walls to the ground. 6. Stairs plate elements consists ofa flight of steps, usually with one or more landings provided between the floor levels. The elements listed above are illustrated in Figure 1.4 which shows typical cast-in-situ reinforced concrete building construction,Introduction | 5 Non-suspendd DF ground Moor slab Figure 1.4: Reinforced conerete building elements 15 Code of Practice Code of Practice is a document that gives recommendations for the design and construction of structures. It contains detailed requirements regarding loads, stresses, strength, design formulas and methods of achieving the required performance of completed structure. The codes have evolved fom the collective wisdom of expert structural engineers, gained over the years. These codes are periodically revised to bring them in line with current research, and often current trends. The codes serve at least four distnet functions. Firstly, they ensure adequate structural safety, by specifying certain essential minimum requirements for design, Secondly, they render the task of the designer relatively simple; often, the result of sophisticated analyses are made available in the form of a simple formula or chart. Thirdly, the codes ensure a measure of consistency among different designers. Finally, they have some leval vai liability due to structural failures that are caused by inadequate supervision, faulty material and construction The design procedures, described in this module, conform to the following Eurocode (EC) published by European Committe for Standardization EN 1990: Eurocode - Basis of structural design EN 1991: Eurocode 1- Actions on structures EN 1992: Eurocode 2-Design of concrete structures6 | Introduction ‘The EN Standards are adopted as Malaysian Standard (MS) by Department of Standards Malaysia. ‘The identical Malaysian Standards are, MS EN 1990: Eurocode - Basis of structural design MS EN 1991: Eurocode 1- Actions on structures MS EN 1992: Eurocode 2- Design of concrete structures ‘These Malaysian Standards shall be used together with Malaysia National Annex to Eurocode which published in a separate document to fulfill Malaysia requirements. Eurocode 2 (EC2) applies to the design of buildings and civil engineering works in plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete, EC2 comes in several parts as shown in Table 1.1 ‘Table 1.1: Scope of Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Eurocode 2 Title EN 1992 Part I-1 General rules and rules for buildings. EN 1992 Part 1-2 General rules - Structural fire d EN 1992 Part 2 Concrete Bridges - Design and detailing rules EN 1992 Part 3 Liquid retaining and containment structures 16 Design Life ‘The design working life for a structure is given in EN 1990: Cl. 2.3. The Malaysian values for design life as present in The Malaysian National Annex to Eurocode are shown in Table 1.2. ‘Table 1.2: Indicative design working life Design working | Indicative design a life category | working life (years) i 1 10 ‘Temporary structures 2 101030 Replaceable structural parts e.g. gantry girders, bearings a 151025 Agricultural and similar structures 4 30 Building structures & other common structures F = Monumental buildings structures, bridges, and other civil engineering structures (Source: Table NAL MS EN 1990: National Annes)Introduction | 7 1.7 Limit State Design Design method discussed in Eurocode 2 is based on limit state principles. A limit state can be defined as the state of a structure which represents the acceptable limit of an aspect of structural behaviour, The criterion for safe design is the structure should not become unfit for use i. that it should not reach a limit state during its intended life, The two principle types of limit state are the ultimate limit state and deals with the strength and stability of the structure under the ‘maximum design load it is expected to carry. This implies that no part or whole of the structure should collapse, overturn or buckle under any combination of design load. The ‘ultimate limit states are divided into the following categories; EQU Loss of equilibrium of the structure STR_ Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural members GEO Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground FAT Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members 2. Serviceability Limit State — deals with the conditions beyond which specified service ‘requirements are no longer met such as excessive deflection and cracking, Other limit states which may be reached included considerations of durability, vibration, and fire resistance of structures. The relative importance of each limit state will vary according to the nature of the structure. For reinforced conerste structure the normal practice isto design for ultimate limit stat, check for serviceability and take all necessary precaution to ensure durability 1.8 Design Situations ‘The following design situations are normally considered in non-seismic zones, 1. Persistent situations which refer to the conditions of normal use. 2. Transient situations which refer to temporary conditions, such as during execution or repair. 3. Accidental situations which refer to exceptional conditions such as during fire, explosion or impact. 19 Actions ‘Action is the EC2 terminology for loads and imposed deformations. EC2 defines an action (F) as a force or load applied to a structure. The characteristic actions are the aetual loads that the structure is designed to carry. These are normally thought of as the maximum loads which will not be exceeded luring the life ofthe structure. In statistical terms the characteristic actions have a 95% probability of not being exceeded, The characteristic actions used in design and defined in EC2 are as follows: 1. Characteristic permanent action Gy, is the self-weight of the structure, weight of finishes, ceilings and services which the variation in magnitude with time is negligible. Examples of ‘weight of material as given in ECI are shown in Table 1.3. 2. Characteristic variable action Q,,is cause by people, furniture, equipment ete. which variation in magnitude with time is not negligible, Examples of variable action as given in ECI ate shown in Table 1,48 | Introduction ‘Table 1.3: Weight of construction materials Materials Density (kN/m') Lightweight concrete 9.0 10 20.0 ‘Normal weight concrete 24.0 1025.0 Cement mortar 19.0 1023.0 Wood 3.5 t0 10.8 Plywood 451070 Particle boards 7.010 12.0 Steel 77.010 78.5 Water 10.0 (Source: Table AAS: MS EN 1991-1-1) ‘Table 1.4: Imposed load on floors in buildings Category of loaded area gekNim? n Al: All usages within self-contained dwelling units 1s ‘Area for domestic and | A2: Bedrooms and dormitories 15 residential aan A3 : Bedrooms in hotels, hospital 20 BI: General use 25 B Office area B2: At or below ground floor level 3.0 C11; Areas with tables ~ dining rooms 20 c Areas where | 645, ; peoplemsy. | C13:ATeas with ables -Cassrooms 3.0 congregate €22; Area with fixed seat ~ Assembly areas 40 D Shopping | Dl: Areas in general retail shops 40 areas (Source: Table 62: MSEN 1991-1-D,Introduction | 9 1.9.1 Design Action “The design value of an action is obtained by multiplying the characteristic actions F, by partial safety factor for actions 7 Foo = XH ‘The factor, ye accounts for possible increases in load, inaccurate assessment of the effects of loads, inaccurate modeling of the load and the importance if the limit state being considered. Values for yr are given in EN 1990: Annex Al. 1.9.2. Combination of action Permanent and variable actions will occur in different combinations, all of which must be taken into account in determining the most critical design situation for any structure. In cases where actions are to be combined itis recommended that, in determining suitable design values, each characteristic action is not only multiplied by the partial factor of safety, but also by a further factor given by symbol y which relates to the following representative values (see Figure 1.5). The values of yo, ws. and ys are given in ‘Table 1.4. 1. Combination value (yoQi) ~ this combination value is intended to take account of the reduced probability ofthe simultaneous occurrence of two or more variable aetions. 2, Frequent value (yiQ,) ~ frequent value of action are use in the consideration of ultimate limit states involving accidental actions and serviceability limit states of cracking and deflection where the actions causing these effects are of a short transitory nature. 3. Qua i-permanent value ((y:Q,) ~ quasi-permanent (mea ‘almost” permanent) action are those that may be sustained over a long period but are not necessarily as permanent as, say, the selfweight of the structure (Characteristic value of. _ Instantaneous value of 0 re 1.5: Representative values of variable actions(ao 10 | Introduction ‘Table 4: Recommended values of y factors for buildings Action ve w ve Imposed loads in buildings (see EN 1991-1-1) Category A: domestic, residential areas 07 0s 03 Category B: office areas o7 0s 03 Category C: congregation areas 07 07 0.6 Category D: shopping areas 07 07 06 Category E: storage areas 10 09 08 ‘Category F: traffic area, vehicle weight < 30 KN 07 o7 06 ‘Category G: trafic area, 30 KN < vehicle weight < 160 KN 07 05 03, Category H: roof (see EN 1991-1-1: C1.3.3.2) 07 o ° ‘Wind loads on buildings (see MS i553: 2002) 05 07 07 ‘Temperature (non-fire) in buildings (see EN 1991-1-5) 06 o7 07 (Source: Table NA2: MS EN 1991-1: National Annex) For persistent and transient design situation under STR limit state, three possible combination ca? be ae petfetermine the design values of actions as shown in Table 1.6. For serviceability limit state there are also three combination of action that can be use as shown in Table 1.7. “Table 1.6: Design values of actions, ultimate limit state-persistent and transient design situations a io Permanent actions eating Accompanying varie stone ‘Expression. Unfavourable Favourable actions Main (if any) Others: Exp. (6.10) 1.396, 1.06, 1.50, 15 yoQus Exp. (6.10) | 1.356 1.06, 1S yQe | 'S¥uOes Exp. 6.106) | 0.925x135G, | LOG, 1504 15 yiuDss Wor 1 esign for either Exp6,10) or the les favourable of Exp. (6.103) and (6.100) 2. Theor favorable and unfavorable refer to the effect of the action on the design situation under ea er ee ample ifa beam, continuous over several spans, i tobe designed fo largest sageing eae omen twill have to usa any action that bas the eet of inereasing the Bening moment wl can or unfaverable whilst any action tha reduces the bending moment will be considered to be favourable (Source: Table 1.2: MS EN 1990)Introduction 11 “Table 1.7: Design values of actions, serviceability limit states Permanent actions Variable actions Combination Example of use Unfavourabie | Favourable | Leading | Others ‘Characteristic 1.00, 1.0G, cy vos Frequent 1.06, Tlocegst|| anand |vasoue ose serene Quasi-permanent | 1.00, 1.06, | veiQks | vaiOu | Deflection (Source: Table Ald: MS EN 1990) 1.10 Materials Strength ‘The strength of materials upon which design is based is such strengths below which results unlikely to fall, These ate called characteristic strengths. It is assumed that fora given material, the variation of strengths will have a normal distribution as shown in Figure 1.6. Mean strength (f) Characteristic ' ‘Number of test specimen Strength Figure 1.6: Normal frequency distribution of strength The characteristic strength is taken as that value, below which itis unlikely that more than 5 % of the results will fails. Thus statistically, Characteristic strength fe Mean strength ~ 1.65(standard deviation) Jn~ 1.645 10.1 Conerete (Clause 3.1, EC2) ‘The characteristic strength fa is the 28-day cylinder strength. Table 1.8 shows the characteristic cylinder strength of various classes of conerete recommended for use in reinforced and prestressed concrete design, Class C20/25, for example, refers to cylinder/cube strength of 20 and 25 N/mm? respectively.12 | Introduction ‘Table 1.8: Concrete strength classes and modulus of elasticity ‘Concrete Characteristic | Characteristic cube | _ Modulus of strength class J eylinder strength f,] strength fy. (Nin?) (Nimm?) €20/25 25/30 3037 35/45 c40/s0 45/55 cs0/ss 55/67 60/75 (Source: Table 3.1 MS EN 1992-1-1) 1.10.2 Reinforcing steel (Clause 3.2, EC2) ‘The characteristic strength of steel reinforcement is denotes by jiu. The specified strength for ribbed reinforcement given in EC2 is in the range of 400 to 600 Nimm*. The more common type of reinforcement currently use in the UK is Grade 300. Grade 250 plain bar is not now recognized in the European Union and it is no longer available for general used in the UK. Ribbed high yield bars may be classified as: Class A: which is normally associated with small diameter (< 12 mm) cold worked bars used in mesh and fabrie. Class B: which is most commonly used for reinforcing bars, Class C: high ductility which may be used in earthquake design or similar situations, ‘The bar types described above are commonly identified by the following codes: H for high yield steel, irrespective of ductility class or HA, HB, HC where a specific ductility is required 1.10.3 Design strength The design strength X,are obtained by dividing the characteristic strength .%, by the appropriate partial safety factor for materials Yq Design strength = Characteristic strength / Partial safety factor Xe = Nite ‘The factor ym takes account of uncertainties in the strength of materials, variations in member sizes and building dimensions and any inaccuracy due to the methods of modeling member behaviour, The recommended values for materials persistent, transient and accidental design situations are given in Table 1.9.Introduction | 13 Design situations ve for concrete 1 for reinforcing stee! Persistent & Transient 15 Las Accidental 12 10 1.11 Stress-Strain Relation Performance of a structure under load depends to a large degree on the stress-strain relationship of the ‘material from which it is made and under the type of stress to which the material is subjected, LILI Concrete Since concrete is used mostly in compression, its compressive stress-strain curve is of primary importance. Typical stress-strain curve of is shown in Figure 1.7(a). The curve is somewhat linear in the very initial phase of loading. The curve then begins to curve to the horizontal, reach the maximum, stress ata strain of approximately 0.0020 and finally show a descending nature. For the design of cross section, EC 2 recommended the used of idealized stress-strain curve as shown in Figure 1.7(0. (@) (b) Figure 1.7: Short-term stress-strain curve for concrete14 | Introduction “The curve is begins with a parabolic portion up t0 a strain &2, from which point the strain increases while the stress remain constant, The ultimate design stress is given by ha ORS fan Ye 1S 0.567 fu “The coefficient 0.85 takes account of the difference between the bending strength and the cylinder crushing strength ofthe concrete. The factor of 1.5 i the usual partial safety factor for the strength of concrete. The ultimate strain g2,2 = 0.0035 is typical for classes of concrete = C50/60. 1.11.2 Reinforeing Steel Compared with concrete, steel is a high strength material. Figure 1.8(a) shows typical stress-strain ‘curve for hot rolled steel. For design purpose EC 2 recommended the use of idealized curve shown in Figure 1.8(b), The behaviour of the ste! is identical in tension and compression, being linear in the elastic range up to the design yield stress of uly. where fis the characteristic yield stress and 7, isthe partial factor of safety. ldealised @ (by Design Figure 1.8: Short-term stress-strain curve for steel reinforcement 1.12 Beha uur of Beams in Bending Consider a simply supported beam subjected to gradually increasing load. The load causes the beam to bend and exerts a bending moment as shown in Figure 1.9(a). The top surface of the beam is seen t0 shorten under compression, and the bottom surface lengthens, under tension. As the conerete cannot resist tension, steel reinforcement is introduces at the bottom surface to resist the tension. Figure 1.9(b) shows a loaded continuous beam. The loads cause the beam to bend downward between the supports and also cause upward bending over the support. This will produce tensile zone ts shown in the figure. As the concrete cannot resist flexural tension steel reinforcement would be introduced as detail in the figure.Introduction | 1 Tena t f Sesrcinonanest (a), Simply supported beam Tension crack eee ee j pT tame f 1 (b). Continuous beam Figure 1.9: Behaviour of concrete beam in bending 13. Basic Assumption in Reinforced Concrete Design ‘The theory of bending for reinforced concrete is based on the following assumption (See EN 1992-Cl 6.12). 1. Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending, 2. The strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or compression is the same as that in the surrounding concrete. 3. The tensile of the concrete is ignored 4. ‘The stresses in the concrete and reinforcement can be derived from the strain by using stress- strain curves for concrete and steel. ‘The first assumption implies that the distribution of normal strains across the beam cross-section is linear. That is, the normal strain ant any points in the beam section is proportional to its distance from the neutral axis. ‘The second assumption is necessary because the concrete and the reinforcement must act together to carry load. This assumption implies a perfect bond between the concrete and steel. ‘The strength of concrete in tension is roughly one-tenth of the compressive strength, and the tensile force in the conerete below the neutral axis is small compared with the tensile force in the steel Hence, the contribution of the tensile stresses in the concrete to the flexural capacity of the beam is small and can be neglected. It should be noted that this assumption is made primarily to simpli flexural calculations. In some instances, particularly shear, bond, deflection and service-stress calculation, the tensile resistance of concrete is not neglectedeee 16 | nsroduetion 1.14 Distribution of Stresses and Strains Figure 1.10 shows the cross-section of a reinforced concrete beam subjected to bending, and the weet strain diagram, together with stress distribution in the concrete. The longitudinal fibres et the top of the cross-seetion are subjected 10 compressive stresses while the fibres atthe bottoms Faes are ‘Sbjected to tensile stresses. The locaton within the member where the bending stress is zero: Petwes Seacretc and compression zoncs, s known as the neutral axis ofthe member, Because ofthe tense Strength of conerete is very low, all the tensile stresses at the bottom fibres are taken uP by reinforcement and non by conerete (ics Section A-A Strains Stress For fa <50 Nimm?: = 1 (defi ng the effective strength), &= 0.0035, a= 0.8 to 1.0 (account for Tong term effect), cie= 085, 2=08, %= 1530, a= LOX O85 fa/1.5= 0567 Figure 1.10: Section, strain and stress diagrams ‘There are three different types of stress distribution in the concrete (i) The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly properion#l the strains, which generally occurs at the loading levels encountered under working lond ‘conditions and is, therefore, used at the serviceability limit state