Unit 4 – Static relays and Numerical protection

4.1 Static relays

4.1.1 Advantages of static relays

• Due to the amplification of energizing signals obtainable, the sources need only provide
low power. Therefore the size of the associated current and voltage transformers could be
reduced.

• Improved accuracy and selectivity.

• Fast operation of relays and hence fast clearance of faults.

• Flexibility of circuitry would allow new and improved characteristics.

• The relays would be unaffected by the number of operations.

4.1.2 Basic circuits employed

• Timers

• Phase comparators

• Amplitude Comparator

• Level detectors

• Integrators

• Polarity detectors

High reliability operational amplifiers are used for realizing the basic components of static
relays.

4.2 Numerical protection

Numerical relays are technically superior to the conventional type relays. Their general
characteristics are :

• Reliability

• Self diagnosis

• Event and disturbance records

• Adaptive Protection
• Integration of Digital Systems

4.2.1 Typical architecture of numerical relays

Numerical relays are made up from modules with well defined functions.

The use of algorithm of fault diagnosis, with the help of numerical relays can be understood clearly from the
following developement steps.

1. State the relaying problem.

2. Model the relaying problem mathematically

3. Write the algorithm.

4. Convert the algorithm to a high level language.

5. Test with a simulated data and modify the algorithm if required.

6. Generate the machine language code for the Micro processor/ Digital controller

7. Download it for the numerical relay

8. Test with a relay test bench.If found o.k. install it in parallel with the existing relay. Otherwise go back
to step 3 to modify the algorithm and repaeat the process.

9. Evaluate with various testing for longer period and launch it commercially if found o.k in its
operation after operation of 2 years independently.

4.3 Digital Relays

 • The digital relay does not record the analog signal,but only samples of the signal, which
are spread in time.

• the mathematics of discrete signal processing is used.

• The relay is programmed to apply various forms of digital signal processing algorithms to
the observed samples and based on the results of these computations,the decision to trip
is made.

4.3.1 Different components of a digital relay

i) Isolation transformer and surge protection circuit

ii) Multiplexor and S/H circuits

iii) Anti Aliasing Filters

iv) Digital Input and Output systems.

v) Central Processing unit

vi) Event Storage system

vii) Signal conditioning circuit.

viii)Communication Peripherals

ix) Power Supply Block

x) Sampling Clock

Isolation transformer and surge protection circuit:

Since the digital circuits are highly vulnerable to switching and lightening surge therefore, proper
isolation of the circuits with isolation transformer and surge protection circuit is required.

Multiplexors and S/H Circuits:

Multiplexors and sample and hold (S/H) circuits are required for converting the analog signals to
digital. The widely accepted Shannon‟s sampling theorem is used for sampling the analog signal.

Anti Aliasing Filter

The anti aliasing filters are basically low pass filters are basically low pass filters which block
unwanted frequencies.
The Digital input output system
This system actually gathers data and status reports of C.B. contacts status, other relay states,
reset signals etc. Also the output systems generate and provide the tripping, alarm and any other
control signal.
Central Processing Unit
It is the core component of the system which performs all the logics and algorithms regarding
different characteristics, maintains timing function and communicates with the external device.
Therefore, this the most vital block of the numerical system.
 Event Storage System, RAM, ROM, EPROM:

The RAM store the input sample data temporarily and buffer data permanently. It is processed
during the execution of relay algorithm. The ROM stores the relay algorithm permanently.
EPROM is used to store certain parameters such as the relay setting, or any other relevant data.
The event storage system basically stores the historical data such as fault related data, transient
data, event time data.
Communication Peripherals:

The relay setting, data uploading and event data recording are done through various
communication peripherals following a protocol IEC61850, which increases inner coordination
between the relays among the local and remote substation equipment.

Power Supply

It is powered by local station battery provided with charger.

4.4. Static comparators as relays

An over-current relay compares the magnitude of the current in its current coil with a set value and operates

if the current is more than the set value. A directional relay compares phase angle of the measured quantity

(i.e. current) with a reference c has or (1.e. voltage) and operates if this phase angle exceeds a redetermined

threshold. A simple impedance relay compares the torque generated by the current (operating torque) with

the torque generated by the voltage (restraining torque) at the relay location and operates if the operating

torque is greater than the restraining torque. All the relays perfom some or the other kind of comparison.

Thus, at the heart of any relay, is always a comparator.

The comparator-based relays are very attractive because of their inherent simplicity and low cost.

However, they suffer from the drawback that (since a comparator-based relay essentially gives a go-no-go

type of decision) the fault cannot be precisely located. I The comparators can be classified into two types;

those based on comparison of amplitude and those based on comparison of phase angle.

4.5 Amplitude Comparator

The amplitude comparator has two inputs, So and S, and a trip output. Both the inputs are phasors.

The input phasor So is called the operating quantity and the input phasor S, is called the restraining

quantity. The amplitude comparator follows the simple law If 1 So > 1 S then trip; else restrain
Amplitude comparator responds only to amplitude and is blind to the phase angle between the inputs.

Inputs to amplitude comparator causing it to restrain

 Inputs to amplitude comparator causing it to be on the threshold

4.6 Phase Comparator

Phase comparators are of two types: the cosine type and the sine type.

4.6.1 cosine-type phase comparator

The cosine-type phase comparator has two phasors Sp and Sm, at its input and has a trip output. The
input-phasor, designated as Sp is the polarizing or reference input. The input-phasor, designated as Sm,
is called the measured input. The cosine-type phase comparator follows the trip law: If -90" < Arg
(Sm/Sp) < +90° then trip; else restrain .

Cosine type phase comparator

Phase comparator responds only to phase angle and is blind to the relative amplitudes of the two
inputs.

Inputs to cosine-type phase comparator resulting in trip output

Inputs to cosine-type phase comparator causing it to restrain

Inputs to cosine-type comparator causing it to be on threshold

4.6.2 sine-type phase comparator

The sine-type phase comparator has two phasors Sp and Sm, at its input and has a trip output.
The input phasor, designated as Sm is the polarizing or reference input. The input phasor,
designated as S,, is called the measured input. The sine-type phase comparator follows the trip
law: If 0" < Arg (Sm/Sp) < 180" then trip; else restrain
 Sine-type phase comparator: trip, restrain and threshold conditions.

4.7 Duality between Amplitude and phase comparators

If theinputs of an amplitude comparator are modified according to the theorem of duality
then they become suitable as inputs for a phase comparator and vice versa
Let So and Sr be the original inputs to an amplitude comparator. If we derive Sm and Sp
from So and S, such that
Sm = (So+ Sr) and Sp = (So- Sr)
and feed these to a phase comparator, then the output of the phase comparator would be
exactly the same as that of the original amplitude comparator
Similarly, let Sm and Sp be the original inputs to a phase comparator, then if we derive
So and Sr from Sm and Sp such that
So = (Sp + Sm) and Sr = (Sp - Sm)
and feed these to an amplitude comparator, then the output of the amplitude comparator,
would be exactly the same as that of the original phase comparator

Duality between phase and amplitude comparator

The two signal, obtained by adding and subtracting the inputs to a

comparator, are the inputs suitable for its dual. If such signals are fed to the
dual, the output would remain unchanged.
The duality theorem can be easily and elegantly proved with the help of graphical
Construction
For |So| < |Sr|, an amplitude comparator would restrain. The geometrical construction shows,
how the Sm and Sp are synthesized,by addition and subtraction of |So| and |Sr|. It can also be
easily seen that since Arg [(So + Sr,)/(So - Sr)] > 9O, the dual-phase comparator would also
restrain if fed with such signals.

Duality between amplitude and phase comparators for So > Sr

Duality between phase comparator and amplitude comparator for

arg (Sm/Sp) > 90

4.8 Synthesis of Mho Relay Using Static Phase Comparator:

The synthesis of a mho relay using a phase comparator. The mho relay
to be synthesized has a setting of z n at angle  n . The characteristic to be synthesized is thus
a circle with diameter as phasor Zn. Now, let the impedance seen by the relay be Zrl
represented by point A. In figure, Since the impedance phasor lies within the trip
region, the relay must issue the trip output. It can be easily seen from the figure that the
phasor (Zn - Zrl), represented by line AP leads the phasor Zrl by an angle which is
definitely less than 90. The figure shows that as the impedance seen by the relay moves
towards the boundary between the trip and restrain regions, the angle between (Zn - Zr)
and Zr moves towards 90. When the phasor representing the impedance seen by the relay,
lies on the boundary, this angle is exactly 90" (for example, the angle between PB and
OB = 90"). For all impedances lying outside the trip region, i.e. in the restraining region,
the angle between (Zn - Zr) and Zr is always greater than 90" (for example, the angle
between CP and CD).

Synthesis of mho relay using cosine-type phase comparator.

Similar analysis shows that even if the impedance seen by the relay is on the other side of Zn as
shown in Figure 10.13, as long as it is in the trip region, the angle between
(Zn - Zr) and Zr is always greater than -90". The angle hits 90" for boundary conditions and
becomes less than -90" as the impedance seen by the relay moves into the restraining
Region

Synthesis of mho relay using phase comparator

Thus, the phasors (Zn- Zr) and Zr, obey the law of cosine-type phase comparison.
Therefore, if (Zn- Zr) and Zr, are used as inputs to a cosine comparator, the resulting
entity would behave exactly like a mho relay.
However, there is a practical problem here. The problem is that the electronic circuit
of the comparator accepts only voltage signals at its input. We, therefore, need to convert
these two impedance phasors into voltage signals.
If we multiply both (Zn- Zr) and Zr, by the current at the relay location Ir then we
get (IrZn- IrZr) and ZrIr, . Note that ZrIr, is nothing but the voltage at the relay location
Vr. The two modified signals therefore are:
(IrZn - Vr,) and Vr
Thus, we find that (IrZn - Vr,) and Vr, are the two voltage signals which can be fed
to a cosine-type comparator for synthesis of a mho relay with a setting of Z,.

Deriving practical signals for mho relay synthesis

4.9 Synthesis of Reactance relay using cosine phase comparator

The reactance relay to be synthesized has a setting of jXn . The characteristic to be synthesized
is thus a straight line parallel to the R-axis (abscissa), with an intercept of |X|,( on the
X-axis (ordinate). Let the impedance seen by the relay be Zrl, which lies within the trip
region at point A. Let us construct the phasor (Xn - Zrl) represented by line AP. It can
be easily seen that (Xn - Zrl) leads Xn by an angle which is definitely less than 90". Now,
as the impedance seen by the relay moves towards the boundary of the trip region, the
angle between (Xn - Zrl) and Xn approaches 90". When the impedance lies on the
boundary, the angle becomes exactly equal to 90". For all points lying in the restraining
region, the angle becomes greater than 90".
 Deriving inputs for synthesis of reactance relay

Similar analysis shows thac if the impedance seen by the relay lies to the left of the
jXn, phasor, the angle between (Xn - Zrl) and Xn, is greater than -90', as long as the
impedance falls within the trip region. It is exactly equal to 90" for impedance lying on
the boundary and is less than -90" for all impedances lying in the restraining region to
the left of the jXn phasor.
 Deriving inputs for synthesis of reactance relay

Thus (Xn – Zr1) and Xn, seem to be suitable for feeding to a cosine-type phase
comparator for synthesizing the reactance relay.
As discussed earlier, electronic circuits, which are used to implement the cosine-type
comparator, need voltage signals. Therefore, we can get voltage signals from these two
inputs by multiplying each of them by Ir, the current at the relay location. The modified
signals that we thus get are (Xn Ir - Zrl Ir) and Xn Ir.
Note that Zrl Ir is nothing but the voltage at the relay location, i.e. Vr. Thus, the final
inputs to the cosine comparator for synthesis of reactance relay are:
Sp=Xn Ir and Sm=(Xn Ir -Vr)

Deriving practical signals for reactance relay synthesis

4.10 Synthesis of simple impedance relay using Amplitude

Comparator
The simple impedance relay is inherently based on an amplitude comparator. If the
magnitude of the impedance seen by the relay |Zr| is less than the setting of the relay
|Zn|, then the relay issues a trip output. Thus, the simple impedance relay can be most
easily synthesized by an amplitude comparator with the following signals.
Operating Signal So = Zn
Restraining Signal Sr = Zr
In order to make the inputs suitable for driving an electronic amplitude comparator
circuit, we multiply each of them by Ir to get the modified signals:

So=ZnIr and Sr=ZrIr=Vr

Synthesis of simple impedance relay using amplitude comparator