ANALYSING THE EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT WINGTIP SHAPES

NURUL AMIRAH BINTI KAMARUDIN

53259211324

UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR

MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY
DECEMBER 2014

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ANALYSING THE EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT WINGTIP SHAPES

NURUL AMIRAH BINTI KAMARUDIN

53259211324

Report Submitted to Fullfill the Partial Requirements

For the Bachelor of Aircraft Engineering Technology – Mechanical
University Kuala Lumpur

DECEMBER 2014

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 COPYRIGHT PAGE

Declaration of Copyright and Affirmation of Fair Use of Unpublished

Research Work as stated below:

Copyright @ 18 December 2014 by (Nurul Amirah Binti Kamarudin

53259211324)

All rights reserved for (Analysing The Efficiency of Different Wingtip

Shapes)

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
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permission of the copyright holder except as provided below:

i. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research

may only be used by others in their writing with due
acknowledgement.

ii. UniKL MIAT or its library will have the right to make and transmit
copies (printed or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

iii. The UniKL’s MIAT library will have the right to make, store in a
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requested by
other universities and research libraries.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a

under graduate Degree from the University Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute
of Aviation technology, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it
freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of
this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes be granted
by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work or, in their
absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which
my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or
use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without
my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given
to me and to the University Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Aviation
technology in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my
thesis.

I would like to express my gratitude to Allah as I can finish my Final Year

Project in time. I also would like to thank my supervisor, Miss Munawirah Binti
Mohamad for helping, advicing and guiding me to finish my final year project.
To my coordinator, Madam Faraihan who give me full support in finish my
project. Not forgotten to Sir Rizal, my Computer Aided Engineering’s Lecturer
in helping in my drawing.

A big thanks to my friends who always help and support me and also to
my family for their loves and hopes for all this time,

Last but not least, thank you to University Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
Institute of Aviation Technology (UniKL MIAT) for giving me an opportunity to
do a research as per required in order to finish my Bachelor of Aviation
Engineering Technology (Mechanical).

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION PAGE ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

APPROVAL PAGE ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

COPYRIGHT PAGE....................................................................................... iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................ vi

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................ ix

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................... xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATION ............................................................................. xii

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................xiii

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1

1.1 Overview ............................................................................................1

1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................2

1.3 Objectives ..........................................................................................2

1.4 Chapters Outline ................................................................................2

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................... 4

2.1 Lift and drag .......................................................................................4

2.2 Vortex ................................................................................................3

2.3 Wingtip shapes ................................................................................11

2.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) .............................................18

CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY .................................................................. 20

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................20

3.2 Flow Chart .......................................................................................21

3.3 Project Timeline ...............................................................................26

.4 Software ..............................................................................................28

3.5 Hardware .........................................................................................31

CHAPTER 4 : RESULT AND DISCUSSION ................................................. 32

4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................32

vii
 4.2 Result ..................................................................................................33

4.2.1 Flow Visualize ...............................................................................33

4.2.2 Lift .................................................................................................38

4.2.3 Drag ..............................................................................................39

4.2.4 Lift and Drag Ratio ........................................................................40

CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION ....................................................................... 42

5.1 Conclusion ...........................................................................................42

5.2 Recommendation ................................................................................43

REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 44

APPENDIX A: DIMENSION OF B737 WING ................................................ 47

APPENDIX B: DIMENSION OF WING WITHOUT WINGTIP ....................... 48

APPENDIX C: DIMENSION OF WING WITH WINGTIP ............................... 49

APPENDIX D: DIMENSION OF WING WITH BLENDED WINGLET ............ 50

APPENDIX E: DIMENSION OF WING WITH RAKED WINGTIP .................. 51

APPENDIX F: DIMENSION OF WING WITH WING FENCE ........................ 52

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Page No.

Figure 2-1: An airfoil shape produced from venture tube [1]. ..........................4
Figure 2-2: Lift created due to differential pressure at airfoil [11]. ...................2
Figure 2-3: Critical angle of attack [13]. ..........................................................3
Figure 2-4: Formation of primary, secondary and tertiary vortex [7]. ..............6
Figure 2-5: Unsteadiness when two vortex system interact for square tip.
Position, size and shape of secondary vortices vary rapidly [7]. .....................7
Figure 2-6: Formation of downwash [12].........................................................7
Figure 2-7: Formation of leading edge vortex system due to increasing angle
of attack [14]. ..................................................................................................8
Figure 2-8: Formation of tip vortex during upstroke [14]. ................................9
Figure 2-9: Comparison of formation of wing tip vortex between base wing (a)
and reverse half delta wing (b) [15]. ..............................................................10
Figure 2-10: Example of wingtip shapes [16]. ...............................................12
Figure 2-11: Blended winglet [18]. ................................................................13
Figure 2-12: Spiroid winglet [18]. ..................................................................13
Figure 2-13: Wing grid [18]. ..........................................................................14
Figure 2-14: Raked wingtip [18]. ...................................................................14
Figure 2-15: Comparison of wing tip vortices core between wing without
winglet (a and b) and wing with winglet (c and d) [20]. .................................16
Figure 2-16: Blended winglet usually used by Boeing Aircraft [23]. ..............17
Figure 2-17: Wing fence usually used by Airbus aircraft [23]. .......................17
Figure 2-18: Wind tunnel [28]. .......................................................................18
Figure 2-19: Vortex formation by using wind tunnel (experiment) and CFD
(computation) [14]. ........................................................................................19
Figure 3-1: Flow chart of the analysis. ..........................................................21
Figure 3-2: Wing without wingtip. ..................................................................23
Figure 3-3: Wing with wingtip shapes. ..........................................................23
Figure 3-4: Wing with wingtip shapes. ..........................................................24
Figure 3-5: Raked wingtip. ............................................................................24
Figure 3-6: Wing fence..................................................................................25
Figure 3-7: Flow chart of wing construction. .................................................28

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Figure 3-8: Flow chart of wingtip shapes construction. .................................29
Figure 3-9: Flow chart of Gambit and Fluent. ................................................30
Figure 4-1: Static pressure flow for Case I. ...................................................33
Figure 4-2: Static pressure flow for Case II. ..................................................34
Figure 4-3: Static pressure flow for Case III. .................................................34
Figure 4-4: Static pressure flow for Case IV. ................................................35
Figure 4-5: Static pressure flow for Case V. .................................................35
Figure 4-6: Turbulance flow for Case I. .........................................................36
Figure 4-7: Turbulance flow for Case II. ........................................................36
Figure 4-8: Turbulance flow for Case III. .......................................................37
Figure 4-9: Turbulance flow for Case IV. ......................................................37
Figure 4-10: Turbulance flow for Case V. .....................................................38
Figure 4-11: Graph of coefficient of lift. .........................................................39
Figure 4-12: Graph of drag coefficient. .........................................................40
Figure 4-13: Graph of lift and drag coefficient. ..............................................41

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 LIST OF TABLES
Page No.
Table 4-1: Parameters for testing .................................................................32
Table 4-2: Category of wingtip shapes..........................................................33
Table 4-3: Coefficient of lift on each wingtip shapes. ....................................38
Table 4-4: Drag coefficient of each wingtip shapes. .....................................39
Table 4-5: Lift and drag coefficient of each type of wingtip shapes. ..............40

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics

CATIA Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive

Application

𝑝 Pressure

𝜌 Density

𝑉 Velocity

𝐴 Area

𝐶𝐷 Drag Coefficient

𝐶𝐿 Lift Coefficient

CAD Computer Aid Design

FYP Final Year Project

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

RAM Random Access Memory

GB Gigabytes

OS Operating System

HD High Defination

LED Light Emitting Diode

CL Coefficient of Lift

CD Coefficient of Drag

L/D Lift and Drag Ratio

xii
 ABSTRACT

As aircraft flying, a lot of lift needed to ensure maximum thrust can be

generated. However as lift increase, induced drag also will increase. One of
the problems due to drag usually happen at the wing tip. Vortices will formed
at the wingtip and create pressure above the wing. Therefore, reduce lift. In
order to overcome this problem, various wingtip shapes are being applied at
the wingtip.

The purpose of the analysis is to analyse the efficiency of different wingtip

shapes. From this analysis, flow visualize of wing with and without wingtip and
various wingtip shapes by using CFD with reference drawing of Boeing 737’s
wing, compare lift and drag ration and analyse the efficiency of wing with and
without wingtip and various wingtip shapes.

The analysis involving wing without wingtips shapes, wing with wingtip shapes
and three different types of wingtip shapes; blended winglet, raked wingtip and
wing fence by using Boeing 737’s wing as a reference drawing. All of these will
be analysed by using CFD. From the analysis, the efficiency can be
determined by comparing lift and drag ratio.

From the analysis, wing without wingtips shapes has the highest lift and raked
wingtip has the least turbulence. By comparing lift and drag ratio of all five, it
shown that raked wingtip has the highest lift and drag ratio which is 0.768055.
Therefore, raked wingtip is the most efficient wingtip shapes.

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 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview

Aircraft is the one of the main transportation to transport people or cargo

from one destination to another. By using aircraft, a lot of time can be safe for
a very long journey if travel by land or water. However, the cost for using this
transportation is very high compared to other. The cost including maintenance,
fuel, servicing, facilities and men power. The aircraft design plays an important
role to ensure the aerodynamic of the design to produce the maximum thrust
and minimum drag.

In early production of aircraft, there is always a problem incurs at the

end of the wing which is wing tip. This problem give pressure at the top surface
of the wing and reduce lift. As lift is reduced, aircraft performance also will be
reduced. To overcome this problem, engineers are trying to find various
solution.

Nowadays, most of the aircraft equipped with wingtip at the tip of the
wing. This wingtip will help to reduce vortices that happen at tip of the wing.
These vortices will give pressure to the wing thus reduce the aircraft lift.
Vortices are caused by the high pressure air beneath the wing rolling up and
around the wingtip. This will cause vortex that trails behind each wingtip
whenever lift being produces. Therefore create pressure to the wing. To
reduce this problem, wingtip is being introduced.

As wingtip is installed at the wing, it will prevent the high pressure air
beneath the wing rolling up around the wingtip. Wingtip will reduce the aircraft
drag by increasing lift at the wing tip. Therefore will increase the efficiency of
the aircraft and also save fuel.

As the importance of wingtip is growing, various shapes of wingtips are

designed with difference role and efficiency. Some of the wingtip shapes
available nowadays are winglet, raked wingtip and Hoerner wingtip. Each
design has its own advantages and disadvantages. To ensure the efficiency of
these wingtip shapes, test should be done. The test can be done by using wind
tunnel or a simulation software.

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 Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) is one of the simulation software
available. This software uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and
analyse problems involving fluid dynamics. By showing the flow visualize and
comparing lift and drag ratio of different shapes of wingtip and wing without
wingtip, the efficiency can be analysed.

1.2 Problem Statement

Aircraft needs lift to ensure it flow. However, as lift is created at the wing,
it will lead to production of vortex. Production of vortex may reduce the aircraft
lift as it will give pressure to the wing. To reduce vortex, various shape of
wingtip is being used. However, different wingtip shapes has its own
advantage and disadvantage. These wingtip shapes may create more drag
compared to lift depend on their shape. Therefore, analysis of wingtip shapes
should be done to compare which is more efficient to the aircraft.

1.3 Objectives

The main objectives of this analysis are:

1. To show flow visualize of wing with and without wingtip and various
wingtip shapes by using CFD with reference drawing of Boeing 737
2. To compare lift and drag ratio of wing with and without wingtip and
various wingtip shapes
3. To analyse the efficiency of wing with and without wingtip and various
wingtip shapes

1.4 Chapters Outline

Chapter 1 – Introduction

On this chapter will explain briefly the overview, problem statement and
objectives that need to be achieved for this analysis.

2
Chapter 2 – Literature Review

On this chapter will gather all information needed for this analysis in
order to clarify and support the subject matter involved and help to improve the
understanding of this analysis.

Chapter 3 – Methodology

On this chapter the method use for this analysis is explain thoroughly
by using CATIA and CFD. This was adopted as the best approach to gather
the results needed for this analysis. From this methodology, the objectives of
this analysis can be achieved.

Chapter 4 – Result and Discussion

On this chapter, result of this analysis will be recorded and analyse in

order to achieve the objectives of this analysis. From this chapter, the most
efficient wingtip shapes can be choose.

Chapter 5 – Conclusion

On this chapter, this analysis will be concluded and some

recommendations can be made for further study.

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 CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Lift and drag

In order for aircraft to fly, four forces needed to ensure the aircraft will
fly which is; lift, weight, thrust and drag. All these four forces play an important
roles to fly the aircraft. However, the most important force to ensure that aircraft
to fly is lift. Lift is created when two differential pressure happen at the upper
surface and lower surface of an airfoil. Lift generated from airfoil shape is
based on Bernoulli’s Principle. Bernoulli’s Principle states that when energy is
neither added to nor taken from a fluid in motion, the potential energy, or
pressure decreases when the kinetic energy, or velocity increases [1]. This
1
also can be written as; 𝑝 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Bernoulli equation is derived from Newton’s Second Law and the work
done on a fluid by pressure forces is equal to the change in kinetic energy of
the flow [2]. One of the application of this principle is venture tube. A venture
tube is a tube that has narrower shape in the middle compare to the ends. The
velocity and pressure of the fluid enter the tube differ when it approaches in
the middle of the tube which has narrower shape. The velocity of the fluid will
increase and pressure will decrease. This phenomenon can be explained by
using Continuity Equation; 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. From this equation, it can be
concluded that if the area decreases, velocity will increases and if the area
increases, velocity will decrease. From venture tube, an airfoil shape can be
produced.

Figure 2-1: An airfoil shape produced from venture tube [1].

From the airfoil shape, lift can be generated based on Bernoulli’s Principle and
Continuity Equation. As air flow to upper surface of airfoil, velocity of air will
increase as air flowing over curved surface as it need to travel farther.

4
However, based on Bernoulli’s Principle as velocity increase, pressure at
upper surface of airfoil will also decrease. As air flow to lower surface of airfoil,
velocity of air will decrease and pressure will decrease. Thus, lift be created
due to differential pressure happen at upper and lower surface of the airfoil.
Amount of lift generated depend on wing’s airfoil shape, size and shape of the
wing (𝐴), angle of attack, density of air (ρ) and speed of aircraft (𝑣). When
1
write it in an equation, lift can be said; 𝜌𝑣 2 𝐴𝐶𝐿 .
2

Figure 2-2: Lift created due to differential pressure at airfoil [11].

However, as lift generated drag also will generated. Drag generated due
to interfere by aircraft surface with smooth airflow. As drag generated, it will
limits the forward speed of the aircraft. Drag can be divided into two; parasite
and induced drag. Parasite drag generated due to airflow disruption around
aircraft’s surfaces. This drag also divided into three types; skin friction drag,
form drag and interference drag. All these three drags generated due to
aircraft’s surfaces. As lift generated, induced drag also will be generated. As
angle of attack increase, induced drag also will be increasing. Drag also can
1
be written in equation as; 𝜌𝑣 2 𝐴𝐶𝐷 .
2

In order to get the value of lift and drag, one important value is needed
which is lift coefficient (𝐶𝐿 )and drag coefficient (𝐶𝐷 ). Lift coefficient and drag
coefficient are absolute numbers attained from either wind tunnel test or
derived mathematically [3]. In order to generate higher lift compared to drag,
maximum lift coefficient and minimum drag coefficient needed to achieve

2
higher lift as both coefficient directly proportional to respective equations.
However, lift and drag coefficient dependent on angle of attack [3]. Normally,
when angle of attack exceed 15° lift coefficient will drop while drag coefficient
will increase.

Figure 2-3: Critical angle of attack [13].

As stated earlier, airfoil has the same principle as venture tube.
Engineers have designed a lot of airfoil shapes that will generate more lift
compared to drag. Curved surface in front as curved surface will generate
more lift and less drag compare to flat surface. Therefore, airfoil shape is round
in front and sharp at the back. Different airfoil shapes generate different lift and
drag due to airflows in slightly different ways at different speeds and different
altitude [4]. For subsonic aircraft, thicker airfoil being used as the aircraft is not
moving fast and low speed, therefore more lift is needed. As for supersonic
aircraft, thinner airfoil being used because it fly at speed of sound and shock
wave will form at nose.

2.2 Vortex

Vortex (vortices as in plural) is a phenomenon happen when the flow of

fluid is mostly a spinning motion about an imaginary axis, straight or curved.
Vortex also considered as major component of turbulence. It gives disturbance
in fluid flow as the fluid will not flow smoothly. Viscous friction exist between
the fluid tends to organize the flow in a collection of irrotational vortices. Fluid’s

3
velocity is greatest next to imaginary axis, decrease in inverse proportion to
the distance from it.

Vortex can be divided to two types of profile; rotational and irrotational

vortex. Rotational vortex has non – zero vorticity away from the core. This type
of profile can be maintained indefinitely only by application of some extra force,
which is not generated by the fluid motion. Rotational vortex also flow just like
in rigid body, which is in constant flow. Fluid’s velocity is directly proportional
to the distance from the axis. This mean, as distance of the vortex from the
axis increases therefore velocity also increases.

Irrotational vortex usually evolves quickly to irrotational flow pattern

without the application of external forces. Irrotational vortex flow is not in
constant flow, therefore fluid moves at different speed and may lead to friction
created. Therefore, energy is lost throughout vortex especially near the core.
Fluid’s velocity is inversely proportional to the distance from the core. As
distance of the vortex increases, velocity will decrease. As stated before,
irrotational flow happen due to viscous friction exist between the fluids.

Dynamic pressure can be created from the formation on vortex. It has

the lowest pressure in the core region, closest to the axis and increase as it
moves away from it. This can be explained by using Bernoulli’s principle as
stated before. Each vortex profile have different pressure. As for rotational
vortex, dynamic pressure is directly proportional to the distance from axis.
While for irrotational vortex, dynamic pressure varies regardless with the
distance of the vortex from the core. As pressure is reduce, matter from the
surface can be draw into the core, just like tornado. Tornado can draw
everything into it core as the matter trapped tends to remain in the core as the
vortex moves about.

In aircraft case, lift generated by the wing will eventually lead to creation
of vortex. Differential pressure between below and above of the wing that
produce lift will also produce a strong flow around the wingtip [5]. Small vortices
created at the trailing edge due to flow behind a lifting vortex will merge to form
a single wingtip vortex [7]. This single wingtip vortex will become concentrated
into very strong tornado – like swirling flows. Falcao et al. state that vortex will

4
lead to hazard to other aircraft in vicinity [6]. As large aircraft generates vortex
many miles behind them and this can lead to serious hazard to smaller aircraft
which encounter this large aircraft. Therefore, Air Traffic Controller plays an
important role by allowing sufficient spacing between aircraft.

Green explains three ways of tip vortices can be formed, first due to
pressure difference between the wing pressure and suction surfaces which
accelerates the fluid around the wing tip [8]. Second way of tip vortices happen
as the connection between bound vortex and starting vortex. Last but not least,
the third way is the undisturbed flow and the flow over the wing surfaces are
not parallel which implies vorticity approaching the tips.

Two or more vortices will eventually merged as these vortices are

approximately parallel and circulate in the same direction. However, two
parallel vortices with opposite circulations will remain separate. Guini and
Green state that secondary and tertiary vortices merged into the primary vortex
and form an axial symmetric vertical structure [7]. Secondary vortices are
formed on the side of the wing and it will climb around the corner and lead to
unsteadiness to primary vortex. Karakus et al. concludes that strong
interaction between the multiple secondary vortices and primary vortex will be
dominated the wing tip [9].

5
 Figure 2-4: Formation of primary, secondary and tertiary vortex [7].
Unsteadiness of the primary vortex due to the interaction with
secondary vortices will cause wandering. This may lead to random movement
of the vortex. Margaris and Gursul state that the amount of wandering does
not depend on the amount of air flowing through the wing. Formation of vortex
different in each shape of wing tip [10]. Square tip will show two vortices and
highly unsteady secondary vortices. This will create more wandering. As round
tip will show fewer and less intense secondary vortices [7, 10].

6
 Figure 2-5: Unsteadiness when two vortex system interact for square tip.
Position, size and shape of secondary vortices vary rapidly [7].
Vortex is also considered as induced drag as it happened due to lift. Air
flow below the vortex may lead to downwash [5]. Downwash is a downward
components to flow over wing. Due to existence of downwash, effective angle
of attack of an aircraft will drop and increasing induced drag thus reduce lift.

Figure 2-6: Formation of downwash [12].

7
However, increasing the angle of attack will lead to formation of a leading edge
vortex and aircraft will stall. Visbal et al. state that during downstroke, a leading
edge vortex system will be formed and it size will grow as it convects along the
plate [14].

Figure 2-7: Formation of leading edge vortex system due to increasing angle
of attack [14].
During upstrokes, a new tip vortex of opposite rotation is formed below
the wing. This type of vortex will experience milder form of breakdown and can
be observed near wing trailing edge. Wing tip vortex form under the wing will
dissipate and move around the edge. Lift created will decrease from the center
towards the wing tip.

8
 Figure 2-8: Formation of tip vortex during upstroke [14].
As stated before, wing tip vortex is cause of induced drag, wake vortex
problem and it also create noise. Falcao et al. also conclude that vortex exist
at the wing tip will diminishes the wing’s efficiency thus affect aircraft
performance [9]. As aircraft performance reduce, fuel consumption will also
increasing therefore incur higher cost. To reduce this problem, a lot of test and
experiment have been done by engineers.

Some of the solution introduced by using winglets, spoilers, sub wing

and porous tips and leading edges. Some also introduced by modify the shape
of wing itself. Lee and Pereira conclude that reverse half delta wing will weaken
the wing tip vortex and smaller induced drag will be created [15]. However,
profile drag will increase but only in small amount. This will not affect aircraft
performance.

9
Figure 2-9: Comparison of formation of wing tip vortex between base wing (a)
and reverse half delta wing (b) [15].
Increasing wing span also can reduce induced drag, however bending
moment at wing root will increasing and create greater loads on wing root
structure. To ensure that no rise in bending moment at wing root, wingtip
device being applied. Application of wingtip device will increase wing span but
it will not increase wing root bending moment.

10
2.3 Wingtip shapes

To reduce existence of vortex at aircraft’s wing tip, a lot of experiments

and researches have be done. Vortex needs to be reduce as it increase
induced drag thus affect aircraft performance. Institutions have invest a lot of
many for experiments and researches to be done. One of the solutions in order
to reduce this problem by introducing a physical barrier to the flow of air from
beneath the wing to above it [6].

In early 1800’s, wing tip vortex problem has already arise. In 1879, first
studies on wingtip device were done by Frederick W. Lanchester. From the
study he noted that how strongly the shape of an aircraft’s wing influenced
multiple facets of its aerodynamic efficiency. Therefore, he concluded that by
placing a vertical surface at the wing tip could reduce the wing tip drag under
high lift condition. This vertical surface is called, “endplate.” However, by
placing the endplate will increase profile drag.

As time passes by, Wright Brothers introduced “side curtains” or

“blinkers” 70 years later. However, these side curtains or blinkers were used
for biplane. It were installed between wings for aircraft’s stability. Later, a lot
researches and studies have been done as this problem become popular in
aviation industry. After World War II, Dr. Sighard Hoerner, a German
aeronautical engineer develop a drooped wingtips in 1952 and being called as
Hoerner wingtips. This type of wingtips widely being used on gliders as it
increased lift and drag ratio.

In 1974, Richard T. Whitcomb has been experimenting with wingtips

device. From his analysis, he hypothesize that a near-vertical wing like surface
at the wing tip could indeed reduce the strength of trailing vortices if being
properly designed. However, he found that winglet create greater moments on
the wings and require heavier wing support structures to accommodate.

Nowadays, a lot of wingtip device have been introduced to the aviation

industry. Each type of wing tip shape have its own characteristic and
advantages. Wingtip shape selection depends on the specific situation and
aircraft type [16-17]. Therefore, some types of wingtip shape may not be

11
suitable for certain types of aircraft and at different speed.

Figure 2-10: Example of wingtip shapes [16].

12
A few examples of wingtip shapes available:

1. Blended winglet

Figure 2-11: Blended winglet [18].

 No sharp edge at wing or winglet intersection and smooth curve

 Overcome interference drag due to intersection of lifting surface
 Example of aircraft: B 737
2. Spiroid winglet

Figure 2-12: Spiroid winglet [18].

 One end of spiroid tip attached with forward part of the wing tip
and continues to form a spiral loop which ends and the aft portion
of the wing

13
  It help in reduce induced drag and noise
 Example of aircraft: Dassault Falcon 50
3. Wing grid

Figure 2-13: Wing grid [18].

 Two or more wing like surfaces running parallel to each other

from the end of the wing section forms the grid
 Reduce in induced drag when compared to wing span extension
4. Raked wingtip

Figure 2-14: Raked wingtip [18].

 It is attached with the main wingtip with higher angle of sweep

than the main wing
 Example of aircraft: B 777

14
 Application of these wingtip shapes have been widely used due to improve
in aircraft efficiency as operating cost has increase and environmental issues.
As researches and experiments have been done, advantages of wingtip
shapes can be list down as below [18]:

 Reduce induced drag

 Increase fuel efficiency
 Increase range and more payloads
 Reduce noise effects due to vortex effect
 Less amount of carbon emission
 Helpful in air traffic control

From all available wingtip shapes nowadays, winglet have been proved that
it the most efficient for aircraft used [16, 18-21, 24]. Guerrero et al. concluded
that lift and drag coefficient of an aircraft are improves as winglet are adopted,
regardless of wingtip shapes and wing shapes [16]. Lift coefficient also
increase at higher angle of attack and drag coefficient being almost the same
at all angle of attack as result to decrease in downwash due to weakening of
wing tip vortex [16,20]. Sohn and Chang stated that for wing without winglet,
cores of wing tip vortices are located inboard from the wing tip, while wing tip
vortices are located outboard from the wing tip for wing with winglet [20]. When
the winglet been applied, vortices at the wing tip become weaker and diffused.

Based on experiment done by Davis, he compared 6 different shapes of

wing tip. Those 6 wingtip shapes include the most applied on aircraft and the
least applied on aircraft. From his experiment, it can be concluded that the
least wingtip shape applied on aircraft has the most value of lift produced and
the most wingtip shape applied on aircraft has the least value of lift produced.
This happen due to high manufacturing cost and high profile drag produced
[22].

15
 Figure 2-15: Comparison of wing tip vortices core between wing without
winglet (a and b) and wing with winglet (c and d) [20].
By the application of wingtip, airlines companies can save more than 2
billion gallons of fuel as by applying wingtip shapes it can increase aircraft fuel
efficiency by 10% [18]. Raked wingtip also reduce take off field length,
improved fuel efficiency and good climbing performance [18].

16
Figure 2-16: Blended winglet usually used by Boeing Aircraft [23].

Figure 2-17: Wing fence usually used by Airbus aircraft [23].

17
2.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

In designing a wingtip shape, a lot of consideration should be taken. As

the wing tip required more detailed consideration as it will effect on drag. Every
wingtip shapes design should give high lift and drag coefficient and less profile
drag. Therefore each shapes should be tested to test their efficiency. Several
test can be done by using wind tunnel or software simulation.

Wind tunnel is widely used to test aerodynamic characteristics of a solid

objects. Wind tunnel shape like venture tube, as it has inlet, diffuser and outlet.
At the diffuser, test object will be placed and be tested. As wingtip shape is
placed, angle of attach, velocity of air flow can be varied. Value of lift and drag
will be calculated and end result will be given on the screen.

Figure 2-18: Wind tunnel [28].

To visualize air flow in the wind tunnel, smoke-wire visualization can be
used. Smoke wire-visualization being used to reveal the structure of turbulent
shear flow, boundary layer transition and in studies on the vertical wake
development of airfoils in a dynamic stall situation [25, 26]. For wingtip shape
test, smoke will gather around the tip starring and the trailing edge region. An
excellent wind tunnel smoke visualization will describe combination of leading
edge and vortex system structures over finite aspect ratio wings [27].

18
 As time pass by, wind tunnel software have been developed in order to
give an easier way to get the aerodynamic characteristics of test object. One
of the main wind tunnel software widely use is Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD). Azlin et al. conclude that CFD can predict the performance of the
winglets and also huge amount of money and time can be saved compared by
using wind tunnel [29]. The designer only need to import the wingtip shape
design from Computer Aid Design (CAD) to CFD. Then CFD will do the
calculation and give the value of lift and drag. Compared by using wind tunnel,
the designer need to prepare a prototype in order to test it.

A lot of researches have be done to ensure that the value given by CFD
will be valid by comparing with the value given by wind tunnel. From the
researches that have be done, it can be concluded that both CFD and wind
tunnel test give similar result [14, 30-31]. CFD also can help to predict airflow
and show mixed laminar, transitional and turbulent region [14, 32].

Figure 2-19: Vortex formation by using wind tunnel (experiment) and CFD
(computation) [14].

19
 CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction

To achieve objectives as described in Chapter 1, three types of wingtip

shapes are chosen to be analyse each shapes their efficiency to minimize
induced drag due to formation of vortices at wing tip. Those wingtip shapes
are:

 Blended winglets
 Raked wingtip
 Wing fence

These three wingtip shapes have been choose because it is being widely
used on the aircraft. As stated in Chapter 2, blended winglets are widely used
by Boeing’s aircraft. There is no sharp edge found at the winglet intersection
and followed by smooth surface. Blended winglet was designed to overcome
interference drag formed at the junction of wing and winglet. It being used not
to fly faster, but to save fuel [23].

Raked wingtip also have been proven as it can reduce fuel consumption
and has good climbing performance. It is attached with the main wingtip with
higher angle of sweep than the main wing. It also can increase fuel efficiency
by 5% [23]. While wing fence are widely used by Airbus’s aircraft. The idea
came from Whitcomb’s winglet, by extending the surfaces at above and below
wingtip. It also can avoid winglet stall effect.

To determine the efficiency of wing with and without wing tip and also
various wingtip shapes, two computational steps will be taken. These steps
will involve using Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application
Version 5 (CATIA V5) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The
geometry of the wing and wingtip shapes will be drawn by using CATIA V5.
Later, the geometry will be transferred to the CFD to determine lift and drag.

20
3.2 Flow Chart

The procedure of this analysis summarize as following flow chart:

Start

Title was recommended by the

supervisor

Title being accepted

Data collection by using the

literature review method

Study how to use the software;

CATIA and CFD

Construct wing and wingtip shapes

by using CATIA

Lift and drag calculation by using

CFD

Data from the result will be

analysed and the efficient of
wingtip shapes will be determined

Report writing

Finish

Figure 3-1: Flow chart of the analysis.

21
3.2.1 Title was recommended by the supervisor

A title have been proposed by the supervisor on the second week of

semester. A few research have been conducted in order to have a better
understanding about the title. Then, Final Year Project (FYP) registration form
have been submitted.

3.2.2 Data collection by using literature review method

To have a better understanding about this analysis, literature review

have been done. Data collected from journals, books and websites such as
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Related topic involve
on this analysis are lift and drag, vortex, wingtip shapes and CFD. Form this
literature review it should be able to summarize, evaluate and clarify the title
in detail.

3.2.3 Study how to use the software; CATIA and CFD

Supervisor was purposing to use CATIA and CFD in order to complete

this analysis. CATIA has been chosen as it is one of the subject in Bachelor
Aircraft Engineering Technology (Mechanical). Thus, it will be easier to use it.
While for CFD, software chosen was Gambit and Fluent and a class have been
conducted on how to use this software briefly.

3.2.4 Construct wing and wingtip shapes by using CATIA

All wingtip shapes chosen; blended winglets, raked wingtip and wing
fence will be constructed by using CATIA. For wing construction, Boeing 737
is chosen as reference drawing. The design each of the wingtip shapes can
be collected from some of the journals. After both wing and wingtip shapes
have been constructed, both wing and wingtip shapes will be assembled.

22
 Wing without wingtip

Figure 3-2: Wing without wingtip.

 Wing with wingtip

Figure 3-3: Wing with wingtip shapes.

23
 Wing with 3 different types of wingtip shapes
 Blended winglet

Figure 3-4: Wing with wingtip shapes.

 Raked wingtip

Figure 3-5: Raked wingtip.

24
  Wing fence

Figure 3-6: Wing fence.

3.2.5 Lift and drag calculation by using CFD

Lift and drag calculation will be conducted one by one in order to get the
result by choosing the suitable velocity and angle of attack. Analysis will be
conducted by according these step:

 Wing without wingtip

 Wing with wingtip
 Wing with three different types of wingtip shapes

3.2.6 Data from the result will be analysed and the efficient of wingtip
shapes will be determined

Results gathered from Fluent calculation will be analysed and compare

based on the value of lift and drag ratio. From the analysis, the most efficient
wingtip shapes can be choose.

3.2.7 Report writing

Data collected from this analysis and method have been done will be
recorded in the thesis for submission as required to complete the study.

25
3.3 Project Timeline
3.3.1 Final Year Project I

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Week
Task
Title
selection
Project
registration
Proposal
presentatio
n
Submit
proposal
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Submit
thesis
(draft) to
Supervisor
Submit
thesis
(draft) to
Coordinator
Preparation
for
presentatio
n
Presentatio
n

26
3.3.2 Final Year Project II
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 One week
Week 10 after final
Task
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Submit
thesis
(draft) to
Supervisor
Submit
thesis
(draft) to
Coordinat
or
Preparatio
n for
presentati
on
Presentati
on

27
.4 Software
3.4.1 CATIA V5

CATIA V5 is being used to construct the wing and wingtip shapes, later
being assembled. CATIA is one of the Computer Aided Design (CAD) software
available in the market and develop by Dassault Systemes. It is being widely
used in design as this software is user friendly. CATIA widely used in many
industry such as design, mechanical engineering, electrical and fluid system
design and system engineering.

Steps to construct wing are:

Start

Mechanical
design

Wireframe and
surface design

Sketch

Blend

Finish

Figure 3-7: Flow chart of wing construction.

28
Steps to construct wingtip shapes are:

Start

Mechanical
design

Wireframe and
surface design

Sketch

Blend

Finish

Figure 3-8: Flow chart of wingtip shapes construction.

3.4.2 CFD

CFD software chosen is Gambit and Fluent. Gambit is being used to

generate the grid or mesh for CFD solver. Fluent is the CFD solver that being
used to calculate the value of lift and drag of wing and each wingtip shapes.
Fluent is one of the computational fluid flow that available in market. It is one
of fluid mechanics branch and use numerical and algorithm method to solve

29
problems related by fluid flows. This software being widely used as it is can
reduce the cost of prototype needed if use wind tunnel.

Start

Import wing and wingtip

shapes from CATIA into Gambit

Convert wing and wingtip

shapes into face and volume

Mesh wing and wingtip shapes

Save in .msh format

Import into Fluent

Fill in all parameters required

Run the test

Figure 3-9: Flow chart of Gambit and Fluent.

30
3.5 Hardware
3.5.1 Laptop

To design and completing the analysis, a laptop needed to install all the
software needed to achieve the objectives of this analysis. The laptop must be
able to run the software as the software require a good performance laptop.
The laptop owned will be used in order to complete this analysis. The
specification of the laptop as follow:

Asus A43S

Processor: Intel Core i5

RAM: 4 GB

Hardrive: 750GB 5400 RPM

Graphics: NVIDIA GeForce GT 520M with 1GB DDR3 VRAM

Display: 14” 16:9 HD LED Backlight

OS: Windows 7

31
 CHAPTER 4 : RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction

Efficiency of an aircraft determine from its performance based on lift and

drag ratio. The higher lift and drag ratio, the higher aircraft performance. Better
aircraft performance may reduce the consumption of fuel. One way to increase
aircraft efficiency by reduce the amount of vortex produce at the tip of wing.

To reduce the amount of vortex, a barrier at tip of wing is being added

which is called wingtip. Various shapes of wingtip are designed to increase
aircraft efficiency. Wingtip shapes commonly use are blended winglet, raked
wingtip and wing fence.

These three types of wingtip shapes are tested to determine which of

them are the most efficient together with a wing and wingtip. Boeing 737’s wing
used as reference drawing. This wing will attach together with the wingtip and
another three wingtip shapes. Wingtip shapes will be tested with fix
parameters.

Parameters being used to test these wingtip shapes are velocity and
angle of attack. The values of velocity and angle of attcak being used are as
follow:

Table 4-1: Parameters for testing

Velocity 228.611 ms-1

Angle of Attack 14°

Velocity of 228.611 ms-1 being choosen because it is the cruising speed

of B737. While 14° is the optimum angle of attack for cruising before stalling.
Wing without wingtip, wingtip, blended wingtip, raked wingtip and wing fence
are tested and the lift and drag will be compared to choose which are the most
efficient.

32
 All wingtip shapes used are categorized as follow:

Table 4-2: Category of wingtip shapes.

Case I Without wingtip

Case II Wingtip
Case III Blended winglet
Case IV Raked wingtip
Case V Wing fence

4.2 Result
4.2.1 Flow Visualize
4.2.1.1 Static Pressure Flow

Case I

Figure 4-1: Static pressure flow for Case I.

33
Case II

Figure 4-2: Static pressure flow for Case II.

Case III

Figure 4-3: Static pressure flow for Case III.

34
Case IV

Figure 4-4: Static pressure flow for Case IV.

Case V

Figure 4-5: Static pressure flow for Case V.

From the figures above, Case I (without eingtip) has the lowest static
pressure on the upper surface of airfoil whereas Case II (wingtip) has the
greater static pressure on the upper surface of airfoil. This show that Case I

35
(without wingtip) generates more lift compared to other types of wingtip
shapes.

4.2.1.2 Turbulance Flow

Case I

Figure 4-6: Turbulance flow for Case I.

Case II

Figure 4-7: Turbulance flow for Case II.

36
Case III

Figure 4-8: Turbulance flow for Case III.

Case IV

Figure 4-9: Turbulance flow for Case IV.

37
Case V

Figure 4-10: Turbulance flow for Case V.

Case IV (raked wingtip) has the least turbulance at the tip of wing
compared to other four types of wingtip shapes as shown on the figures above.
While Case II (wingtip) has the greater terbulance at the tip of wing. This show
that Case IV (raked wingtip) has the higher lift compared to other wingtip
shapes.

4.2.2 Lift
From the Fluent calculation, coeffiicient of lift on each wingtip shapes
data are collected as follows:

Table 4-3: Coefficient of lift on each wingtip shapes.

Types of wingtip Coefficient of Lift (CL)

Case I 0.73026
Case II 0.47593
Case III 0.58812
Case IV 0.71936
Case V 0.51228

38
 Coefficient of Lift (CL)

0.8 0.73026 0.71936

0.7 0.58812
0.6 0.51228
0.47593
CL 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Case I Case II Case III Case IV Case V
Types of WIngtip

Figure 4-11: Graph of coefficient of lift.

Based from the graph above, Case I (without wingtip) has the highest
value of lift coefficient which is approximately 0.73026. Case II (wingtip) has
the lowest value of lift coefficient which is approximately 0.47593 and Case III
(blended winglet) has intermediatte value of lift coefficient which is 0.58812.

4.2.3 Drag
From the Fluent calculation based on each type of wingtip shapes,
drag coeffiecent data are collected as follow:

Table 4-4: Drag coefficient of each wingtip shapes.

Types of wingtip Coefficient of Drag (CD)

Case I 0.98029
Case II 1.1386
Case III 0.9113
Case IV 0.9366
Case V 0.96941

39
 Coefficient of Drag (CD)
1.1386
1.2
0.98029 0.9366 0.96941
0.9113
1

0.8
CD
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
Case I Case II Case III Case IV Case V
Types of Wingtip

Figure 4-12: Graph of drag coefficient.

Based from the graph above, case II (wingtip) has the highest value of
drag which is approximately 1.13876. While case III (blended winglet) has the
lowest value of drag coefficient which is approximately 0.9113 and case IV
(raked wingtip) has the intermediate value of drag coefficient which is
approximately 0.9366.

4.2.4 Lift and Drag Ratio

From the value of lift coefficient and drag coefficient collected at table 3
and table 4 respectively, lift and drag ratio can be obtained. From the lift and
drag ratio, the most efficient wingtip shapes can be determined. Lift and drag
ratio calculated by using Excel are collected as follow:

Table 4-5: Lift and drag coefficient of each type of wingtip shapes.

Types of wingtip Lift and drag coefficient (L/D)

Case IV 0.768055
Case I 0.744943
Case III 0.645364
Case V 0.528445
Case II 0.417118

40
 Lift and drag coefficient (L/D)
0.768055 0.744943
0.8
0.645364
0.7
0.6 0.528445

L/D 0.5 0.417118

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Case IV Case I Case III Case V Case II
Wingtip Shapes

Figure 4-13: Graph of lift and drag coefficient.

From the graph above, it can be seen that case IV; which is raked
wingtip has the highest value of lift and drag ratio. With the value of lift and
drag ratio approximately 0.768055. Therefore, case IV is the most efficient
wingtip shapes among other four wingtip shapes. By using raked wingtip, the
aircraft performance will increase thus fuel efficiency will also increase.

Case II has the lowest value of lift and drag ratio calculated with the
value approximately 0.417118 which is wingtip. Therefore, case II is the least
efficient wingtip shapes among other four wingtip shapes. By using wingtip,
the aircraft performance will reduced thus fuel efficiency will also reduced.
While case III which is blended winglet has the intermediatte value of lift and
drag ratio calculated with the value approximately 0.645364.

41
 CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion

In order for an aircraft to achieve the highest performance, several

factors must be considered especially lift and drag ratio of an aircraft. By
depending on the actual design of an aircraft, it is not enough. Some
modifications must be added to improve the aircraft performance.
Modifications made such as by adding a wingtip.

Wingtip added can reduce vortex produce at tip of wing. Thus increase
the aircraft performance by reducing induced drag due to vortex produced.
Varies wingtip shapes are designed and different wingtip shapes have different
performance.

A wing, together with a wingtip and another three different types of

wingtip are tested to choose which is the most efficient. Efficiency of wingtip
shapes are determine by lift and drag ratio tested by using Fluent.

From the data collected from Fluent, it can be seen that wing without
wingtip has lower static pressure on upper surface of the wing. Thus,
generates more lift on the wing. However, raked wingtip has the lower
turbulence compared to the other four wingtip shapes. It shown that raked
wingtip can reduce vortex produced.

By comparing lift and drag ratio of all five types wingtip shape tested,
raked wingtip has the highest lift and drag ratio which is 0.768055. Lift and
drag ratio will determine the efficiency of wingtip shapes. Therefore raked
wingtip shapes is the most efficient wingtip shape. This can be proven as raked
wingtip has the least turbulance compared to others. Raked wingtip also
suitable for B737 wing.

42
5.2 Recommendation

For further study on this topic, several recommendation be made for

improvement. Some recommendations made are as follow:

 Design drawing for the wing and wingtip shapes must be smooth in
order to reduce drag and increase lift. Drag for this analysis is higher
compared to lift due to wing and wingtip shapes design is not smooth.
 Wing and wingtip shapes be tested in various angle of attack in order to
find the most optimum angle of attack for each types of wingtip shapes.
Different type of wingtip shapes angle of attack may be varied.
 Different wing might use different type of wingtip shapes. Not all wingtip
shapes are suitable for this type of wing. Therefore, different types of
wing need to be tested.
 Add more variation of wingtip design in order to choose which is more
efficient. As there is a lot of wingtip shapes available and not all wingtip
shapes available is being used.

43
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46
APPENDIX A: DIMENSION OF B737 WING

47
APPENDIX B: DIMENSION OF WING WITHOUT WINGTIP

Unit in millimeter

48
APPENDIX C: DIMENSION OF WING WITH WINGTIP

Unit in millimeter

49
APPENDIX D: DIMENSION OF WING WITH BLENDED
WINGLET

Unit in millimeter

50
APPENDIX E: DIMENSION OF WING WITH RAKED WINGTIP

Unit in millimeter

51
APPENDIX F: DIMENSION OF WING WITH WING FENCE

Unit in millimeter

52