NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, WARANGAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 351 - HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

PART 7 – CONVECTION-GOVERNING EQUATIONS AND SOLUTIONS

3rd Year, 2nd Sem, B.Tech. – Section B

Dr. CHANDRAMOHAN V.P.
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NIT Warangal
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER - DERIVATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Assumptions:
The flow to be steady and 2-D, and the fluid to
be Newtonian with constant properties (density,
viscosity, thermal conductivity, etc.).
 Consider the flow of a fluid over a surface.

 Take the flow direction along the surface to be x

and the direction normal to the surface to be y.

 Choose a differential volume element of length dx,

height dy, and unit depth in the z-direction.

 The fluid flows over the surface with a uniform

free-stream velocity u∞.
 The velocity within boundary layer is 2-D: the x-component of the velocity is u, and
the y-component is v.

 Therefore, u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y) in steady 2-D flow.

 Apply three fundamental laws: Conservation of mass, momentum and energy to
obtain the continuity, momentum and energy equations for laminar flow
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
 Continuity Equation
From Conservation of Mass Equation, In steady flow, the amount of mass within the
control volume remains constant, and thus the conservation of mass can be expressed as

Rate of mass flow into the control volume = Rate of mass flow out of the control volume
(7.1)
Noting that mass flow rate is equal to the product of density (ρ), mean velocity (u) and
cross-sectional area normal to flow.
The rate at which fluid enters the control volume from the left surface is = ρu(dy.1) (7.2)
The rate at which the fluid leaves the control volume from the right surface can be
expressed as,
(7.3)
Repeating this for the y direction and substituting the results into Eq. (7.1), we obtain

(7.4)
Simplifying and dividing by ρ dx dy .1 gives,
This is the conservation of mass relation, (7.5)
also known as the continuity equation,
or mass balance for steady 2-D flow of a
fluid with constant density Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
 Conservation of Momentum Equations
The differential forms of the equations of motion in the velocity boundary layer are
obtained by applying Newton’s second law of motion.

Newton’s second law can be stated as the net force acting on the control volume is
equal to the mass times the acceleration of the fluid element within the control
volume.

Which is also equal to the net rate of momentum outflow from the control volume.

The forces acting on the control volume consist of

i) body forces that act throughout the entire body of the control volume (such
as gravity, electric and magnetic forces) and are proportional to the volume
of the body, and
ii) surface forces that act on the control surface (such as the pressure forces
due to hydrostatic pressure and shear stresses due to viscous effects) and are
proportional to the surface area.

Note that pressure represents the compressive force applied on the fluid element by
the surrounding fluid, and is always directed to the surface.

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

Newton’s second law of motion for the control volume as,

(7.6)
Or (7.7)

mass of the fluid element within the control volume is,

δm = ρ (dx dy . 1) (7.8)
The flow is steady and 2-D and thus u = u(x, y), the total differential of u is

(7.9)

Then the acceleration of the fluid element in the x direction is estimated from Eq. (7.9)

(7.10)

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 The forces acting on a surface are due to pressure and viscous effects.
In 2-D flow, the viscous stress at any point on an imaginary surface within the fluid
can be resolved into two perpendicular components:
i) normal to the surface called normal stress and
ii) along the surface called shear stress.
The normal stress is related to the velocity gradients ∂u/∂x and ∂v/∂y, that are much
smaller than ∂u/∂y, to which shear stress is related.
Neglecting the normal stresses for simplicity, the surface forces acting on the control
volume in the x-direction will be as shown.

Then the net surface force acting in the x-direction

becomes

(7.11)

Since, τ = (∂u/∂y). Substituting Eqs. (7.7, 7.8, 7.10 and 7.11) into Eq. 7.6

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 1 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 1 + 𝜇 − 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 dividing by dx.dy.1 gives

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 2 𝑢 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝐵𝑥 + 𝜇 2 − (7.12)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

This is the relation for the conservation of momentum in the x-direction, and
is known as the x-momentum equation. Therefore, y-momentum equation is,

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2 𝑣 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝜇 2 − (7.13)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

If we derive the momentum equations in the 3-D case without eliminating any terms,
therefore, x, y and z-momentum equations can be written as,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝐵𝑥 − +𝜇 + + (7.14)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝐵𝑦 − +𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 (7.15)
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕2𝑤
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝐵𝑧 − +𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
(7.16)

Eqs. (7.12-16) are called as Navier-Stokes equations.

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
 Conservation of Energy Equation
 The energy balance for any system undergoing any process is, Ein – Eout = Esys.

 Its states that the change in the energy content of a system during a process is equal to
the difference between the energy input and the energy output.

 During a steady-flow process, the total energy content of a control volume remains
constant (and thus Esys = 0), and the amount of energy entering a control volume in all
forms must be equal to the amount of energy leaving it.

 Then the rate form of the general energy equation reduces for a steady-flow process to
Ein - Eout = 0.

 Note that energy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass only, the energy balance
for a steady-flow control volume can be written explicitly as
(7.17)

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 The total energy of a flowing fluid stream per unit mass is,

estream = h + KE + PE (7.18)

Where h is the enthalpy = u + pV, PE = gz is the potential energy per unit mass and
KE = V 2/2 = (u2 + v2)/2 is the kinetic energy of the fluid per unit mass.

The KE and PE energies are usually very small relative to enthalpy, and therefore it is
common practice to neglect them (though inclusion of these terms - get cancelled later).

We assume the density ρ, specific heat Cp, viscosity μ and the thermal conductivity
k of the fluid to be constant. Then the energy of the fluid per unit mass can be expressed
as,
estream = h = Cp T. (7.19)
From the Fig., mass flow rate of the fluid entering the
control volume from the left is, ρu(dy . 1).
The rate of energy transfer to the control volume by
mass in the x-direction is,

(7.20)
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
Similarly, the rate of energy transfer to the control volume by mass in the y-direction is
𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑥. 1 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =− 𝑑𝑦 = −𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑣 +𝑇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (7.21)
𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

the net rate of energy transfer to the control volume by mass is determined to be

(7.22)

Since, ∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y = 0 from the continuity equation (Eq. 7.5)

The net rate of heat conduction to the volume element in the x-direction is,

(7.23)

Repeating this for the y-direction and adding the results, the net rate of energy
transfer to the control volume by heat conduction becomes,

(7.24)
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
 Energy transfer to and from the fluid in the control volume is the work done by the
body and surface forces.

 The work done by a body force is determined by multiplying this force by the
velocity in the direction of the force and the volume of the fluid element, and this
work needs to be considered only in the presence of significant gravitational,
electric, or magnetic effects.

 The surface forces consist of the forces due to fluid pressure and the viscous shear
stresses.

 The shear stresses that result from viscous effects are usually very small, and can be
neglected in many cases.

 This is especially the case for applications that involve low or moderate velocities.

Substitute Eqs. (7.22 and 7.24) into (7.17) and neglecting the effect of shear stress leads,

(7.25)

Therefore, the net energy convected by the fluid out of the control volume is equal to
the net energy transferred into the control volume by heat conduction
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
 When the viscous shear stresses are not negligible, then the energy equation is,

(7.26)

Where Ф is viscous dissipation function and it can be estimated as,

(7.27)

Viscous dissipation may play a dominant role in high-speed flows, especially when the
viscosity of the fluid is high (like the flow of oil in journal bearings).
The energy equation for a 3-D case with unsteady nature, heat generation and viscous
dissipation terms can be written as,
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇
𝜌𝐶𝑝 . + 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =𝑞+𝑘 + + + 𝜇Φ (7.28)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Where 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
Φ= 2 +2 +2 + + + + + + (7.29)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

For the special cases of
i) a stationary fluid, u = v = 0 and
ii) If there is no fluid involving here,
then the energy equation reduces to pure conduction equation.
For the case of unsteady and a 3-D nature, then heat conduction equation is,

(7.30)

2
𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
∆ 𝑇+ = (7.31)
𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
Where, α = k/ρCp is the thermal diffusivity
If there is no heat generation and if it is steady problem, then Eq. (7.30) reduced to

𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇

+ + =0 (7.32)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

These Eqs. (7.30 to 32) looks like same as Eqs. (2.9 to 2.13)

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 SOLUTIONS OF CONVECTION EQUATIONS FOR A FLAT PLATE
 Consider laminar flow of a fluid over a flat plate.

 The x-coordinate is measured from the leading edge

of the plate in the direction of the flow and y is
measured from the surface in the normal direction.

 The fluid approaches the plate in the x-direction with

a uniform upstream velocity, which is equivalent to
the free stream velocity u∞.

When viscous dissipation is negligible, the continuity, momentum, and energy equations
(Eqs. 7.5, 7.12 and 7.26) reduce for steady, incompressible, laminar flow of a fluid with
constant properties over a flat plate to,

(7.33)

(7.34)

(7.35)

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

with the boundary conditions
At x = 0: u(0, y) = u∞, T(0, y) = T∞
At y = 0: u(x, 0) = 0, v(x, 0) = 0, T(x, 0) = Ts
As y → ∞: u(x, ∞) = u∞, T(x, ∞) = T∞

(7.36)

When fluid properties are assumed to be constant and thus independent of

temperature, the first two equations (Eqs. 7.33 and 7.34) can be solved separately for
the velocity components u and v.

Once the velocity distribution is available, we can determine the friction coefficient and
the boundary layer thickness using their definitions.

Also, knowing u and v, the temperature becomes the only unknown in the Eq. (7.35)
and it can be solved for temperature distribution.

The continuity and momentum equations were first solved in 1908 by the German
engineer H. Blasius, a student of L. Prandtl.

This was done by transforming the two partial differential equations into a single
ordinary differential equation by introducing a new independent variable, called the
similarity variable.
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
After solving, the velocity boundary layer thickness becomes,

(7.37)

 Rex = u∞x/ν, where x is the distance from the leading edge of the plate.
 Note that the boundary layer thickness increases with increasing distance from the
leading edge x, but it decreases with increasing free-stream velocity u.
 Therefore, a large free-stream velocity will suppress the boundary layer and cause it to
be thinner.

The shear stress on the wall can be determined as,

(7.38)

The local skin friction coefficient becomes

(7.39)

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 SOLUTION OF ENERGY EQUATION
Knowing the velocity profile, we are now ready to solve the energy equation to
estimate the temperature distribution for the case of constant wall temperature, Ts.
First we introduce the dimensionless temperature as,

(7.40)

Ts and T∞ are constant, the non-dimensional energy equation is,

(7.41)

After solving, the local convection coefficient and Nusselt number become

(7.42)

(7.43)

The average convection coefficient and Nusselt number can be approximately

stated as
hx = 2h and Nu = 2Nu (7.44)
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
The temperature 𝜕𝑇 𝑢∞
= 0.332𝑃𝑟1/3 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 (7.45)
gradient at the surface is, 𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
𝑣𝑥
It is determined that the ratio of hydrodynamic to thermodynamic boundary layer is

δ/δt ≈ Pr1/3. (7.46)

Therefore, thermal boundary layer thickness becomes

(7.47)

 Note that these relations are valid only for laminar flow over an isothermal flat
plate. Also, the effect of variable properties can be accounted for by evaluating all
such properties at the film temperature defined as Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2.

 The Blasius solution gives important insights, but its value is largely historical because
of the limitations it involves.

 Nowadays both laminar and turbulent flows over surfaces are routinely analyzed
using numerical methods.

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 Example 6.4: Air at 20°C and one atmosphere flows over a surface at 100°C with a free
stream velocity of 6 m/s. Determine the values of Reynolds number, thermal and
hydrodynamic boundary layer thicknesses and the local value and average values of
convective heat transfer coefficients at distances of 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25 m from
the leading edge. Also determine the length at which the flow turns to turbulent taking
critical Reynolds number as 5 × 105.

Solution: The temperature at which properties are to be read is (20 + 100)/2 = 60°C for
air at one atmospheric pressure. The following values are read from tables:
ν = 18.97 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.696, k = 0.02896 W/mK

The distance at which Rex = 5 × 105 is determined using, (6 x x) / (18.97 x 10-6) = 5 x 105
solving x = 1.58 m
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
Problem 6.5: Air flows over a plate at a free stream velocity of 5 m/s. The plate
temperature is 100°C and the air temperature is 20°C. If the average value of convective
heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m2K, determine the length of the plate in the direction
of flow.

Solution: From Eqs. (7.43 and 44) we can estimate the length of the plate.

k, ν and Pr are to be found at film temperature of (100 + 20)/2 = 60°C. The values are
read from data book : k = 28.96 × 10–3, ν = 18.97 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.696

Estimating,

Check the validity ReL = 0.34 x 5 / 18.97 x 10-6 = 89,615

This is less than 5 × 105. So the flow is laminar and the equation used is valid.
Nu = 0.664 . ReL0.5 × Pr0.333 = 0.664 × 896150.5 × 0.6960.333 = 176.155
h = 176.155 x 28.96 x 10-3 / 0.34 = 15 W/m2K.
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
Problem 6.6: Air at 1 atm pressure flows over a plate 0.5 m long with a free stream
velocity of 5 m/s. The film temperature is 60°C. If the friction coefficient on the plate is
found as 3.68 × 10–3 for one side, determine the average convective heat transfer
coefficient.
Solution:

Problem 6.7: Nitrogen at a pressure of 0.1 atm flows over a flat plate with a free stream
velocity of 8 m/s. The temperature of the gas is – 20°C. The plate temperature is 20°C.
Determine the length for the flow to turn turbulent. Assume 5 × 105 as critical Reynolds
number. Also determine the thickness of thermal and velocity boundary layers and the
average convection coefficient for a plate length of 0.3 m.
Solution: Properties are to be found at film temperature, – 20 + 20)/2 = 0°C

As density and kinematic viscosities will vary with pressure, dynamic viscosity is read
from tables μ = 16.67 × 10–6 Ns/m2, k = 24.31 × 10–3 W/mK, Pr = 0.705, ρ = 1.250 × 0.1
= 0.125 kg/m3

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 Therefore, at x = 8.335 m the flow turns into turbulent

At x = 0.3 m, the Reynolds number is less than 5 × 105 and so the flow is laminar.
δh = 5x/Re0.5 = 5 × 0.3/(8 × 0.125 × 0.3/16.67 × 10–6)0.5 = 0.01118 m or 11.18 mm

δh = 0.01118 m (or) 11.18 mm

Thermal boundary layer thickness = δh/Pr0.333 = 11.18/0.7050.333 = 12.56 mm

δt = 12.56 mm

Average convection coefficient, 𝒉 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟑 𝐖/𝐦𝟐𝐊

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 Special cases of flow over a flat plate
Example 6.8: Engine oil at 60°C flows over a flat surface with a velocity of 2 m/s, the
length of the surface being 0.4m. If the plate has a uniform heat flux of 10 kW/m2,
determine the value of average convective heat transfer coefficient. Also find the
temperature of the plate at the trailing edge.
Solution:
As the film temperature cannot be determined, the property values are taken at
free stream temperature of 60°C,
Kinematic viscosity, ν = 83 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 1050, k = 0.1407 W/mK
(HMT Data book Page No: 25)
Rex = u∞ x/ν = 2 x 0.4 / 83 x 10-6 = 9639 ∴ The flow is laminar

Pr number is very high, and heat flux is given, the most suitable solution is
mentioned page no: 114, 1.2.1, silicones (high viscous fluids) therefore,

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

Now we can find the average temperature difference:
ΔT = q / h = 100000 / 317.94 = 31.45°C
Therefore, temperature of the plate at trailing edge is calculated from
ΔT = T2 – T1 = 31.45°C
Temperature of the plate at trailing edge, T2 = 91.45 °C (1st iteration)

 This answer is estimated only at the oil

temperature. We need to estimate the
same at film temperature. Now, we should
take the properties with new film
temperature, (60+91.45)/2 = 75.75 °C (By
interpolation).
 Re-do the same procedure and find the
refined average heat transfer coefficient
and temperature of the plate. These are
found as, 348.6 W/m2K and 117.4 °C
respectively.

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 TURBULENT FLOW
HMT data book, page. 114: For flat plate, the turbulent region is, 5 x 105 > Rex > 107

The hydrodynamic layer thickness, δhx = 0.381 x Re-0.2 (7.48)

Thermal boundary layer thickness, δtx ≈ δhx (7.49)

Fully turbulent from leading edge,

Local Nusselt number, Nux = 0.0296 Rex0.8 Pr0.33 (7.50)

Average Nusselt number, 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.037 Re0.8 Pr0.33 (7.51)

Average heat transfer coefficient, 𝒉𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒉𝒙 (7.52)

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
FLOW OVER/ACROSS OBJECTS (CYLINDERS AND SPHERES)
Fluid flow over solid bodies responsible for numerous
applications as

 The drag force acting on the automobiles, power

lines, trees and underwater pipelines;

 The lift developed by airplane wings; upward draft of

rain, snow, hail and dust particles in high winds; and

 The cooling of metal or plastic sheets, steam and

hot water pipes, and extruded wires.

Therefore, developing a good understanding of

external flow and external forced convection is
important

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

DRAG and LIFT:
You may have seen high winds knocking down trees, power lines and even building
beams, and have felt the strong “push” the wind exerts on your body. The force a flowing
fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag.

The drag force FD depends on the density of the fluid, the upstream velocity V and the
size, shape, and orientation of the body, among other things.
The drag characteristics of a body is represented by the dimensionless drag coefficient
CD defined as
(7.53)

 A stationary fluid exerts only normal pressure forces on the surface of a body
immersed in it.
 A moving fluid, however, also exerts tangential shear forces on the surface because of
the no-slip condition caused by viscous effects.
 Both of these forces, have components in the direction of flow, and thus the drag
force is due to the combined effects of pressure and wall shear forces in the flow
direction.
 The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the normal direction to flow
tend to move the body in that direction, and their sum is called lift

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

 The experimental data for heat transfer is often represented conveniently with
reasonable accuracy by a simple power-law relation of the form

Nu = C ReLm Prn (7.54)

Where, m and n are constant exponents, and the value of the constant C depends
on geometry and flow.
When relations for local friction and convection coefficients are available, the average
friction and convection coefficients for the entire surface can be determined by
integration from

(7.55)

(7.56)

 Flow across cylinders and spheres is frequently encountered in practice.

 For example, the tubes in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger involve both internal flow
through the tubes and external flow over the tubes, and both flows must be
considered in the analysis of the heat exchanger.
 Also, many sports such as soccer, tennis, and golf involve flow over spherical balls
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
 The characteristic length for a circular cylinder or sphere is taken to be the
external diameter D.
Thus, the Reynolds number is defined as Re = V D / ν
Where, V is the uniform velocity of the fluid as it approaches the cylinder or
sphere.
The critical Reynolds number for flow across a circular cylinder or sphere is
about Recr = 2 x 105.
That is, the boundary layer remains laminar for about Re < 2 x 105 and becomes
turbulent for Re > 2 x 105.
EXAMPLE 6.10:
A 2.2-cm-outer-diameter pipe is to cross a river at a 30-m-wide section while being
completely immersed in water. The average flow velocity of water is 4 m/s and the
water temperature is 15 °C. Determine the drag force exerted on the pipe by the river.
Take CD is 1.
SOLUTION: A pipe is crossing a river. The drag
force that acts on the pipe is to be determined.
Assumptions:
1 The outer surface of the pipe is smooth.
2 Water flow in the river is steady.
3 The direction of water flow is normal to the pipe.
4 Turbulence in river flow is not considered.
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
The density and dynamic viscosity of water at 15 °C are 999.1 kg/m3 and 1.138 X 10-3 kg/m·s

The frontal area for flow past a cylinder is A = LD

FD = 5275 N

Discussion: Note that this force is equivalent to the weight of a mass over 500 kg.
Therefore, the river exerts 500 kg mass on the pipe supported at its ends 30 m apart.
The necessary precautions should be taken if the pipe cannot support this force.

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

Empirical
correlations for the
average Nusselt
number for forced
convection
over circular and
noncircular cylinders
in cross flow

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

EXAMPLE 6.11: Heat Loss from a Steam Pipe in Windy Air
A long 10-cm-diameter steam pipe whose external surface temperature is 110°C passes
through some open area that is not protected against the winds. Determine the rate of
heat loss from the pipe per unit of its length when the air is at 1 atm pressure and 10°C
and the wind is blowing across the pipe at a velocity of 8 m/s.

SOLUTION: A steam pipe is exposed to windy air. The rate of heat loss from the
steam is to be determined.
Assumptions
1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Radiation effects are negligible.
3 Air is an ideal gas.
Properties The properties of air at the average film temperature of Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2 =
(110 + 10)/2 = 60°C and 1 atm pressure are
k = 0.02808 W/m °C; Pr = 0.7202; ν = 1.896 x 10-5 m2/s

Nu = 124

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal

Therefore, h = k Nu/D = 0.02808 W/m · °C (124)/0.1 m = 34.8 W/m2 °C

Then the rate of heat transfer from the pipe per unit of its length becomes
As = pL = πDL = π(0.1 m)(1 m) = 0.314 m2
Q = hAs(Ts - T∞) = (34.8 W/m2 °C)(0.314 m2)(110 - 10)°C

Q = 1093 W
Discussion: The simpler Nusselt number relation in Table (HMT data book, page 116) in
this case would give Nu = 128, which is 3 percent higher than the value obtained
above.

Example 6.12: Air at 30°C flows over a sphere of 0.1 m dia with a velocity of 8 m/s. The
solid surface is at 50°C. Determine the value of convection coefficient.

At film temp.: Re = 0.1 × 8/16.96 × 10–6 = 47,170

∴ 1st Equation from HMT data book can be used (page no: 120)
Nu = 0.37. Re0.6 = 235.72,
∴ h = 64.96 W/m2K
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
If we use the 2nd eqn.
Nu = 2 + (0.25 Re + (3 × 10–4 Re1.6)]0.5 = 146.25
∴ h = 40.3 W/m2K
Where, μ∞ is viscosity of free
Another possible equation is,
stream fluid and μw is
viscosity of the fluid at wall
temp

Nu = 151.88, therefore, h = 40.62 W/m2K

The 3rd equation being the latest correlation, it is safer to consider the value of 40.62
W/m2K for convection coefficient

Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal