)

Electrical Distribution-
System Protection

A Textbook and Practical

Reference on Overcurrent and
Overvoltage Fundamentals,
Protective Equipment and
Applications

Copyright 2005
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States

""'
COOPER Power Systems

I
The information in this manual, while based on generally accepted fundamentals and practices, does not claim to cover all details or variations
in the requirements and problems relating to electrical distribution-system overcurrent and overvoltage phenomena, and in the methods and
equipment for dealing with such phenomena. Also, the examples ctted for achieving overcurrent and overvoltage protection are typical ones
presented for illustration only, and their solutions should not be applied to specific situations without full consideration of all appropriate factors.

II
 A Guide to the Manual
The designer of an electrical distribution
system must anticipate a variety of sit-
uations that might interfere with normal
operation of the system. Among the
most commonly encountered abnormal
conditions are line faults and their
resultant overcurrents, transient over-
voltages, and system overloads.
Generally, atmospheric distur-
bances-and, to a lesser extent, human
and animal interference - are the under-
lying causes of faults and over-volt-
ages. Line faults can be caused by
strong winds that whip phase conduc-
tors together and blow tree branches
onto lines. In winter, freezing rain can
produce a gradual buildup of ice on a
circuit, causing one or more conduc-
tors to break and fall to the ground.
Squirrels and birds will sometimes
produce line or ground faults by placing
themselves between energized portions
of the circuit and/or ground. On under-
ground systems, the severing of cables
by earth-moving equipment is
a prevalent cause of faults. Lightning
strokes can fault a system by opening
lines or initiating arcs between conduc-
Section A (Page 1)
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
1. Fundamentals and Theory
2. Protective Equipment
Characteristics and General
Application Factors
3. Protective Equipment Applications
and Coordination
4. Summary of Protection for a
Complete Distribution System
tors as well as by causing dangerous
voltage transients ondistribution
circuits.
The primary cause of overloads is
simply unforeseen or faster-than-
expected load growth, and equipment
malfunction or failure also might over-
tax a system. Equipment failure can be
caused by the improper design, manu-
facture, installation, or application of
the equipment itself, and by lightning,
insulation deterioration, and system
faults.
"Distribution-system protection" is
the composite of all the measures
taken on a given system to minimize
the effects of the abnormal conditions
described above. All of the conditions
cannot be prevented from occurring at
all times, but they can be controlled
and contained-by protecting equipment
and lines from damage to the fullest
extent that technology and economics
permit, and by limiting any interrup-
tions of service to the smallest
practical portions of the system and
numbers of customers.
Section B (Page 167)
OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION
1. Fundamentals and Theory
2. Insulation and Surge Arrester
Characteristics and General
Application Factors
3. Surge Arrester Applications and
Other Protection Details
4. Summary of Protection for a
Complete Distribution System
III
In this manual, prepared for system
designers, protection engineers, and
students, the general subject of
distribution-system protection is broken
into its two principal areas: overcurrent
protection and overvoltage protection.
Within each of these sections are
detailed discussions of fundamentals
and theory, equipment characteristics,
and applications. A third section then
covers the special considerations that
must be taken into account in protect-
ing systems with industrial loads, with
dispersed generation, and with system
automation.
To guide you into the manual, pre-
sented below is a general listing of the
three main sections, each of which
contains a detailed table of contents.
Section C (Page 245)
SPECIAL SYSTEM
CONSIDERATIONS
1. Effects of Industrial Loads
2. Protection of Systems with
Dispersed Storage and Generation
3. Protection of Systems with
Automated Distribution
 Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
 Table of Contents
Page
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Introduction . .. . .... . . ..... .. . . ....... .. .. ...... 5
Principles and Objectives .. . ..... . .. . ..... . .... ... 6
Distribution System Reliability . ................ ... . . .6
Performance Indices .. ..... . ..... . ............ .. 6
Feeder Length as a Factor in Reliability .... . ... . .. .. 7
Protection Concerns and Practices ........ . ...... . .. .7
Temporary vs. Permanent Faults ................ ... 7
Protecting Feeder Segments and Taps ..............7
"Protecting" and "Protected" Devices ... . ........... .8
Momentary Service Interruptions ..... . ... . ... . ...... 8
Tools for Fault Analysis ..... . ......... . ......... .9
Method of Symmetrical Components ......... ." ...... .9
Simplifying the Approach to
Complicated Problems .. . ......................9
Balanced Systems in Symmetrical Components ..... .9
Relationships Between Symmetrical Components and
Phase Quantities . . . .. . ............ . ......... 10
Example of Symmetrical Components Method ....... 10
Sequence Impedances ... ............ . ......... 11
The Per-Unit Method ...... . . .... . ................ 11
Single-Phase System Calculations . ...... ... . .. ... 12
Three-Phase System Calculations ................ 13
Use of Impedances in Fault Calculations ............. 14
Types of Distribution Circuits .... .. ............... 14
Impedances of Overhead Distribution Circuits ....... 14
Impedances of Underground Distribution Cable ...... 19
Equations for Calculating Sequence Impedances
of Underground Concentric Neutral Cable .. . ....20
Effect of Cable Insulation . . ...... . ... ..........25
Effect of Neutral Size ............ ... .... ......25
Effect of Earth Resistivity ... .. .. . . . .. . .. .. .. ... 25
Effect of Interphase Spacing . . .. .. . . .......... .25
Skin Effect and Proximity Effect . . .. . . .. . .... .. . .26
Impedances of Transformers ............. .. . . ... .26
Impedances of Transmission Lines . . ........ . . ... .27
Impedances of Generators ... .. .... . .. . ....... ..27
Source Impedance ................ . ...... . .. . .29
Methods for Finding Source Impedance ........ . .30
Fault Impedance .. . .. . . . ... ... . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. .31
System Faults . . .... . .. . .. . ...... . . . . . . . .... . .. 33
Types of Faults .. . ... . ... .. . . ............... . ....33
Voltages at the Terminals of a Generator . .. ... . .. . .33
Equations for a Single Line-to-Ground Fault ... . .. . .. 34
Sequence Networks ...... . ........... . . . ...... 35
Equations for Other Fault Conditions . . .. . .... . .. . .36
Thevenin's Theorem . . . . ..... . ..... . ......... .36
Equations for Fault-Current Magnitudes ... . .. .. . .36
Asymmetrical Fault Current . .. . . . .... .. .. .. . . .... . .38
Definition and Significance . . .......... . ..... . . . .38
Application of Current Asymmetry Information . ...... 39
Motor-Current Contributions ......... . ............ .42
Fault Calculation Procedures and Examples ...........43
Assumptions ............ . .......... . . . .. . .. . .43
Basic Approach . . .. . ... .. . . . .. . . . ... . ... . . .. . .43
Example of Source-Impedance Calculation ..... . ... 44
Example of Distribution-System Calculation ........ .45
Computer Calculation of Fault Currents . ........ . .47
Index of Figures and Tables . .. . . . ....... . ... . . . . .50
2
Page
2. PROTECTIVE .EQUIPMENT CHARACTER-
ISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS ... 51
Introduction . .. . . . .. . ... . .......... . .. . ... . . .. .51
Fusing Equipment . . .. .. . .. ..... ... . . ...... . .... 52
Designs and Characteristics ........ . ......... . .... 52
Fuse Links ... . .... . ............. . .... .. ...... 52
Fuse Cutouts . . ... .. .. . ..... .. .. . .. . ... . ... .. .53
Current-Limiting Fuses .. ............... . .... . .. 54
Fuse Application Factors .. . ....... . ............ . .. 59
Fuse Cutouts/Fuse Links ..... . ..... . .. . .. . .. . . . .59
Fuse-Link Selection .. ..... . .... . ... . . .. .. . ... . .60
Current-Limiting Fuse Selection ........... . ...... 61
Automatic Circuit Reclosers ... . ..... . ...... .. .. . .62
Recloser Classifications ... . .... .. ...... . .. .. .... . .62
Single-Phase Reclosers . ... ... ... . .. . .. . . . .... .62
Three-Phase Reclosers . .. ................. . .... 64
Triple/Single Reclosers ............ . .... . ....... 64
Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers .. . . . . .. . .. . .... 65
Electronically Controlled Reclosers . .. .. .. . ... . .... 65
Types of Interrupters ... . .. . .... . .. . ....... .. . . .65
Types of Insulating Mediums ...... . . . ....... . . . .. 65
Recloser Locations and Functions .. . . . . ........ . .. .66
Pad-mounted Reclosers . .. .. ... . ............. . .66
Recloser Application Factors . . ..... . .. . ....... . .. . .66
System Voltage . .. .. . .. ...... . .. .. .... . ..... . .66
Maximum Fault Current ........ . ... . ...... . . . . . .66
Maximum Load Current ....... . .... . .. .. .. . ... . .66
Minimum Fault Current . . ........ . .............. 66
Coordination with Other Protective Devices . .. . . . . . .66
Dual Timing . . . .. . . .. .......... . ......... .. .67
Ground-Fault Sensing .. . .... . ..... . . . ........ . .67
Sectionalizers .. . .. . . . .. . . . ..... . ..... .. ........ 68
Sectionalizer Classifications ... . ... . .. . .. ... . ... ... 68
Hydraulically Controlled Sectionalizers . ..... . . . .. . .68
Electronically Controlled Sectionalizers ... . .... . .... 68
Sectionalizer Features .. .. .. . . ..... . .... . .... .. ... 68
Sectionalizer Application Factors .. .. . ....... . . . ..... 68
System VoHage .. .......... .. ...... . . . .. . .. . .. 69
Maximum Load Current . . .... . ........ . ......... 69
Maximum FauH Current . .. ......... . .. ... . . . . ... 69
Coordination with Other Protective Devices ...... . .. 69
Circuit Breakers and Relays . .. . ..................70
Circuit Breaker Characteristics and Classifications ...... 70
Circuit Breaker Ratings . .... . . . .. . ......... . ...... 71
Rated Maximum Voltage .. . ..... . .. . .... . .. .. ... 71
Rated VoHage Range Factor, K . .......... .. .... . .71
Rated Withstand Test Voltage, Low Frequency . . ..... 71
Rated Withstand Test Voltage, Impulse . .... .. ..... .71
Rated Continuous Current at 60Hz .. . . . ..........71
Rated Short-Circuit Current
(at Rated Maximum kV) . . . ... . . .. . .. . . .. ...... 71
Transient Recovery Voltage, Rated Time to Point P ... 71
Rated Interrupting Time ... . ..... . ...............71
Rated Permissible Tripping Delay .... . ....... .. . . .71
Rated Maximum Voltage Divided by K ... . ...... . . .72
Maximum Symmetrical Interrupting Capability ....... 72
Three-Second Short-Time Current-Carrying Capability 72
Closing-and-Latching Capability . . ..... . ....... . .. 72
Types of Relays . .. . . .. .. . . ......... . .... . .. . . ...73
Overcurrent Relay . . .......... . .... . . . ... . .... : .. 73
Time-Current Characteristics ... . ... . ..... . ....... 73
Instantaneous Trip .. . ... . ... . ....... . .. .... .. ·. .75
Reset . ..... . .. . .. . ..... . . . . ... ...... . .... . .. 78

Page
Reclosing Relay .................................78
Microprocessor Based Relay .....................78
Index of Figures and Tables ......................79
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND
COORDINATION
Introduction ...................................81
Coordination Basics ............................82
Example of System Coordination ...................82
Fuse-Fuse Coordination .........................83
TCC Coordination Method .........................83
Use of Coordination Tables ........................ 84
Rules of Thumb .................................85
Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination ...............87
Source-Side Current-Limiting Fuse and Load-Side
Expulsion Fuse ...............................87
Load-Side Current-Limiting Fuse and
Source-Side Expulsion Fuse ..................... 87
Coordinating Two Current-Limiting Fuses ............. 88
Backup Current-Limiting Fuse and Expulsion Fuse ..... 88
Transformer Fusing .............................90
Developing a Transformer Fusing Philosophy .......... 90
Types of Fuses for Transformer Protection ............ 90
Capacitor Fusing ...............................98
General Criteria .................................98
Withstanding Steady-State and Transient
Currents ...................................98
Effectively Removing a Failed or Failing Capacitor
Unit .......................................98
Summary of General Criteria ....................98
Group Capacitor Fusing ..........................98
Continuous Current ............................98
Transient Currents .............................99
Fault Current .................................99
Tank-Rupture Curve Coordination ................ 100
Voltage on Good Capacitors .................... 100
Coordination with Upline Overcurrent Devices ...... 100
Summary of Group Fusing ..................... 100
Individual Capacitor Fusing ....................... 100
Continuous Current ........................... 100
Transient Currents ............................ 100
Fault Current ................................ 100
Tank-Rupture Curve Coordination ................ 103
Voltage on Good Capacitors .................... 103
Energy Discharge into a Failed Unit .............. 104
Outrush Current .............................. 104
Coordination with Unbalance Detection Scheme .... 104
Summary of Individual Fusing ................... 104
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination ............. 105
Recloser Coordination Principles* ................ 105
Recloser Ratings* ............................ 105
*Pertain Also to Other Recloser Applications
Use of Time-Current Curves with Adjustments ...... 111
Coordination with Source-Side Fuse Links ......... 111
Example of Source-Side Fuse and
Recloser Selections ......................... 112
Coordination with Load-Side Fuse Links ........... 112
Example of Load-Side Fuse and
Recloser Selections ......................... 112
Relay-Fuse Coordination ....................... 117
Relay and Source-Side Fuse Coordination ........... 117
Total Accumulated Time Method ................. 117
Cooling-Factor Method ........................ 117
Relay and Wad-Side Fuse Coordination ............. 121
Approaches to Temporary Fault Protection ......... 121
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination ............... 125
Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
Page
Using Time-Current Curves ....................... 125
Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Coordination Basics ........................... 125
Smaller Reclosers (Series Coil Operated} ......... 125
Larger Recloser (High-Voltage Solenoid Closing) .... 126
Electronically Controlled Reclosers
Coordination Basics ........................... 126
Example of Electronic Recloser Coordination ....... 127
Alternate Coordination Scheme ................. 128
Features and Accessories for Electronically
Controlled Reclosers .......................... 128
Sequence Coordination ........................ 128
Instantaneous Trip ............................ 128
Instantaneous Lockout ......................... 131
Instantaneous Trip/Instantaneous Lockout
Combination ............................... 131
Reclosing Interval .............................. 131
Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers ............... 132
Electronically Controlled Reclosers ............... 132
Examples of Reclosing Intervals ................. 132
Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination ... 133
Microprocessor Overcurrent Relay ................. 133
Electro-Mechanical Overcurrent Relay .............. 133
Impulse Margin Time .......................... 133
Reset Time ................................. 134
Methods for Checking Relay and Downline
Recloser Coordination ....................... 135
Recloser and Relay/Circuit-Breaker
Coordination Analysis ....................... 137
Calculation of Relay Travel
During Recloser Operation .................... 137
Sectionalizer Applications ...................... 138
Sectionalizer Coordination Principles ............... 138
Recloser and Hydraulically Controlled
Sectionalizer Coordination ...................... 138
Coil Sizes ................................... 139
Memory Time ................................ 139
Voltage Restraint ............................. 140
Recloser and Electronically Controlled
Sectionalizer Coordination ...................... 141
Selection of Actuating Levels .................. 141
Sectionalizer Features ....................... 141
Count Reset .............................. 141
Voltage Restraint .......................... 141
Count Restraint ........................... 142
Current Inrush Restraint ..................... 142
Ground-Fault Sensing ...................... 142
Recloser, Sectionalizer, and Fuse-Link Coordination ... 142
Recloser, Sectionalizer, and Recloser Coordination .... 143
Circuit Breaker and Sectionalizer Coordination ........ 143
Automatic Load Transfer ........................ 144
Switched Load Transfer Schemes .................. 144
Load Transfer Schemes Utilizing Reclosers .......... 144
Load Transfer with Manual Return ................ 144
Load Transfer with Automatic Return ............. 145
Loop Sectionalizing ............................ 147
Loop Sectionalizing Scheme with Three Reclosers .... 147
Loop Sectionalizing Scheme with Five Reclosers ...... 148
Loop Sectionalizing Scheme with Three Reclosers
and Two Sectionalizers ........................ 149
Index of Figures and Tables ..................... 150
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A
COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Introduction .................................. 153
3
 Page Page
Preliminary Considerations .....................154
Review of Principles ............................ 154
System Configuration and Data .................... 154
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications .. 156
Substation Transformer Protection .................. 156
Main Circuit Protection .....................•.... 157
Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination .... 157
Feeder Protection ....•......................... 158
Recloser-Sectionalizer Coordination ..........•... 159
Recloser-Recloser Coordination .........•....... 159
Ground-Fault Protection .....................•....160
Branch Protection .............................. 160
Recloser-Fuse Coordination ...•................. 161
Capacitor Fusing ............................... 163
Summary .........................•...........165

* * *
REFERENCES AND CREDITS 264

4
 Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

An Introduction
A thorough understanding of fundamentals and theory is
essential for effective handling of distribution-system protection
problems. In order to minimize the undesirable effects an
occasionally hostile environment can have on system per-
formance, the designer or protection engineer must know the
types of faults that can occur on the system and the nature of
their cause, plus, of course, the probability and effects of
lightning- and system-produced voltage surges (to be
covered in Section B, Overvoltage Protection).
This section on fundamentals and theory begins with
introductory comments about the principles and philosophy
of overcurrent protection, which will be repeated and
enlarged upon, as appropriate, in subsequent sections dealing
with specifics. Detailed discussions of tools the designer may
use for fault analysis are followed by descriptions of the various
types of faults that may be encountered, presentation of a
basic method for calculating the magnitude of overcurrent for
different types of disturbances, and a discussion of the use of
digital computers for analyzing complex systems. All of which
is intended to provide a solid foundation for understanding
and use of the equipment and application information in
Sections A2 and A3.

Table of Contents, Page 2

Index of Figures and Tables, Page 50

5
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Principles and Objectives
The overall objectives of overcurrent protection are the same
as for all areas of distribution-system protection: to prevent
damage to equipment and circuits, to prevent hazards to the
public and utility personnel, and to maintain a high level of
service by preventing power interruptions when possible and
minimizing their effects when they do occur.
Basic system planning for radial or network service, manual
or automatic sectionalizing, etc., obviously plays a major role in
achieving these objectives. The use of proper phase spacing
and conductor insulation also contribute, as do such practices
as periodic tree trimming, inspections for other potential prob-
lems, and equipment maintenance. These areas of planning
and operation are mostly outside the scope of this manual,
which focuses on the kinds of abnormal conditions that can
occur, the methods for recognizing and analyzing these
undesirable conditions, and the selection and application of
protective equipment specifically designed to respond to them.
In coping with the increased currents associated with system
faults and overloading, the system designer must provide
adequate protection for all types of distribution apparatus
(transformers, capacitors, voltage regulators, etc.) as well as
for all segments of the system itself. A variety of devices can
be used, ranging from single-action fuses to automatic circuit
reclosers and relay-controlled circuit breakers. All must be
coordinated, with protective devices in many cases serving to
protect other protective devices that function as backup
guardians of equipment or circuits. The final system design
will be influenced by economic and environmental factors,
but the starting point for an effective system must be sound
technical analysis.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RELIABILITY
All types of electric utility customers- residential, commer-
cial, institutional, and industrial -are heavily dependent on
the availability of electric power. For the residential customer, a
loss of service affects just about every function and major
device in the house, both those that are fully dependent
on electric power (lighting, refrigeration, microwave ovens,
televisions, air conditioners, home security systems, personal
computers) and those that may be only partially dependent
on electricity (furnaces, water heaters). Shopping centers
suffer loss of sales and may have serious problems when
outages occur during busy shopping periods. Schools may
cease to function. Patient care is affected at health institu-
tions. Industrial customers experience immediate financial
loss as machines and processes shut down.
With all of this, the individual electric utility customer has
become very aware of and sensitive to any interruption of
electrical service. Customer perceptions of service reliability
are affected by both the frequency and duration of outages,
and efforts to improve reliability must address both of these
areas. Even momentary outages lasting less than 2 seconds
can be as troublesome as sustained outages for some
customers. Economics will of course be a factor in each
utility's approach to reliability.
6
Performance Indices
For discussion of outage rates, an outage is any complete
loss of electric service, even for a second or less.
To measure reliability in terms of recorded outages,
performance indices frequently are used as described in
IEEE 1366-1998 Guide for Power Distribution Reliability
Indices. Use of these "standard" indices will permit compar-
isons between utilities or between different divisions of a
given utility. More importantly, perhaps, it will allow
evaluation of changes by a direct comparison of past and
future performance of a feeder or system. These indices are
typically calculated for a single feeder, an operating area, or
the entire utility service territory. The several types of stan-
dard indices are:
1. System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI)
defines the average number of times a customer's service
is interrupted during a year for longer than 2 seconds. A
customer interruption is defined as one interruption to one
customer.
SAIFI _ Total Number of Customer lnterr ions
- Total Number of Customers S
2. System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAID I)
defines the average interruption duration per customer
served per year.
SAlOl =Sum of Customer Interruption Durations
Total Number of Customers
3. Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index (MAIFI)
defines the average number of momentary interruptions
(2 seconds or less) per customer interrupted per year.
MAl Fl =Total Number of Momentary Customer Interruptions
Total Number of Customers Served
4. Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI)
defines the average interruption duration for those cus-
tomers interrupted during a year.
CAIDI _ Sum of Customer Interruption Durations
- Total Number of Customer Interruptions
5. Average Service Availability Index (ASAI) defines the ratio
of the total number of customer hours that service was
available during a year to the total customer hours
demanded (customer hours demanded = 24 hours/day x
=
365 days 8760 hours).
ASAI = 8760- SAID I
8760
For example, a SAlOl (see number 2, above) of 1.0 hours
per year produces:
ASAI = 87608760
- 1.0
= 99.989%

Feeder Length as a factor in Reliability
uany utilities have found that service reliability deteriorated
slgnifk:;antly when they converted to a higher distribution voltage
,tor example, from 4 kV to 13 kV). The higher voltage allowed
bnger feeders and more customers per feeder, but each outage
aftected more customers, and longer feeders required more
patrol time to locate the fault and take corrective action.
Even without a change to higher voltage, service reliability
can deteriorate as more customers are added to a feeder,
and the feeder itself may be extended.
To restore service reliability in such cases, an important
first step is to sectionalize each feeder into smaller segments,
thereby limiting the number of customers affected by a given
ootage and reducing the subsequent patrol time. Operating
experience of a number of utilities that have adopted this
sectionalizing practice suggests that an optimum feeder
segment in terms of load is 3 to 5 MVA. As the load of a line
segment approaches 8 to 10 MVA, outage rates increase to
unsatisfactory levels.
PROTECTION CONCERNS AND PRACTICES
Temporary Versus Permanent Faults
Most faults on overhead distribution systems are temporary -
perhaps as high as 70 to 80 percent. Also, of those faults
categorized as permanent, at least one-third had initially
been temporary (that is, lasting only a few cycles to a few
seconds).
A temporary fault is one whose cause is transitory in
nature. Examples include momentary interruptions caused
by two conductors being blown together, by a tree branch
faling across two conductors and then dropping clear, and by
a bird or small animal that briefly causes an arc from a live
terminal to ground. If the arc that results can be cleared
quickly, before it burns into a permanent fault, the cause of the
fault is gone, no equipment damage has occurred, and the
circuit can be re-energized immediately, restoring service to
the entire system. Since the "open" time between fault inter-
ruption and re-energization is so brief, this type of incident
is classified as a momentary outage.
A permanent fault is one in which damage has occurred,
either from the cause of the fault or from the fault arc.
Examples include faults caused by a broken insulator, by a
broken conductor, and by an automobile knocking down a pole.
When a permanent fault occurs, the line must be deener-
gized, and a line crew must travel to the site and repair the
damage. The time to restore service may range from 30 minutes
to several hours; accordingly, the incident results in a recorded
sustained outage.
A1
Maximum service reliability is achieved when the distribution
system is designed and operated to minimize the effects
of any fault that may occur. Given the high percentage of
temporary faults, two basic rules of distribution protec,ion
emerge:
1. All faults must be given a chance to be temporary by
providing a reclosing operation for a fault anywhere on the
system.
2.1n responding to that low percentage of faults found to
be permanent after the designated number of reclosing
operations has been performed, the protective devices
must remove from service only the smallest possible portion
of the system necessary for isolation of the faulted segment.
Protecting Feeder Segments and Taps
To minimize the effects of faults on the main feeder, section-
alizing devices (reclosers or sectionalizers, or a combination
of the two) can be used to divide the feeder into the desired
smaller segments. All taps running off the feeder should have
a protective device (fuses for small taps, a recloser or section-
alizer for large taps) where they connect to the main feeder.
Even on very small taps, a fuse should be used. The justifi-
cation is that this type of fuse does not only protect the tap,
but rather protects the remainder of the distribution feeder
from a fault on the tap.
Regardless of the extent of sectionalizing for a particular
feeder, a combination of a recloser and fuses (Figure OA 1)
and/or sectionalizers is typically used to protect a feeder seg-
ment and its taps against both temporary and permanent
faults. The fast trip curve of the recloser is used to clear all
transient faults on the main feeder and taps. For permanent
faults on the taps, the recloser time-delay curve allows the
tap fuse to clear, resulting in an outage on the tap only.
Some additional steps that can be taken to minimize the
effects of transient faults on sophisticated electronic and
microprocessor-controlled devices is discussed below under
"Momentary Service Interruptions."
Figure OA1.
Reclosers and fuses protect feeder segment and taps
against temporary and transient faults.
7
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Principles and Objectives (Continued)
"Protecting" and "Protected'' Devices
In order to provide safeguards against unwarranted service
interruption as just described as well as in other overcurrent
protection situations, there must be a pairing or series of
protective devices that have been selected to function in
coordinated fashion. By conventional definition, when two or
more protective devices are applied to a system, the device
nearest the fault on the supply side is the "protecting" device,
and the next nearest (that is, the closest device upline from
the "protecting" device) is the "protected" or "back-up" device.
See Figure 1A1.
When properly coordinated, the protecting device will function
before the protected device has an opportunity to do so,
thereby limiting power interruption to the area served by the
former. It should be noted that a protecting device might also
function as a protected device if there are additional devices
downline from it. This will be discussed in detail in Section A3,
Protective Equipment Applications and Coordination.
,.
SUBSTATION
PROTECTING
- 3. Critical industrial or commercial loads can be protected by
~
•
jllo
jllo
A
PROTECTED
-8
DEVICE
1
~
OR BACKUP
DEVICE
C PROTECTING
DEVICE
Figure 1A1.
Conventional definitions of protective devices based on
location. Fuse links are indicated for illustration.
MOMENTARY SERVICE INTERRUPTIONS
In years past, momentary service interruptions as a result of
temporary faults caused little or no customer concerns or
inconvenience. In fact, when a brief power loss occurred and
the only result was a dimming of lights or a momentary loss
of service, there was a feeling of relief because there was no
long-term outage.
8
Nowadays, however, a momentary service interruption
disrupts the operation of computers, digital clocks, video
recorders, microwave ovens, etc., and results in customer
annoyance at having to reset and reprogram the equipment.
The impact is even more severe for businesses, manufactur-
ers, and other organizations that rely heavily on computers,
digital controls, and automatic systems.
Following are some of the steps that can be taken by electric
utilities to control the number of momentary interruptions and
limit their effects.
1. The application of recloser-control coordination acces-
sories on substation and midline reclosers can provide
complete coordination of protection devices, thereby
reducing the number of both momentary and longer inter-
ruptions experienced by the feeder's customers.
2. Momentary interruptions can be reduced on main feeders
by midpoint sectionalizing devices. By adding a midpoint
recloser and providing trip coordination with the source-
side recloser, temporary faults downline from the midpoint
recloser will not affect upline customers.
installing a recloser on the main feeder just downline from
the critical load. This reduces the fast-trip burden of the
substation device and consequently the number of
momentary interruptions experienced by the critical load.
4. Reclosers can be added to longer taps off main feeders to
relieve the main feeder from momentary interruptions
caused by downline faults on the tap.
In addition to taking whatever steps are deemed
appropriate to limit the number of momentary interruptions,
electric power suppliers may want to consider communicating
with customers on the relative desirability of such interruptions
compared to long-term outages. Customers also might be
made aware that they can purchase appliances and products
with battery backup, or with circuitry that overrides brief
power interruptions. For industrial and commercial
customers, the ideal solution may be an uninterruptible
power supply.

Tools for Fault Analysis
The design engineer can approach the challenging task of
fault analysis with tools that have proved reliable in decades
of application involving systems of all types and sizes. As
discussed later, computer technology has provided additional
tools in the form of general and customized programs, but
there can be no substitute for a thorough understanding of the
basic methods and approaches that follow.
METHOD OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Under normal operating conditions, a distribution circuit is
essentially a balanced three-phase system. So long as the
circuit remains balanced, the single-phase equivalent circuit
is a powerful tool for simplifying fault analysis, but in more
cases than not, system disturbances or faults create an
unbalanced circuit. The method traditionally used to solve
these problems of unbalanced three-phase systems has
been the analysis of symmetrical components. In this manual,
only the symmetrical component equations applicable to
three-phase power systems will be discussed.
Simplifying the Approach to
Complicated Problems
The usefulness of the method of symmetrical components
is that a complicated problem can be solved by vectorially
summing the solution to three balanced network problems.
!ts success .lies in the ability to establish relatively simple
Interconnections between sequence networks at the point of
the fault for a limited number of unbalanced conditions.
At any. given point in a balanced three-phase system, the
currents 1n the three-phase conductors are equal in magnitude
and separated by 120 degrees in phase angle. The same
holds true for the phase-to-neutral voltages and the phase-
to-phase voltages. (Figure 2A 1.)
Ia =II-¢
c A Ic = I LI1.Q:.Q_
lb=I~
PHASE-PHASE VOLTAGES:
Vab = Va-Vb= V3 V@
Voc = Vb-Vc = V3 V /270
Vca=Vc-Va=V3 V~
Agure 2A1.
Diagram of balanced three-phase system showing con-
ductor and phase relationships.
It is assumed that the reader is familiar with complex number
notation. Figure 2A 1 uses the polar form of this notation. The
magnitudes of the phase voltages and currents are V and I
respectively, and the magnitude of each phase-to-phas~
voltage is the square root of 3 V.
A1
Load impedances in the figure are assumed to include line
impedances. Note the distinction between balanced voltages
and currents and balanced load. Load impedances in the
three phases are equal in both magnitude and angle, whereas
the voltages and currents have 120-degree phase separation.
The virtue of working with balanced systems is that they can
be analyzed on a single-phase basis, since the current in any
phase is always the phase-to-neutral voltage divided by the
single-phase load impedance.
Separate calculation of currents in the two remaining phases
is not necessary. This characteristic of balanced three-phase
systems is the basis for the use of one-line diagrams in which
a three-phase circuit is pictorially represented by a single line
and standard symbols for transformers, switchgear, and
other system components.
In a balanced circuit (Figure 2A 1), the currents and voltages
are not changed if neutral points NS and NL are grounded or
connected with a neutral wire, because no potential difference
can exist between NS and NL. However, this lack of potential
difference will not, in general, hold true if the three-wire system
is unbalanced in some way. Therefore, system conditions in
the unbalanced situation will be affected if points NS and NL
are connected.
Truly balanced three-phase systems exist only in theory.
In reality, many systems are very nearly balanced and, for
practical purposes, can be analyzed as if they are truly balanced
systems. However, there also are situations (unbalanced
loads, unsymmetrical faults, open conductors, etc.) where
the degree of unbalance cannot be neglected. Many of these
situations involve a single point of unbalance on an otherwise
balanced system, and these are the cases in which the
method of symmetrical components finds ready application.
The method permits the phasors of the unbalanced three-
phase system to be resolved into three balanced systems of
phasors. The three balanced systems can then be solved
independently and the results combined in a manner that
depends on the type of unbalance.
Balanced Systems In Symmetrical Components
The balanced systems of phasors used in three-phase
symmetrical component analysis are (Figure 3A 1):
1. Positive-sequence components (denoted by the subscript 1),
consisting of three phasors of equal magnitude and
120-degree phase separation, and having the same phase
sequence as the original phasors. (May be denoted by the
subscript p in other literature.)
2. Negative-sequence components (denoted by the subscript 2),
consisting of three phasors of equal magnitude and
120-degree phase separation, and having a phase
sequence opposite to that of the original phasors. (May be
denoted by the subscript n in other literature.)
3. Zero-sequence components (denoted by the subscript 0),
consisting of three phasors of equal magnitude and 360- or
0-degree phase separation. (May be denoted by the
subscript z in other literature.)
T~e p~asors illustrated in Figure 3A 1 are given voltage
des1gnat1ons, but they could just as well be called currents.
The subscripts correspond to the three phases of the system
and show the differences among the three systems of com-
ponents. The positive-sequence components have the
9
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

normal abc phase sequence, the negative-sequence compo-

nents have the opposite abc phase sequence, and the zero-
sequence components are in phase and have no phase
sequence.

Vc,

{3)

These equations permit converting any set of three-phase

voltage (or current) phasors into their equivalent symmetrical
components. Equations 2 and 3 are written in terms of voltage
phasors, but they also apply to currents if the V's are
NEGATIVE SEQUENCES replaced by l's.
POSITIVE SEQUENCES ZERO SEQUENCES
Example of Symmetrical Components Method
Figure3A1.
Consider a three-phase, four-wire circuit supplying a
Balanced systems of phasors used in three-phase sym-
metrical component analysis. wye-connected load. If an open conductor exists in one
phase, what are the symmetrical components of the currents
in the remaining phases?
Relationships Between Symmetrical
Components and Phase Quantities
To transform from symmetrical components to phase
quantities, the following relationships are used {References
1, 3, 4):

Va = Va 1 + Va2 + Vao

Vb =Vb 1 + Vb2 + Vb0 18 = 1 /60° =.5+j.866

Vc =Vc 1 + V~ + Vc0 (1) lb = 1 I -60° .5-j.866
Ic 0
But the quantities on the right side of these equations are not
all independent. For example:
From Equation 3:
Vb1 =a Va and Vc =aVa
2
1 1 1
1
where a =1 /120°, a2= 1 /240° Ia 1 =3 {Ia + alb + a2Ic}
Also, Vb 2 =aVa2 and Vc2 =a2Va2 =! {I 60° + (1/120° X 1 I -60°) + 0}
and Vb0 = Vao and Vc0 =Vao
!{2l..illt}
These relationships can be verified by an examination of
Figure 3A1.
Substituting into Equation 1 provides
=.667/60°
Va=Va 1 +Va2 +Va0
Ia2 =~ {Ia + a Ib + ale}
2

Vb =a2Va 1 + aVa2 + Va0 =! {1 {/ 60° + {1 /240° X 1/ -60°) + 0}

Vc =aVa 1 + a2Va 2 + Vao {2)
=! {(.5 + j.866) + (-1 + jO)}
These equations show that, once the symmetrical
components of the voltage (or current) of one phase of a system = ~ {-.5 + j.866}
are known, the phase voltages {or currents) for all three
phases can be found. =.333/120°
To transform from phase quantities to symmetrical
components, the following equations are used (References lao=! {Ia + Ib + Ic}
1, 3, 4):
=~ {1/60° + 1/60° + 0°}
=~ {1 ill:}
=.333ffi:

10
 A1
Expressing these results both graphically and numerically, Sequence Impedances
the positive-sequence components are: In general usage, the phrase "positive-sequence impedance"
does not mean the positive-sequence component of an
unbalanced set of impedances ~a, ~ b, and ~c. such as
might be calculated from the expression(~ a+ a~ b + a2~ c)l3.
Ia 1 = .667 I 60°
Instead, the phrase means the impedance of a symmetrical
lb 1 = a 21a1 = .667 I 300° three-phase circuit measured when energized by a positive-
sequence voltage source. For example, if a symmetrical
lc 1 =ala 1 =.667 I 180° three-phase line has all three phases shorted at one end and
is energized by a balanced three-phase positive-sequence
Ib1 voltage at the other end, then only positive-sequence cur-
rents will flow in the three phases of the line. The phase A
The negative-sequence components are: line-to-ground voltage at the input to the line divided by the
phase A current will then be the positive sequence of the line.
Similarly, the phrases "negative-sequence impedance" and
Ia2 = .333 I 120° "zero-sequence impedance" are shortened expressions for
"impedance to negative-sequence current" and "impedance
lb 2 = ala 2 = .333 I 240° to zero-sequence current." The symbols normally used to
designate positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence impedances
lc 2 = a 21a2 = .333 ~ are used here. These are, respectively, ~ 1, ~ 2, and ~ o.
This material will consider only symmetrical, or balanced,
circuits. For example, fully balanced distribution lines and
balanced sources of supply are assumed. These are reasonable
The zero-sequence components are: assumptions, and results based on them are sufficiently
accurate for fault calculations. Also, these assumptions help
demonstrate the method of symmetrical components without
getting into the many complications of the method when
working with unsymmetrical systems. In unsymmetrical systems,
positive-sequence currents will, in general, produce negative-
and zero-sequence voltage drops as well as positive-
sequence voltage drop. This means that the mutual coupling
between the sequence networks must be defined. These
Once the symmetrical components are known, phase mutual sequence impedances can be calculated, but with
quantities can be determined by using Equations 2 or 1: considerable difficulty, and as a result, the method of sym-
metrical components loses much of its usefulness. Most
applications of the method are in the analysis of unsymmetrical
I~ ~ / 1 Ia = Ia 1 + Ia 2 + Ia0
-Ia faults, unbalanced loads, etc., on balanced systems.
~ = .667 I 60° +.333 I 120° + .333 L.Q: Therefore, the more involved aspects of symmetrical component
1 theory, such as the mutual impedances between sequence
J Iaa = ~ (.5 + j.866} + ~ (-.5 + j.866} + ~ (1 + iO) networks, are not discussed. However, these are given con-
siderable attention in some of the references, especially
= .5 + j.866 Edith Clarke (Reference 1).

= 1 I 60° THE PER-UNIT METHOD

Computations with power systems involving two or more voltage
levels are greatly simplified by the per-unit method. The value
of the method can best be judged by actual experience, but
some of the reasons for its usefulness are:
= .667 I 300° + .333 I 240° + .333 f.JJ':_ 1. When a circuit element in a system of several voltage levels,
= ~ (.5- j.866) + ~ (-.5 - j.866} + ~ (1 + jO)
such as a transmission line, has its impedance expressed
in ohms, the ohmic value will vary as the square of the ratio
of voltage levels as consideration moves from one level to
= .5- j.866
another. In other words, the value of the ohmic impedance
=11300°=11-60° will change as the point of view of the line is changed from
one side of a transformer to the other. So a problem in
developing an equivalent circuit of a system in actual units
is to select and identify a reference voltage and express all
impedance elements in ohms as viewed from the reference
voltage level. When impedances are expressed in per-unit
= .667 I 180° + .333 1...JL + .333 1...JL on the appropriate base, this problem is eliminated. The
per-unit impedance of the line viewed from one side of the
=0 transformer is the same as that viewed from the other side.
2. The per-unit impedances of machines of the same type
Note that, even though the actual current in phase C is and widely different rating usually lie within a narrow range,
zero, its symmetrical components are not zero. whereas their ohmic values can differ significantly.

11
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

3. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of apparatus and defining VAs, the base power, in volt amps as
in percent or per-unit on the base of the nameplate rating.
In analyzing a system containing apparatus, it is conven- VAa Eala
ient to use these per-unit impedances either directly (if the
apparatus ratings are equivalent to the system voltage and provides VA .E......L (6)
kVA base) or suitably modified to conform to the system VAs = Ea Is
bases.
4. In studying the performance of a system, the comparative Thus, the per-unit VA power is defined as
importance of the values of such factors as voltage and
current is more readily judged in the per-unit system, espe- VApu
cially when the system has a multiplicity of voltage levels.
For example, the significance of a 100-ampere current may Therefore VApu = (7)
be different in one part of the system than in another.
Depending on the normal full-load currents of the circuits, Voltage, current, power, and impedance are so related
the 100 amperes may represent a severe overload if it (Equations 4 and 6) that selection of base values for any two
exists on one line and less than normal load on another determines the base values of the remaining two. Usually, base
line. In the per-unit system, the base currents are fre- power in kVA and base voltage in kV are the quantities
quently closely related to full-load conditions. So in the first selected to specify the base. In this case, Equations 4 and 6
case cited, 100 amperes might be equivalent to 1.6 per- become
unit current (60 percent overload), and in the second case,
only 0.35 per-unit current. For this purpose, the numbers
1000 Es Ia~= (8)
1.6 and 0.35 per-unit are more meaningful measures of the kVA 8 = Esls (9)
significance of the current than 100 amperes.
Consider the simple voltage-current-impedance equation where Es =base voltage in kilo volts
Is =base current in amperes
E=lr
where the units of E, I, and r
are volts, amperes, and ohms, -ra = base impedance in ohms
respectively. kVA 8 =base power in kilo volt-amperes.
Dividing both sides of the above equation by the same
number does not destroy the equality. Call this number E8 ,
base voltage.
Similarly, the per-unit definitions (Equations 35 and 37)
E I-r become
Es = Es
Epu = ~s
Defining a base current IB and a base impedance r B, I
subject to the condition lpu = Is
Ea = Is-rs
then -r
_§_ = _N_ -rpu = -rs
Es Is-rs (4)
kVA
Finally, the following per-unit (pu) quantities are defined: kVApu = kVAs {1 0)

Equations 10 are general expressions applicable in converting

Epu E the per-unit calculations. Equations 8 and 9 apply only to
Es single-phase systems.

Ipu = is Single-Phase System Calculations

For single-phase systems or three-phase systems where line
current, voltage line-to-neutral, and kVA per phase are used,
-rpu =is formulas relating the various base quantities are readily
obtained, as follows:
Epu = lpu -rpu and hence
and hence (5)
Taking the power-voltage-current equation kVAs = base kVA per phase or single-phase base
kVA
VA= El
Es = line-to-neutral base voltage or single-
phase base voltage in kV

Is = kfss = base line current in amperes

2
-rs = ~~;s = base impedance in ohms
1
(11)

12
 A1
Three-Phase System Calculations If n is the transformer turns ratio, Ep and Es are the primary
In three-phase circuits, data are usually given as total and secondary voltages in kV, respectively; Ip, and Is are
three-phase kVA and line-to-line kV, and the above formulas primary and secondary currents in amperes, respectively;
do not apply. Hence, if the line-to-line voltage and total three- and ~ is the load impedance in ohms, then the following
phase kVA are specified, the following formulas are used to relationships can be written:
find base quantities instead of Equations 11 :
Ep = nEs
kVAs = three-phase base kVA
1
Ip = nis
E9 = line-to-line base voltage in kV

Is = kVAs = base line current in amperes

V3Es
2
-r9 - 1000Es = base impedance in ohms
- kVA 9 (12)

Once the base quantities are selected, then the per-unit

quantities are immediately obtained from Equations 10, so
long as the units for E, I, -r, and kVA in a three-phase system and, therefore, -rviewed from primary= n2 -r (15)
calculation are line-to-line kV, amperes, ohms, and three-
phase kVA, respectively Now, choosing the base power kVAs the same for both
The per-unit impedance of a circuit element is: sides of the transformer and the base voltage EpB and EsB
so that they have the relationship
-r u = (actual impedance in ohms) X (base kVA) = -r kVAs
P (base voltage in kV)2 X 1,ooo 1,ooo Es EpB = nEsB
(13)
then the base impedances are (from Equation 11)
where base can be either line-to-neutral voltage and single-
phase kVA, or line-to-line voltage and total three-phase kVA.
To change from per-unit impedance on a given base to per-unit -rPs = 1OOOE~ 9
impedance on a new base, the following formula applies: kVAs (16)

~new= ~old (base kvold )

2
X (base kVAnew) and
pu pu base kvnew base kVAold
(14)
-r 1000E§ 1000(E~2
s9 = B = n
As noted initially, an advantage of the per-unit method is kVAs kVAs (17)
realized when the proper voltage and kVA bases are selected
on the two sides of a transformer. When the kVA bases are Using Equation 17, the per-unit value of load impedance
identical and the base voltages are chosen in the same ratio viewed from the secondary is
as the line-to-line voltage transformation ratio (which is the
same as the transformer turns ratio in delta-delta and wye-wye -r
connections), then the per-unit value of an impedance on one -rpu
viewed from secondary
=r
Ss
side of the transformer will not change when it is viewed from
the other side. This can be verified by considering a single-
phase ideal (zero-impedance) transformer serving a load
impedance, ~ (Figure 4A 1). =
1000 E~
B

and, from Equations 15 and 16, the per-unit value of ~

- Is viewed from the primary is

-r pu viewed from primary =
_,._ .
-r PB
.
L.vtewed from pnmary

= n2-r
-rpB

= -rn 2kVAs
n:1 1000 Ep 2
B
Fagure 4A1.
= -r pu viewed from secondary
Diagram of single-phase transformer with zero impedance
serving a load impedance. Therefore, by properly choosing the voltage and power
bases, the per-unit value of an impedance on one side of a
transformer can be used directly on the other side.

13
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)
USE OF IMPEDANCES IN FAULT CALCULATIONS
The impedance information necessary to conduct a fauH study
includes the system sequence impedances viewed from each
of the fault points to be considered, and the value of fault
impedance, ::Z: , associated with each type of fault. The
sequence impedances of the system are independent of the
type of fault.
To find system impedance, first identify the individual
components of the system: e.g., underground cable, overhead
lines, transformers, generators, etc. Next, the sequence
impedances of the individual components are determined,
normally through the use of tables and formulas. Finally, the
component impedances are combined to produce the equivalent
sequence impedances of the system, taking into account any
series-parallel connections and the various voltage levels
between the point being studied and the source.
Types of Distribution Circuits
The impedance of a distribution circuit is markedly affected
not only by conductor material, size, and spacing, but also
by such factors as the presence or absence of a neutral
conductor, the nature of system grounding, and the transformer
connection at the distribution substation. These factors are
what distinguishes one type of distribution circuit from another.
Following are diagrams of the types of distribution circuits:
1. Four-wire multigrounded-neutral system
.----------------------------------A
~---------------------------8
e---------------------------------C
2. Four-wire unigrounded-neutral system
r-------------------------------------A
~----~----------------------B
)-----------------------N
._-----------------------------c
3. Three-wire unigrounded system
.----------------------------------A
e--------------------------------c
4. Three-wire system served from an ungrounded, delta-con-
nected transformer
14
5. Three-wire system served from an ungrounded, wye-
connected transformer
.----------------------------------A
e------------------~----------c
Additional classifications of circuits involving various
combinations of one or two phase conductors and a neutral
could be identified, but these exist in practice only as two-phase
or si~gle-phase laterals tapped off of one of the above systems.
So s1ngle- or two-phase laterals are not described here as
separate types of distribution circuits, but rather are referred
to in terms of the type of circuit from which they are supplied.
For example, in studying a lateral consisting only of two
phase conductors, one must know whether it is served by a
grounded system (Types 1, 2, and 3) or an ungrounded system
(Types 4 and 5), since both impedances and fault levels are
affected.
In the United States, the most common type of primary
distribution circuit is the multigrounded neutral system (Type 1).
This is true for both overhead and underground.
.In some .areas, however, some of the other circuit types are
still extenstvely used. For example, countries in the Far East
including Australia, predominantly utilize a three-wir~
u.nigrounde:d system and can have distribution feeders many
kilometers 1n length. These systems are characterized by low
fault currents and fuses cannot be used effectively for
ground-fault protection; however, single-phase tap dropping
and load switching are minor considerations.
. In the future, as a greater share of the distribution system
1s placed underground, dominance of the multi-grounded
neutral system will increase, since most underground pri-
mary cable installations use bare neutral wire in continuous
contact with the ground.
Impedances of Overhead Distribution Circuits
The sequence impedances of an overhead primary circuit
operating at a constant frequency are dependent on several
factors. Principal factors are the size, material, and spacing
or configuration of the phase and neutral conductors, and the
type of distribution circuit. Lesser factors include stranding of
the conductors, conductor height above ground, conductor
temperature, and resistivity of the earth. The problem of
identify~n~ the impedances for ~ given circuit involves, first,
determ1n1ng values for these vanous factors, and then finding
the corresponding impedances in published tables or by
utilizing impedance equations.
The use of published tables is the most common approach to
this problem. Its degree of accuracy depends, of course, on
how close a match there is between the values of the various
factors for the circuit in question and the values of the factors
used in preparing the tables. In many situations, the match is
close enough for the results to be considered sufficiently
accurate for fault calculations.
In other situations, a close match between all of the factors
i~ lacking and the amount of error introduced by the tables is
either large or unknown. In these cases, impedance formulas
must be used. Although the application of these formulas will
not be covered in this publication, the reader should be aware
of their. existence (References 1, 3, 4) and of their ready
adaptation to computer programs for calculating impedances
of overhead circuits.

Tables 1A1, 2A1, and 3A1 present values of positive-and
zero-sequence impedance of overhead distribution circuits for
some typical conductor sizes and spacings of three varieties of
canductors: copper, ACSR (aluminum cable, steel-reinforced),
and bare all-aluminum. Negative-sequence impedances of
'!li!l:anSmission and distribution lines are equivalent to positive-
sequence values. The tables give zero-sequence impedances
of 1hree-phase, three-wire circuits, and of three-phase, four-wire
~unded-neutral circuits. Thus, the sequence impedances
of iour of the five types of distribution circuits described earlier
,can be obtained from these tables, assuming the various
spacing, temperature, and other factors are applicable. Of
::::ourse, it would not be necessary to know the zero-sequence
mpedance of a three-wire circuit if the source is ungrounded
:"""ypes 4 and 5). The only circuit type not adequately covered
Of these tables is the four-wire unigrounded-neutral system
("Type 2). Even in this case, the tables are applicable in cai-
CUiiating three-phase and line-to-line faults, since those
n.ooNe only positive-sequence impedance. Also, the tables
::an be used for calculating one class of single-phase faults
on this type of circuit: that is, faults that involve a phase con-
ductor and ground but do not involve the neutral wire. In such
::ases the return path for fault current is only through ground
and we have essentially a Type 3 circuit. The zero-sequence
impedance for this type of circuit is included in the tables.
The data of principal importance in the tables are the
~nee and reactance components of the sequence
i'npedances. The impedance magnitudes (columns labeled
=
Z 1 Z 2 and :Z:. o) are also given, but these will rarely be of
use in fault calculations. Calculating fault current at a given
location on a radial system can involve addition of many
irnlpedances between the location and the source. This must
be done by adding resistances and reactances independently;
1lha:t is, the rectangular coordinate form (R+jX) of the complex
runbers must be retained. Addition of impedance magnitudes
, :Z:. values in the tables) will, in general, give incorrect results,
since the angles of the polar coordinate form of the impedances
ot various system components will vary widely. The impedance
magnitudes are included in the tables, since they do permit a
qualitative evaluation of the effect of going from one conductor
size to another or going from one type of distribution circuit to
another. For example, a comparison of Z O's in the tables
makes it clear that the magnitude of the zero-sequence
impedance of a circuit is significantly reduced when a
l'1l'lllltigrounded-neutral wire is added to a three-wire
unigrounded system.
The positive-sequence impedance of a circuit is usually a
iunction of the characteristics and configuration of the phase
conductors only. The type of grounding and the existence or
absence of neutral has, for most overhead circuits, a negligi-
bie effect on positive-sequence impedance. However, the
neutral conductor, the type of grounding, and the phase con-
ductors all influence the value of zero-sequence impedance.
This is implied by Tables 1A 1. 2A 1 and 3A 1, since separate
positive-sequence values for the three-wire unigrounded and
flour-wire multigrounded-neutral systems are not given and
are not needed. This can be readily verified by the imped-
ance equations used to develop such tables. (References
1.3,4.)
A1
A few words are needed about the effect on :Z:. 1 and :Z:. 2 of
the spacing of phase conductors. Tables 1A 1, 2A 1 and 3A 1
are based on geometric mean spacing of 4.69 feet among
the three-phase conductors. That is, the three-phase conductors
are assumed to have an average spacing of 4.69 feet, and
this average is a geometric mean, not an arithmetic mean.
The term "equivalent delta spacing" is sometimes used instead
of geometric mean spacing. For example, if the configuration
of the phase conductors of an actual circuit is as shown in
Figure 5A 1, the impedance calculation is simplified (without
introducing significant error) if the spacing is assumed to be
at the corners of an equilateral triangle, as in Figure 6A 1.
This equivalent delta spacing is found by calculating the
geometric mean of the three actual spacings:
Geometric Mean Spacing =
(3 X 2.67 x 5.67)1/3 = 3.57 feet
The tables show how the tabulated reactances (X 1 and X2)
can be changed if the geometric mean spacing of the circuit
under study is different from the 4.69 feet used in the calcu-
lations. For example, three 4/0 copper conductors with the
spacing shown in Figure 5A 1 would have a positive-
sequence impedance, as
:z:. = .0574 + j (.1294-.0064)
= .0574 + j.1230 ohms/1000 ft
where the reactance is modified by the .0064 ohms/1 000 ft to
account for the spacing change from 4.69 feet to approxi-
mately 3.5 feet.
1 '1• ""1•
3 2
•A 8 C
Figure 5A1.
Actual configuration of phase conductors referred to in
Figure 6A1.
c
•
8
Figure 6A1.
Assumed configuration of phase conductors for simplified
impedance calculation.
15
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

TABLE 1A1
Impedance of Copper Conductor in Ohms/ 1000 Feet
Three-phase Geometric Mean Spacing: 4.69 feet* Line-to- Neutral Spacing: 4.00 feet
Earth Resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Conductor Temperature: 50°C

Phase Positive- and Negative- Zero Sequence Phase Neutral Zero-Sequence Impedance
Conductor Sequence Impedance Impedance Com&onents Conductor Wire Components for Four-Wire
Wire Components for Three-Wire ircults Wire Size Multi-Grounded Neutral Circuits
Size Strands R1 =R2 x, =x 2 r, = r2 Ro Xo ro Size Ro Xo ro
500,000 CM 19 .0246 .1195 .1216 .0788 .5606 .5663 500,000 CM 2/0 .1053 .3451 .3598
450,000 19 .0273 .1206 .1252 .0814 .5617 .5682 500,000 1/0 .1254 .3553 .3741
400,000 19 .0307 .1220 .1258 .0848 .5631 .5691 500,000 1 .1311 .3672 .3905
350,000 19 .0348 .1235 .1284 .0892 .5646 .5701 450,000 2/0 .1081 .3462 .3627
300,000 19 .0407 .1254 .1318 .0949 .5665 .5739 450,000 1/0 .1205 .3564 .3769
250,000 19 .0487 .1275 .1364 .1028 .5686 .5777 450,000 1 .1337 .3684 .3920
4/0 19 .0574 .1294 .1415 .1116 .5705 .5795 400,000 2/0 .1114 .3475 .3646
3/0 12 .0723 .1309 .1494 .1265 .5720 .5862 400,000 1/0 .1239 .3580 .3778
2/0 7 .0911 .1360 .1640 .1453 .5771 .5947 400,000 1 .1371 .3697 .3943
1/0 7 .1150 .1386 .1799 .1691 .5795 .6023 350,000 2/0 .1157 .3491 .3665
1 7 .1449 .1413 .2027 .1991 .5824 .6155 350,000 1/0 .1282 .3598 .3826
2 7 .1809 .1434 .2301 .2350 .5845 .6307 350,000 1 .1413 .3712 .3968
3 3 .2280 .1460 .2708 .2822 .5871 .6496 300 ,000 2/0 .1216 .3511 .3722
4 1 .2847 .1506 .3220 .3388 .5917 .6818 300,000 1/0 .1341 .3614 .3854
6 1 .4527 .1559 .4792 .5068 .5970 .7831 300,000 1 .1472 .3733 .4006
8 1 .7197 .1612 .7405 .7739 .6023 .9820 250,000 1/0 .1419 .3633 .3902
250,000 1 .1551 .3752 .4053
250,000 2 .1669 .3922 .4261
4/0 1/0 .1506 .3652 .3949
4/0 1 .1638 .3771 .4110
4/0 2 .1754 .3828 .4205
3/0 1/0 .1653 .3667 .4019
3/0 1 .1786 .3786 .4186
3/0 2 .1902 .3956 .4390
2/0 1 .1973 .3837 .4347
2/0 2 .2089 .4008 .4527
2/0 3 .2205 .4212 .4777
1/0 2 .2328 .4034 .4659
1/0 3 .2443 .4239 .4905
1/0 4 .2477 .4455 .5080
1 2 .2629 .4061 .4848
*For geometric mean spacing of 4.0 ft. , subtract .0034 from X1 = X2 and 1 3 .2744 .4265 .5076
solve for r 1 = r 4 1 4 .2778 .4481 .5265
2 2 .2987 .4080 .5047
For geometric mean spacing of 3.5 ft. , subtract .0064 from X1 = X2 and 2 3 .3102 .4284 .5294
solve for r , = r2 2 4 .3155 .4500 .5511
3 3 .3574 .4313 .5606
For geometric mean spacing of 3.0 ft., subtract .0100 from X1 = X2 and 3 4 .3608 .4528 .5777
solve for r 1 = r 2 3 6 .3619 .4822 .6042
4 4 .4176 .4574 .6203
For geometric mean spacing of 5.0 ft., add .0017 to X1 = X2 and 4 6 .4188 .5057 .6553
solve for r, = r 2 6 6 .5879 .5108 .7784
r =v R2 + X2 8 8 .8420 .5580 1.0114

The error involved in using a representative spacing (such
as 4.69 feet) instead of the geometric mean spacing of the
actual circuit can be considerably damped out in the final fault-
current calculation. For example, if the actual spacing is 3 feet
but 4.69 feet is assumed, an error in spacing of more than 50
percent is introduced. For the conductor sizes in Tables 1A1,
2A 1 and 3A 1 , the error in impedance magnitude produced by
this assumption ranges from 0.2 to 8.8 percent. This same
percentage of error would be reflected in the fault-current
magnitudes if no other impedances were required in the fault
calculations, but generally this is not the case. A fault calculation
at a given location on a radial system must include the effect
of all impedances between the location and the source. Only
a portion of the total system impedance viewed from the fault
point may have the 0.2 to 8.8 percent error. The error in the
fault current will be smaller than this, depending on the share
of the total system impedance associated with the line sec-
tion whose spacing is in error, and also depending on the
zero-sequence impedance and fault impedance, if any, used
in the fault calculation. Therefore, if the share of the total sys-
tem impedance involved is small, there is no need to worry
about allowing, for example, a fifty-percent error in conductor
spacing for a small portion of an overhead distribution circuit.
But when all or a large portion of the circuit is involved, then
the tabulated impedances should be modified to agree with
the spacing of the actual circuit.

16
 A1

DBLE 2A1
llnpedance of ACSR Conductor in Ohms/1 000 Feet
1'1ne-phase Geometric Mean Spacing: 4.69 feet* Line-to- Neutral Spacing: 4.00 feet
Ealt1 Resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Conductor Temperature: sooc

I ......
1IWe
Positive- and Negative-
Sequence Impedance
Comoonents
Zero Sequence
Impedance Com~nents
for Three-Wire ircults
Phase
Conductor
Wire
Neutral
Wire
Size
Zero-Sequence Impedance
Components for Four-Wire
MuHi-Grounded Neutral Circuits
Size Strands R1 = R2 x, x
= 2 ~, = ~2 Ro Xo ~0 Size Ro Xo ~0
tns.ooo CM 26 .0244 .1108 .1138 .0786 .5871 .5928 795,000 CM 4/0 .1144 .3494 .3625
715.000 26 .0273 .11 19 .1153 .0814 .5883 .5938 795,000 310 .1233 .3617 .3807
&6..600 54 .0303 .1133 .1170 .0845 .5896 .5947 795,000 2/0 .1337 .3761 .3977
&36.000 26 .0307 .1133 .1172 .0848 .5896 .5947 715,000 4/0 .1172 .3506 .3703
lliD5_000 26 .0326 .1138 .1188 .0867 .5902 .5966 715,000 3/0 .1261 .3629 .3835
556..500 26 .0352 .1148 .1203 .0894 .5911 .5975 715 ,000 2/0 .1367 .3773 .4019
5DO.OOO 30 0390 .1150 .1214 .0932 .5913 .5994 666,600 4/0 .1203 .3519 .3722
.:rl,OOO 26 .0409 .1167 .1239 .0951 .5930 .6004 666,600 3/0 .1292 .3642 .3872
'31JT,500 26 .0491 .1188 .1284 .1032 .5951 .6023 666,600 2/0 .1398 .3786 4034
336,400 26 .0580 .1206 .1341 .1121 .5970 .6061 636,000 4/0 .1206 .3519 .3722
3DO,OOO 26 .0648 .1220 .1379 .1189 .5983 .6098 636,000 3/0 .1295 .3642 .3867
2&6,800 26 .0729 .1233 .1430 .1271 .5996 .6136 636,000 2/0 .1400 .3784 .4034
4oiD 6 .1121 .1453 .1833 .1663 .6216 .6420 605,000 4/0 .1225 .3525 .3722
:w 6 .1369 .1528 .2055 .1911 .6292 .6572 605,000 3/0 .1314 .3648 .3883
2)10 6 .1695 .1566 .2311 .2237 .6330 .6705 605,000 2/0 .1419 .3792 .4049
1A) 6 .2121 .1595 .2655 .2663 .6358 .6894 556,500 4/0 .1252 .3534 .3750
1 6 .2614 .1612 .3078 .3155 .6375 .7121 556,500 3/0 .1341 .3657 .3898
2 6 .3201 .1612 .3570 .3742 .6375 .7424 556,500 2/0 .1445 .3801 .4072
3 6 .3920 .1604 .4233 .4462 .6367 .7765 500,000 4/0 .1292 .3536 .3769
4 6 .4867 .1600 .5133 .5409 .6364 .8371 500,000 3/0 .1381 .3659 .3924
6 6 .7538 .1627 .7689 .8080 6390 1.0303 500,000 2/0 .1487 .3803 .4091
477,000 3/0 .1398 .3676 .3930
I 477,000 2/0 .1504 .3820 .3939
I
477,000 1/0 .1614 .4008 .4318
397,500 3/0 .1477 .3697 .3977
397,500 2/0 .1583 .3841 .4153
397,500 1/0 .1693 .4028 .4375
336,400 310 .1568 .3716 4025
336,400 2/0 .1672 .3860 .4195
336,400 1/0 .1784 .4047 .4428
300,000 2/0 .1742 .3873 .4244
300,000 1/0 .1852 .4061 .4470
300,000 1 .1943 .4248 .4661
I 266,800 2/0 .1822 .3886 .4545
266,800 1/0 .1934 .4074 .4492
I 266,800 1 .2023 .4261 .4706
4/0 1/0 .2324 .4294 .4879
!
I
4/0 1
2
.2415
.2447
.4481 .5085
.5246
4/0 .4652
I 3/0 1/0 .2574 .4369 .5076
I
I 310 1 .2665 .4557 .5275
I
I 310 2 .2697 .4727 .5445
I 2/0 1 .2989 .4595 .5483
:
I
2/0 2 .3021 .4765 .5610
I 2/0 3 .3025 .4970 .5814
I 1/0 2 .3447 .4794 .5909
1/0 3 .3451 .4998 .6117
, 1/0 4 .3443 .5214 .6241
*For geometric mean spacing of 4.0 ft. , subtract .0034 from X1 = X 2 and 1 2 .3941 .4811 .6222
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 4 1 3 .3945 .5015 .6383
1 4 .3938 .5231 .6534
For geometric mean spacing of 3.5 ft., subtract .0064 from X 1 = X 2 and 2 2 .4528 .4811 .6610
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 2 3 .4632 .5015 .6629
For geometric mean spacing of 3.0 ft., subtract .01 00 from X1 = X2 and 2 4 .4525 .5231 .6932
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 3 3 .5252 .5008 .7254
For geometric mean spacing of 5.0 ft., add .0017 to X 1 = X2 and 3 4 .5244 .5223 .7008
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 3 6 .5102 .5553 .7500
~ =v R2 + X2 4 4 .6193 .5220 .8068
4 6 .6051 .5549 .8210
6 6 .8722 .5576 1.0199

17
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

TABLE 3A1
Impedance of Bare All-Aluminum Conductor in Ohms/ 1000 Feet
Three-phase Geometric Mean Spacing: 4.69 feet• Line-to- Neutral Spacing: 4.00 feet
Earth Resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Conductor Temperature: sooc

Phase Positive- and Negative- Zero Sequence Phase Neutral Zero-Sequence Impedance
Conductor Sequence Impedance Impedance Components Conductor Wire Components for Four-Wire
Wire Components for Three-Wire Circuits Wire Size Multi-Grounded Neutral Circuits
Size Strands R1= R2 x1 =X2 ~1 = ~2 Ro Xo ~0 Size Ro Xo ~0
795,000 CM 37 .0248 .11 38 .1165 .0792 .5549 5597 795,000 CM 4/0 .1095 .3314 .3485
750,000 37 .0263 .1 146 .1174 .0805 .5555 5606 795,000 3/0 .1220 .3451 .3636
715,000 37 .0277 .1150 .1 184 .0818 .5561 .5625 795,000 210 .1237 .3604 .3807
700,000 61 .0282 .11 52 .1 186 .0824 .5563 .5634 750,000 4/0 .1110 .3322 .3504
636,000 37 .0309 .1163 .1199 .0850 .5574 .5644 750,000 3/0 .1235 .3958 .3665
600,000 61 .0328 .1169 .1216 .0869 .5580 .5653 750,000 210 .1366 .3610 .3866
556,500 37 0352 .1180 .1233 .0894 .5591 .5663 715,500 4/0 .1123 .3326 .3513
500,000 37 .0392 .11 89 .1250 .0934 .5600 .5682 715,500 3/0 .1254 .3462 .3684
477,000 37 .0411 .1 195 .1263 .0953 .5606 .5691 715,500 210 .1384 .3616 .3873
450,000 37 .0436 .1203 .1278 .0977 .5614 .5701 700,000 4/0 .1129 .3328 .3519
400,000 37 .0498 .1214 .1309 .1030 .5626 .5710 700,000 3/0 .1254 .3464 .3689
397,500 19 .0492 .1220 .1316 .1034 .5631 .5720 700,000 2/0 .1384 .3617 .3877
350,000 37 .0557 .1231 .1 347 .1098 .5642 .5739 636,000 4/0 .1155 .3339 .3532
336,400 37 .0580 .1237 .1366 .1121 .5648 .5758 636,000 3/0 .1280 .3475 .3712
300,000 37 .0650 .1252 .1407 .1191 .5663 .5795 636 ,000 210 .1411 .3629 .3902
266,800 37 .0731 .1265 .1460 .1273 .5676 .5814 600,000 410 .1172 .3345 .3542
250,000 37 .0778 .1271 .1489 .1320 .5682 .5833 600,000 3/0 .1299 .3481 .3722
4/0 19 .0920 .1 284 .1580 .1462 .5706 .5890 600,000 210 .1430 .3634 .3911
3/0 19 .1159 .1 311 .1744 .1703 .5720 .5956 556,500 4/0 .1197 .3356 .3551
210 19 .1466 .1347 .1989 .2008 .5758 .6117 556,500 3/0 .1324 .3492 .3741
1/0 19 .1845 .1377 .2301 .2386 .5788 .6307 556,500 2/0 .1455 .3646 3939
1 7 .2330 .1413 .2731 .2871 .5824 .6496 500,000 4/0 .1237 .3366 .3580
2 7 .2934 .1 428 .3263 .3475 .5839 .6970 500,000 310 .1364 .3502 .3759
3 7 .3701 .1466 .3981 .4242 .5877 .7254 500,000 210 .1494 .3655 .3958
4 7 .4661 .1 492 .4886 .5203 .5903 .7879 477,000 3/0 .1383 .3508 .3769
6 7 .7424 .1547 .7576 .7968 .5958 .9962 477,000 2/0 .1515 .3661 .3968
477,000 1/0 .1640 .3843 .4186
450,000 3/0 .1407 .3515 .3788
450,000 210 .1538 .3669 .3996
450,000 1/0 .1663 .3850 .4205
400,000 3/0 .1460 .3527 .3816
400,000 210 .1591 .3680 .4006
400,000 1/0 .1716 .3862 .4223
397,500 3/0 .1464 .3532 .3826
397,500 2/0 .1595 .3686 .4025
397,500 1/0 .1720 .3867 .4233
350,000 3/0 .1528 .3544 .3854
350,000 210 .1659 .3697 .4044
350,000 1/0 .1765 .3879 .4261
336,400 3/0 .1551 .3549 .3873
336,400 2/0 .1682 .3703 .4072
336,400 1/0 .1807 .3884 .4299
300,000 2/0 .1752 .3718 .4110
300,000 1/0 .1877 .3900 .4337
300,000 1 .1979 .4150 .4451
266,800 210 .1833 .3731 .4148
266,800 1/0 .1958 .3913 .4375
266,800 1 .2061 .4163 .4640
250,000 2/0 .1881 .3737 .4167
250,000 1/0 .2006 .3919 .4394
250,000 1 .2108 .4169 .4659
4/0 1/0 .2148 .3936 .4489
4/0 1 .2250 .4182 .4754
4/0 2 .2301 .4388 .4962
3/0 1/0 .2388 .3958 .4621
3/0 1 .2491 .4208 .4886
3/0 2 .2542 .4413 .5095
210 1 .2795 .4244 .5098
210 2 .2847 .4449 .5284
210 3 .2854 .4705 .5492
1/0 2 .3225 .4483 .5511
1/0 3 .3233 .4735 .5739
1/0 4 .3203 .4968 .5928

18 (Continued on Next Page)

 A1
TABIL.E 3A1 (continued)
~ce of Bare All-Aluminum Conductor in Ohms/ 1000 Feet

I Phase Positive- and Negative-

Sequence Impedance
Zero Sequence Phase Neutral
Impedance Components Conductor Wire
Zero-Sequence Impedance
Components for Four-Wire
~ ~or Strands Components for Three-Wire Circuits Wire Size Multi-Grounded Neutral Circuits
Size R1 = R, 1 X1 = X2 1~ 1 = ~ Ro I Xn I ~n Size Ro Xn ~n
•For geometric mean spacing of 4.0 ft., subtract .0034 from X1 = X2 and 1 2 .3710 .4513 .5824
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 1 3 .3718 .4771 .6051
1 4 .3688 .5004 .6231
For geometric mean spacing of 3.5 ft., subtract .0064 from X1 = X2 and 2 2 .4324 .4530 .6250
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 2 3 .4331 .4786 .6458
2 4 .4301 .5000 .6591
For geometric mean spacing of 3.0 ft., subtract .01 00 from X1 = X2 and 3 3 .5085 .4824 .6989
solve for ~ 1 = ~ 2 3 4 .5057 .5057 .7131
3 6 .4886 .5403 .7273
For geometric mean spacing of 5.0 ft., add .0017 to X1 = X2 and 4 4 .6017 .5083 .7841
solve for~ 1 = ~ 2 4 6 .5847 .5430 .7992
I ~=v'R2+X2 6 6 .8614 .5485 .7814

' 1 a dances of Underground Distribution Cable
Aft measing number of primary distribution circuits involve
a mixture of both overhead conductor and underground
CiiiJie.. Fault calculations for such circuits require a knowledge
al lhe sequence impedances of the underground as well as
allhe overhead portions of the circuits.
Sequence impedances of overhead lines can readily be
ablained from published equations (References 1, 3, and 4)
ar Tables 1A 1 through 3A 1. These references do not apply,
IIIEMever, to concentric neutral cable, the type of cable most
CDimlOflly used fo r underground distribution. To help fill this
gap. the following material discusses the use of equations
Cll!laEd specifically for calculation of the sequence impedances
of concentric neutral underground cable for both three-phase
ani single-phase configurations. These cable-impedance
a:pllions, which are derived from equations in References 1
and 2. and an explanation of their nomenclature are presented
beginning on the following page. To help define some of the
ll!lms .-. the equations, Figure 7A 1 shows the cross-sectional
geomeby of three identical concentric neutral cables used for
a bee-phase underground distribution circuit.
The spacing of the three cables in Figure 7A 1 is arbitrarily
sbolm as nonsymmetrical to illustrate the generality of the
..,.afions, which are not confined to symmetrical arrange-
aaenls.. In practice, the three cables are frequently laid flat in
lie bottom of a trench. In applying symmetrical components
ID an 011erhead system in which the three phase conductors
.e nol symmetrically arranged in a delta configuration, an
eqni'«alent delta spacing (Figures 5A 1 and 6A 1) is assumed
iit c3culating the sequence impedances of the three-phase
cilll:uil: - and the same is true for an underground circuit.
~ the actual interphase spacings (Figure 7 A 1), an
equivalent delta spacing (i.e., geometric mean spacing) is
a*1Wed for use in finding average mutual impedances among
phase conductors and the three sets of neutral conductors.
While the symmetrical component concept is intended to
aid in the analysis of problems of three-phase systems, it is
convenient on a distribution system to extend the concept to
the single-phase portions of the circuit. This means finding
2 1 and 2 o for the single-phase laterals so that they may be
combined with the corresponding sequence impedances of
the three-phase system which supplies the laterals. To find
2 1 and 2 o for the single-phase circuit, an arbitrary interphase
geometric mean spacing, Sab, must be used in finding 2 ab-g,
Equation U2. The value assumed for Sab does not matter in
the end result of a line-to-ground fault calculation, for example,
since 2 ab-g cancels out of the total system impedance for
this type of fault. The reader can verify this by examining
Equations 41, U11, and U12, assuming 21 2 2 =
The solution of Equations U1 through U12 for some typical
sizes of copper and aluminum 15 kV distribution cable produces
the sequence impedance values displayed in Tables 4A 1
through 7 A 1. Conductor resistances and most of the other
cable characteristics required to solve the sequence impedance
equations were obtained from Reference 9. Values of GMR
(geometric mean radius) were obtained from Reference 5. An
earth resistivity value of 100 meter ohms was assumed.
Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1 give the impedances of three-phase
cable such as might be used for underground primary mains.
A 7.5-, 7.5-, 15 inch, flat cable spacing is assumed. Tables
6A 1 and 7 A 1 cover single-phase cable commonly used for
primary laterals.
Some of the effects that various cable parameters and
other conditions have on the impedance of an underground
cable are illustrated by Tables 4A 1 through 7A 1. Others are
discussed in the text, which resumes on page 25.

19
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATING SEQUENCE

IMPEDANCES OF UNDERGROUND CONCENTRIC rnn-g
10
=[ ~ + 4.788 X 10-5 X 2m] + j 2:f [4.681
NEUTRAL CABLE
The following equations* are the basic expressions needed
for calculating positive- and zero-sequence impedances of
both three-phase and single-phase concentric neutral cable. X 10-4 + 6.096 X 10-5 1oge ( _1_ '1/ p/f) + (N-1) 4.681
GMRn
For a three-phase array of cables such as in Figure 7A 1,
Equations U1 through U4 and U7 through U1 0 are used. For
a single-phase circuit Equations, U1, U2, US, U6, U11 , and
U12 are used.

raa-g = [ ra + 4.788 X 10-5 X 21tf] + j 2m [4.681 X 10-4

ran-g
10
= [4.788 X 10-5 X 21tf]

+ 6.096 x 10-5 1oge (_1_ ..JP/f)] (U1)

GMRa
+ j 21tf [ 4.681 X 10-4 + 6.096 X 1o- 5 1oge (_g {/)lf)] (U6)
D
rab-g =[ 4.788 X 10-5 X 2m] + j 21tf [4.681 X 10-4

+ 6.096 x 10-5 1oge (_1_ {0/f)] (U2)

Sab
1 loge ---loge-
+- 1 1 l
N GMRn Sab (U7)
rnn-g
30
= [_!n_
3N
+ 4.788 X 10-5 X 2m] + j 21tf [4.681 X
4
10-

_1_ r an-p = j 21tf X 6.096 X 10-5 [ loge 6- loge s:b l (U8)

+ 6.096 x 10-5 1oge {Pit+ 6.096 x 10-5 1oge ~b

- - r~n-p
10-5 ~ (loge _ 1 _ + (N-1) loge _ 1_)]
3
+ 6.096 X r 130 - raa-g -rab-g r (U9)
nn-p
GMRn KN~ (U3)

(U10)
ran-g = [ 4.788 X 10-5 X 21tfl + j 21tf [4.681 X 10-4
30

+ 6.096 X 1o-5 loge 1 "J

( ~ Jri'ct' - 'P,.,lf>]
..
'Vg. Sab (U4)
2 (U1 2)

* The assistance of Dr. W. A. Lewis in including the effect of neutral

circulating currents on positive-sequence impedance (Equations
U7 through U9) is gratefully acknowledged.

20

Nomenclature for Equations U1 through U12:
D = diameter of the circle defined by the neutral strand
centers of one concentric neutral cable (see Figure 7A 1) -
feet. Values of D can be derived from information published
in cable manufacturer's catalogs.
f = frequency in hertz.
GMRa, GMRn = geometric mean radius of the phase
conductor (subscript a) and a single neutral strand (subscript
n) in feet. GMRa is readily available from tables such as those
in References 1, 3, and 5. GMRn can also be obtained from
tables; but since each strand has a solid, circular cross-section,
it is readily calculated using GMRn = .3894dn, where dn is the
diameter of a single neutral strand in feet (see Figure 7A1).
i = the complex operator, 1~oo.
KN spacing factor which, when multiplied by D/2, gives the
geometric mean spacing among the N neutral strands of one
concentric neutral cable. KN is obtained from the expression
KN = (N)1/(N-1); see page 32 of Reference 4.
N = number of neutral strands wrapped around the insulation
of one concentric neutral cable (see cable manufacturers'
catalogs).
ra, rn = resistance of the phase conductor (subscript a) and a
single neutral strand (subscript n) in ohms/1 000 feet (see
cable manufacturers' catalogs). These should be a-c resistance
values calculated for the expected operating temperatures of
the phase and neutral conductors. They should include skin
effect and proximity effect, wherever these effects can be
readily determined.
p = earth resistivity in meter ohms. Representative values of
;; for various parts of the country are given in Reference 3
1pages 146 through 150), Reference 7 (pages 129 through
131 ), and Reference 8 (page 306).
Sab = geometric mean spacing of the three-phase conductors
1n feet. Referring to Figure 7A1, Sab (dabddcdca) 113 •
r aa-g, r nn-g30, r nn-g10 = self impedance of a phase
conductor (subscript aa) and self impedance of a group of
paralleled neutral strands (subscript nn) with earth return in
ohms/1 000 feet. (See pages 376 and 397, Reference 1, and
page 78, Reference 2, for the material on which Equations
U1. U3, and U5 are based.)
A1
r ab-g r an-g30, r an-g10 =mutual impedance between two
conductors or two groups of conductors with earth return in
ohms/1 000 feet. Subscripts a and b denote phase conductors
and subscript n denotes a group of neutral conductors. In a
three-phase circuit, there are actually three mutual impedances
among the three-phase conductors: r ab-g, r be-g. and rca-g.
However, in Equation U2, the use of a geometric mean spac-
ing Sab instead of the actual interphase spacing means that
the resulting value of r ab-g is the arithmetic mean of the
three actual values. In a similar sense, r an-g30 is an average
of the three actual mutual impedances that exist between
each of the three-phase conductors and the entire group of
neutral conductors. (See page 376, Reference 1, and page 79,
Reference 2, for the material on which Equations U2, U4, and
U6 are based.}
r an-p = positive sequence mutual impedance between the
phase conductors of the cable and their concentric neutrals
in ohms/1 000 feet. •
r nn-p = positive sequence self impedance of the three-
phase circuit formed by the concentric neutrals of the cables
in ohms/1 000 feet. •
r 13 r 030 = positive and zero sequence impedance,
respgctively, of a three-phase concentric neutral circuit in
ohms/1000 feet. •
r 11 ' r 01 0 = positive and zero sequence impedance,
respgctively, of a single-phase concentric neutral circuit in
ohms/1 000 feet*
*When positive-sequence currents flow in the phase conductors
of a three-phase concentric neutral circuit, induced currents
will circulate between each phase's neutral and the earth
return path. The magnitude of this current depends upon
neutral resistance, interphase spacing, and the diameter of
the circle of centers of the concentric neutral strands. In turn,
the positive sequence impedance of the circuit is modified by
the magnitude of these neutral currents. r 2an-p/ r nn-p is the
factor that reflects the effect of neutral circulating current on
the positive-sequence impedance of three-phase concentric
neutral cable (Equation U9). On an overhead openwire transmis-
sion or distribution circuit, this effect is negligible for the close
spacings associated with concentric neutral cable.
21
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

-dab-

\L._f- - _ _ ; . - - - - - -

PHASE CONDUCTOR

dtx:

NEUTRAL STRAND

Figure 7A1.
Cross-sectional geometry of concentric cables.

22
 A1
TABLE 4A1
Impedance of 15-kV, 3-Phase, 175-mil XLP Underground Cable in Ohms/1 000 Feet
Insulation: 175-mil cross-linked polyethylene Conductor temperatures- Phase: 90°C; Neutral: 70°C
Cable configuration: 3 identical single-phase concentric
neutral cables with 1/3 size neutrals and with 7.5 inches,
7.5 inches, 15 inches, flat spacing (geometric mean
spacing = 9.449 inches)
Earth resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Frequency: 60 Hz
Phase Neutral ~1 ~0
Concentric Strands Positive- and Zero-Sequence
Negative-Sequence Impedance
I Size
AWG
or
MCM
No. of
Strands
(Copper)

No. I
:SIZe
AWG
Impedance Components

R1 = R2 I x1 = x2 1 1~11 = 1~21 Ro
Components

I Xo I 1~ 0 1
Aluminum Phase Conductor
1/0 19 6 14 .2182 .0955 .2382 .5215 .2906 .5970
210 19 7 14 .1782 .0926 .2008 .4697 .2463 .5303
3/0 19 9 14 .1433 .0893 .1688 .4049 .1825 .4441
4/0 19 11 14 .1181 .0858 .1460 .3497 .1402 .3767
250 37 13 14 .1038 .0827 .1327 .3085 .1114 .3280
350 37 11 12 .0837 .0761 .1131 .2315 .0691 .2416
500 37 16 12 .0680 .0674 .0958 .1653 .0428 .1708
750 61 15 10 .0550 .0581 .0800 .1188 .0305 .1227
1000 61 20 10 .0493 .0495 .0699 .0905 .0235 .0935
u Copper Phase Conductor
1/0 19 9 14 .1451 .0944 .1731 .4066 .1852 .4468
210 19 11 14 .1181 .0908 .1490 .3492 .1428 .3773
3/0 19 14 14 .0989 .0867 .1315 .2907 .1033 .3085
4/0 19 11 12 .0854 .0813 .1179 .2318 .0718 .2427
250 37 13 12 .Q785 .0770 .1100 .2008 .0578 .2090
350 37 12 10 .0657 .0685 .0949 .1495 .0408 .1550
500 37 17 10 .0554 .0574 .0798 .1060 .0289 .1098
750 61 25 10 .0463 .0446 .0643 .0724 .0216 .0756
1000 61 33 10 .0404 .0358 .0540 .0554 .0181 .0583

TABLE 5A1
Impedance of 15-kV, 3-Phase, 220-mil XLP Underground Cable in Ohms/1 000 Feet
Insulation: 220-mil cross-linked polyethylene Conductor temperatures - Phase: 90°C; Neutral: 70°C
Cable configuration: 3 identical single-phase concentric neutral cables with 1/3 size neutrals and with 7.5 inches,
7..5 inches, 15 inches, flat spacing (geometric mean spacing= 9.449 inches)
Earth resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Frequency: 60 Hz
Phase Neutral ~1 ~0
Concentric Strands Positive- and Zero-Sequence
I' (Copper) Negative-Sequence Impedance
Size
AWG Impedance Components Components

1~~1l=l~21
or No. of Size
MCM Strands No. I AWG R1 =R2 IX1 =X2 Ro I Xo I l~ol
,I Aluminum Phase Conductor
1/0 19 6 14 .21 77 .0956 .2378 .5205 .2927 .5972
210 19 7 14 .1777 .0927 .2004 .4688 .2484 .5306
3/0 19 9 14 .1427 .0894 .1684 .4043 .1846 .4445
4/0 19 11 14 .1174 .0860 .1456 .3493 .1423 .3772
250 37 13 14 .1031 .0829 .1323 .3082 .1134 .3284
350 37 11 12 .0828 .0765 .1127 .2314 .0709 .2420
500 37 16 12 .0671 .0681 .0956 .1653 .0444 .1711
750 61 15 10 .0542 .0589 .0800 .1188 .0319 .1230
1000 61 20 10 .0486 .0504 .Q700 .0905 .0247 .0938
Copper Phase Conductor
1/0 19 9 14 .1444 .0946 .1726 .4060 .1876 .4472
210 19 11 14 .1173 .0911 .1485 .3488 .1451 .3777
3/0 19 14 14 .0980 .0870 .1310 .2904 .1055 .3090
4/0 19 11 12 .0844 .0818 .1175 .2316 .0738 .2431
250 37 13 12 .0774 .0777 .1097 .2007 .0597 .2094
350 37 12 10 .0647 .0694 .0948 .1494 .0425 .1554
500 37 17 10 .0545 .0585 .0800 .1059 .0304 .1102
750 61 25 10 .0456 .0459 .0647 .0724 .0229 .0759
1000 61 33 10 .0400 .0370 .0545 .0554 .0193 .0587

23
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

TABLE 6A1
Impedance of 15-kV, 3-Phase, 175-mil XLP Underground Cable in Ohms/1 000 Feet
Insulation: 175-mil cross-linked polyethylene Conductor temperatures- Phase: 90°C; Neutral: 70°C
Full size neutral Geometric mean interphase spacing assumed for i!- 1 and i!- 0 calculations = 1S
Earth resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Frequency: 60 Hz

Phase Neutral i!-, i!-o

Concentric Strands Positive- and Zero-Sequence
Size (Copper) Negative-Sequence Impedance
AWG Impedance Components Components
or
MCM
No. of
Strands No. I Size
AWG R1 =R2 Ix, = X2 lli!-11 = 11!- z1
Aluminum Phase Conductor
Ro I Xo I 11!- ol

4 7 6 14 .5350 .0662 .5391 .8580 .5888 1.0406

2 7 10 14 .3360 .0609 .3415 .7191 .4375 .8417
1 19 13 14 .2680 .0569 .2740 .6558 .3443 .7407
1/0 19 16 14 .2100 .0543 .2169 .5864 .2709 .6459
210 19 13 12 .1690 .0516 .1767 .5043 .1728 .5331
3/0 19 16 12 .1320 .0490 .1408 .4317 .1209 .4483
4/0 19 20 12 .1050 .0463 .1148 .3635 .0779 .3717
250 37 25 12 .0890 .0440 .0993 .3071 .0461 .3106
300 37 20 10 .0750 .0419 .0859 .2647 .0307 .2665
350 37 24 10 .0650 .0402 .0764 .2269 .0170 .2276
Copper Phase Conductor
4 7 10 14 .3260 .0662 .3327 .7122 .4387 .8365
2 7 16 14 .2050 .0609 .2139 .5846 .2692 .6437
1 19 13 12 .1630 .0569 .1727 .5001 .1710 .5285
1/0 19 16 12 .1260 .0543 .1372 .4271 .1186 .4432
2/0 19 20 12 .1010 .0516 .1134 .3604 .0752 .3682
3/0 19 25 12 .0810 .0490 .0947 .2997 .0437 .3028
4/0 19 32 12 .0640 .0463 .0790 .2417 .0200 .2425

TABLE 7A1
Impedance of 15-kV, 1-Phase, 220-mil Conventional Underground Cable in Ohms/1000 Feet
Insulation: 220-mil conventional low density thermoplastic polyethylene
Conductor temperatures - Phase: 75°C; Neutral: 50°C Full size neutral
Geometric mean interphase spacing assumed for i!- 1 and i!- 0 calculations = 1.5"
Earth resistivity: 100 meter-ohms Frequency: 60 Hz
Phase Neutral i!-1 i!-o
Concentric Strands PosHive- and Zero-Sequence
Size (Copper) Negative-Sequence Impedance
AWG Impedance Components Components
Size
or
MCM
No. of
Strands No. I AWG R1 = R2 Ix1 = x2
Aluminum Phase Conductor
=
lri!- 11 11!- 21 Ro I Xo I 11!- 01

4 7 6 14 .5100 .0662 .5143 .8410 .5734 1.0179

2 7 10 14 .3200 .0609 .3257 .7040 .4158 .8176
1 19 13 14 .2550 .0569 .2613 .6384 .3216 .7148
1/0 19 16 14 .2000 .0543 .2072 .5677 .2498 .6202
2/0 19 13 12 .1600 .0516 .1681 .4911 .1717 .5202
3/0 19 16 12 .1250 .0490 .1343 .4204 .1208 .4374
4/0 19 20 12 .1000 .0463 .1102 .3544 0785 .3630
250 37 25 12 .0850 .0440 .0957 .2993 .0486 .3033
300 37 20 10 .0710 .0419 .0825 .2522 .0306 .2541
350 37 24 10 .0610 .0402 .0730 .2154 .0180 .2162
Copper Phase Conductor
4 7 10 14 .3100 .0662 .3170 .6967 .4171 .8120
2 7 16 14 .1950 .0609 .2043 .5652 .2493 .6177
1 19 13 12 .1550 .0569 .1651 .4877 .1703 .5166
1/0 19 16 12 .1200 .0543 .1317 .4166 .1189 .4333
2/0 19 20 12 .0970 .0516 .1099 .3522 .0762 .3604
310 19 25 12 .0770 .0490 .0913 .2919 .0455 .2954
410 19 32 12 .0610 .0463 .0766 .2355 .0223 .2365
1:

24

EFFECT OF CABLE INSULATION
For the 15 kV class of concentric neutral underground cable,
which is in predominant use today, the two most common
types of insulation are conventional and high-molecular-
weight polyethylene, although the latter has been the prevailing
choice in UD cable insulation for many years. Both are available
in 175 and 220 mils.
In general, changing the thickness of cable insulation from
175 to 220 mils has only a minor effect on cable impedances.
In the impedance equations, only the value of D (diameter of
the circle of neutral strand centers) is affected by a change in
~nsulation thickness, and this in turn, will change Z nn-g, Z an-g,
Znn-p, Z an-p, Z 13p, Z o3 , and Zo1p (Equations U3 through
U10, and U12). Numerically, the effect of changing insulation
thickness is illustrated by comparing Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1,
where the only difference is the thickness of cable insulation.
Insulation thickness affects the values of both Z 1 and Z o,
::>ut only to a minor extent.
In contrast, changing the type of insulation has a major
effect on cable impedance. The reason is that the increase in
maximum phase-conductor temperature made possible by
'tie use of newer insulations, such as cross-linked polyethylene,
n turn creates greater impedance under full load conditions.
The Insulated Power Cable Engineers Association (IPCEA)
sets the maximum conductor temperature rating for continuous
~JII-Ioad operation for conventional polyethylene insulation at
:so C, and the rating for cross-linked polyethylene at goo C.
The effect this higher permissible operating temperature
'"laS on the impedance of cable insulated with cross-linked
::lOiyethylene under full-load conditions can be seen by com-
oaring Tables 6A 1 and 7A 1. Table 6A 1 shows sequence
mpedances of single-phase cable with 175 mil cross-linked
:JOiyethylene (XLP) insulation, and Table 7 A 1 shows the
smaller impedances that result from the lower operating
:emperature of 220 mil conventional polyethylene cable.
Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1 are both confined to cross-linked
::olyethylene insulated cable, since the higher current-carrying
:apacity of this cable makes it the likely choice for three-
::lhase applications.
EFFECT OF NEUTRAL SIZE
-'Is illustrated by Figure 7A1, the neutral conductor of this
:"fpe of cable consists of equally spaced strands of wire
;~~~ped spirally around the outside of the cable insulation.
nese are generally #14, 12 or 10 AWG copper wires. The size
3l1d number of wires are selected to provide approximately
;qual conductivity to that of the central phase conductor for
sa1Qie-phase applications (taking into account the increased
ength of the neutral strands due to spiraling). However, for
tlree-phase applications, a reduced-sized neutral is available
'or the larger phase-conductor sizes, the circular mil area of
11e group of neutral wires being approximately one-third that
:i the copper equivalent of one phase conductor. Since Tables
~1 and 7 A 1 give impedances for single-phase applications,
rey are based on full-size neutrals. Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1, for
:tree-phase applications, are based on reduced-size neutrals.
In some three-phase applications, where full-size neutral
:able is used, it is helpful to know the effect on cable impedance.
~~effect is illustrated by the following impedances of 250 mcm
aluminum cable with 175 mil XLP insulation.
=educed-size neutral (13- #14 wires):
Z 1 = .1 038 + j.0827 ohms/1 000 ft (Table 4A 1)
Z 0 = .3085 + j.1114 ohms/1 000 ft (Table 4A 1)
A1
Full-size neutral (25- #12 wires):
Z 1 = .1 023 + j.0618 ohms/1 000 ft
o
Z = .1685 + j.0320 ohms/1000 ft
Cable insulation, cable spacing, earth resistivity, and other
parameters are the same in these two cases. The only change
is in the neutral. As can be seen, the effect of going to the full-size
neutral is significant for both positive-and zero-sequence
impedance components. On an overhead circuit, the neutral
conductor has negligible effect on Z 1. This is not true for URD
concentric neutral cable. When positive-sequence currents
flow in the phase conductors of this type of circuit, circulating
currents are induced in the nearby concentric neutrals which
modify the Z 1 of the circuit. As the neutral size is increased,
the effect becomes greater. In general, this means both Z 1
and Z oshould be recalculated for situations calling for three-
phase cable with full-size neutrals.
EFFECT OF EARTH RESISTIVITY
The value of earth resistivity used in calculating the impedances
of Tables 4A 1 through 7 A 1 was 100 meter-ohms. Since there
can be a wide variation in this system parameter from one
geographic area to another, it is of interest to estimate its
effect on impedance. Again, using 250-mcm aluminum cable
with 175-mil XLP insulation as the reference, the effect is as
follows:
For p = 10 meter-ohms:
Z 1 = .1038 + j.0827 ohms/1000 ft
Z 0 .2980 + j. 1181 ohms/1 000 ft
For p = 100 meter-ohms:
Z 1 = .1 038 + j.0827 ohms/1 000 ft (Table 4A 1)
Z 0 = .3085 + j.1114 ohms/1 000 ft (Table 4A 1)
For p = 1000 meter-ohms:
Z 1 .1 038 + j.0827 ohms/1 000 ft
Z o = .3165 + j.1051 ohms/1000 ft
Cable spacing, cable insulation, neutral size, and all other
parameters except earth resistivity are the same in these three
cases. A change in earth resistivity does not affect the positive
sequence impedance, but does affect Z o. An increase or
decrease in the value of p from 100 meter-ohms by a factor
of ten produces approximate changes in Ro and Xo of three
and six percent, respectively, and an approximate change of
two percent in the magnitude of Z o. For the given cable, a
large change in p has a relatively small effect on Z o and its
components.
Thus, using a value of 100 meter-ohms for earth resistivity
should give impedances sufficiently accurate for most situations.
EFFECT OF INTERPHASE SPACING
An examination of Equations U1 through U14 shows that the
geometric mean spacing of the phase conductors, Sab,
affects the values of both the positive- and zero-sequence
impedances of the cable. Since three-phase cable spacing
practices will vary from one utility to another, the question of
how spacing affects impedance is a logical one. This effect is
illustrated by the following, using the 250 mcm aluminum
cable of the earlier examples.
25
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

For Sab = 9.449 inches: The sensitivity of the results to changes in such cable parameters
~ 1 = .1038 + j.0827 ohms/1000 ft (Table 4A1) as insulation, neutral size, and spacing has been described,
~
0 .3085 + j.1114 ohms/1000 ft (Table 4A1) and in some specific situations the tabulated impedances will
not be applicable. In those cases where the cable parameters
For Sab = 1.5 inches: are significantly different from those on which Tables 4A 1
~ = .0909 + j.0439 ohms/1 000 ft through 7 A 1 are based, the impedance equations must be
1
~ = .3170 + j.1047 ohms/1000 ft resorted to, and the results will be of great importance. While
0
solving the equations by hand for a large variety of cable
Neutral size, earth resistivity, cable insulation, and other parameters would be a tedious task, the equations are easi-
parameters except interphase spacing are the same in these ly solved on a computer. A McGraw-Edison Power Systems
two cases. In this one example, it is apparent there can be a service to perform this task is available. Also available: addi-
sizable effect on both positive- and zero-sequence reactance tional work showing how the formulas may be rearranged in
when the cable spacing is changed. In view of this, whenever groups of terms that can be precalculated into "building
the cable spacing in use is significantly different from the blocks" permitting desk calculation for practical cases; and
9.449 inches used for Tables 4A 1 and 5A 1, some calculation comparisons of typical results, to show the effects of spacing
checks for the actual spacing are advisable to determine if the and other factors.
tabulated impedances should be revised. In a more precisely
calculated example, the large decrease in spacing would Impedances of Transformers
also produce some increase in resistance as a result of In moving from any given point on a primary distribution sys-
increased proximity effect. In the numerical example shown, tem back toward the source, either overhead line impedance
the change in proximity effect is not included. or underground cable impedance is the first encountered. On
most systems, the next major impedance element will be the
SKIN EFFECT AND PROXIMITY EFFECT distribution substation transformer. This section briefly covers
Skin effect and proximity effect are phenomena associated the sequence impedance representation of transformers
with the nonuniform current distribution over the cross section (References 2 and 4).
of a conductor. In the case of proximity effect, the nonuniform
current distribution is unsymmetrical and is caused by a variation
of current in one or more neighboring conductors. Detailed
descriptions of both effects are given in References 2 and 11.
Skin effect and proximity effect influence both the resistance
and reactance of a circuit. Generally, the effect on reactance
PRIMARY R~+<> SECONDARY
is much less than it is on resistance and the reactance effect
is neglected. However, the combined effect of skin and proximity
effect on resistance is not always negligible. It depends on
many factors, such as frequency, conductor material and size,
circuit configuration (interphase spacing and phase-neutral
spacing), and the relative magnitudes and phases of currents (a.) SHUNT IMPEDANCE INCLUDED
in the various conductors. For example, for a given three-phase
circuit, proximity effect is not the same with zero-sequence
currents in the conductors as it is with positive-sequence
currents. This means proximity effect modifies positive-
sequence impedance in a different way than it does zero-
sequence impedance. While some work has been done on
the calculation of positive-sequence proximity effect, little has
been done on zero-sequence proximity effect. In contrast to PRIMARY SECONDARY
proximity effect, skin effect does not depend on the sequence
of the currents flowing.
There is need for a thorough study of proximity effects in
underground concentric neutral cable. Based on the work that
has been done on other types of circuits and cables, the (b.) SHUNT IMPEDANCE NEGLECTED
effects of proximity upon reactance are negligible at 60 hertz.
However, the effects upon resistance are probably not negligible Figure8A1.
in the larger cable sizes. Per-unit equivalent circuit for a two-winding trans-
In the calculation of the sequence impedances displayed in former.
Tables 4A 1 through 7A 1, both skin and proximity effects upon
reactance were assumed negligible. The resistance values
include skin effect but not proximity effect. When more is
known about proximity effects in this type of cable, the values A per-unit equivalent circuit for a two-winding transformer is
of phase and neutral conductor resistances {ra and rn) can shown in Figure 8A 1, a. The terms primary and secondary
be suitably modified to account for these effects. here refer to the high- and low-voltage windings of the trans-
Equations U1 through U12 are general expressions for former, not to primary and secondary distribution. Rp and Rs
finding the sequence impedances of concentric neutral cable are resistances, and Xp and Xs are leakage reactances in the
of any stated size, material, and spacing. The results of solv- primary and secondary windings, respectively. Rh+e is the
ing these equations for some cable sizes and configurations resistance required to account for hysteresis and eddy cur-
in common use are presented in Tables 4A1 through 7A1. rent losses in the iron core and Xm is the mutual

26

reactance between the two windings, also called the
magnetizing reactance. The current flowing through the parallel
combination of Rh+e and Xm is the transformer exciting current.
That portion of the exciting current flowing through Xm is the
magnetizing current. The total exciting current of a transform~r
is usually small in comparison to its full load current. For th1s
reason, the exciting impedance branch is usually neglected
and the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in Figure 8A 1,b.
Equivalent circuits similar to Figure 8A 1 could be drawn for
actual units instead of using the per-unit basis. However, in
this situation, the square of the transformer turns ratio would
enter the picture, and two sets of equivalent circuits would
have to be drawn-one showing the circuit elements as viewed
from the primary, and another as viewed from the secondary.
The per-unit system (described earlier) avoids these compli-
cations. The simplified per-unit equivalent circuit for a trans-
former (Figure 8A 1,b) is suitable for most fault-current calcu-
lations. The term ~ ps is the leakage impedance of the trans-
former. It is also called the transformer's short-circuit imped-
ance, since it can be measured by applying a voltage to one
winding with the other winding short circuited.
Generally, for three-phase transformers rated 1500 kVA and
below and for single-phase transformers rated 500 kVA and
below, the resistive component of the leakage impedance is
significant and should not be neglected. In larger units, however,
the transformer reactance dominates and the resistance is
usually negligible (Reference 4). In these cases, the per-unit
leakage reactance of the transformer is assumed equal to
the nameplate percent impedance divided by 100, provided
the kVA base for the per-unit calculations is the transformer
kVA rating on which the nameplate percent impedance is based.
For fault calculations on a three-phase system involving
transformers, the sequence impedances of the transformers
must be included in the overall system-sequence impedances.
The positive-sequence impedance of a balanced three-phase
transformer or three identical single-phase transformers is
1he impedance presented to positive-sequence currents. In
other words, if the transformer is short-circuited on one side
and energized by a positive sequence on the other, the phase
A line-to-ground voltage on the supply side of the transformer
tivided by the phase A supply current will be the positive-
sequence impedance. If both the applied voltage and the current
are expressed in per-unit on the appropriate bases, then the
positive-sequence impedance will be in per-unit. Since one
phase of a short-circuited three-phase transformer is being
!iscussed, the positive-sequence impedance is equivalent to
1he leakage impedance of the transformer. Also, since a
1Jansformer is a passive element, its positive- and negative-
sequence impedances are identical. Figure 9A 1 shows the
positive- and negative-sequence per-unit equivalent circuits
af a transformer.
The zero-sequence equivalent circuit of a three-phase
1ransformer depends on the transformer connection. Figure
10A 1 shows equivalent circuits for some of the more common
,connections. Of the transformer connections illustrated, a
cad-side path for zero-sequence current exists only for con-
oaections 3 and 5. In connections 3 and 5, if ~ n, is zero, the
zero-sequence impedance is equal to the positive-sequence
impedance. In theory, this is not strictly true for all transformer
designs, especially three-phase core-type units, but it is suf-
fciently accurate for most applications. For autotransformers
and transformers with three or more windings, Figure 1OA 1 is
oot applicable and other sources must be referred to for zero-
sequence equivalent circuits (References 5 and 12).
A1
POSITIVE SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS
SOURCE LOAD
-r,
~ r2=rps
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE REFERENCE
SOURCE LOAD
~2
~ r2=-r,
Figure 9A1.
Positive- and negative-sequence per-unit equivalent
circuits of a transformer.
Impedances of Transmission Lines
The circuit parameters that influence the sequence impedances
of an overhead transmission line are the same as those that
influence the impedances of an overhead distribution circuit.
The principal parameters are conductor size, material, and
spacing, plus the type of grounding. In general, the previous
remarks on the effects of these parameters on impedances of
overhead distribution lines apply also to overhead transmission
lines.
However, the circuit parameters of transmission lines can have
a different range of values than the parameters of a distribution
line. Transmission-line interface spacings are much larger;
therefore, positive-sequence reactance is larger than for typical
distribution circuits. Zero-sequence impedances also are
affected by spacing changes, but in this case differences in
the type of grounding, number of ground wires, etc., can have
a more significant effect.
Transmission-line impedance information is usually needed
in distribution-system fault studies only for determination of
the equivalent source impedance of the system supplying the
distribution circuit. More will be said about source impedance
calculations in later sections. On many systems, transmission-
line impedances are readily available, since they are needed
in a variety of transmission-system studies: load flow, short
circuit, transient stability, system planning, etc. If such impedance
data is not available, it must be calculated from appropriate
equations (References 1, 3, 4, and 5).
Impedances of Generators
In moving away from the distribution system, the final impedance
element encountered is the generator. For most distribution
circuits, several voltage levels are interposed between
distribution and generation, and it is not unusual for the net
generator impedance to be small compared to the line and
transformer impedances on a per-unit basis. In the case of a
large interconnected transmission and subtransmission system
supplied by a number of generators, it is safe, for distribution
fault calculations, to assume the impedance of the equivalent
generator to be zero. This is frequently referred to as a "stiff"
system. The concept of the Thevenin equivalent, discussed
after the development of fault-current equations in the follow-
ing section ("System Faults"), handles this automatically. In
the stiff system, the generator portion of the equivalent series
impedance will be negligible.
27
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

CONNECTION DIAGRAM ZERO.SEQUENCE ~VIEWED

SOURCE LOAD EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FROM LOAD SIDE
i

~ y SOURCE
ZERO-SEQUENCE REFERENCE

~
~0 LOAD
0
~oL =CO

2
::y ~ s 0 ~
i:!o
i:!o L = CO

~~ i:!o
S~L
i:!ol =j!,
i

~~ .~ OL
i:!ol =CO

5
~~~. s 0
~.c;:, i:!o L = 1:! • + ~N

~~
6 i:!oL =CO
i:!o
s 0 ~L

7 ::y ~ s
i:!o
o-f'VV"\..--- OL
i:!o L '= C()

~~ so
i:!o
----f'V'VV"'\.. OL
i:!o L = C()

oi'!o = transformer zero-sequence impedance

;i'!1 transformer positive-sequence impedance

oi'!N =neutral impedance

oi'!oL = transformer
equivalent zero-sequence impedance of the three-phase
connection viewed from the load side

Figure 1OA1.
Transformer connections and zero-sequence equivalent circuits.

However, since there are systems where the generator
impedance is not an insignificant portion of the overall system
impedance, the sequence impedance representation of
generators will be discussed briefly.
POSITIVE-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS
e Generally, subtransient reactance is used to determine the
POSITIVE SEQUENCE
NEGATIVE•SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE
ZERO-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS
ZERO SEQUENCE
Figure 11A1.
Sequence equivalents of a generator.
The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence equivalent
c:in::uits for a generator are illustrated in Figure 11 A 1. Since a
generator is designed to supply a balanced three-phase voltage,
lie equivalent circuits show an ideal voltage source (zero
IIEmal impedance) in the positive-sequence diagram, and
., sources in the negative- and zero-sequence diagrams.
Senerator resistances are usually small, so only reactances
are shown in the equivalent circuits. The value used for
positive-sequence reactance Xg1 depends upon which time
period is being studied fault or other system disturbance. If
llle sustained, steady-state fault current is being calculated,
laen what is called the direct-axis synchronous reactance Xd
A1
should be used. This value would apply for times beyond
40 to 60 cycles following the fault, or whatever time period is
required for the initial transients to decay to negligible levels.
A reactance value applicable for the period from three to
approximately 40 cycles after the fault is called the direct-axis
transient reactance X'd. A third value used for the first two or
three cycles following the fault is the direct-axis subtransient
reactance X"d. The time periods indicated are only approxi-
mate and can vary considerably from one generator to another.
initial rms current value following the occurrence of a fault;
therefore, X"d is of most interest in fault studies.
In the past, transient reactance has been used in some cases
to determine currents that must be interrupted by a breaker,
and in making stability studies. However, with the availability
of higher speed breakers, it has become more common to
use subtransient reactance or more detailed generator models
in such studies.
In most fault studies, the value used for Xg1 (Figure 11 A 1)
will be the subtransient reactance X'd. Ranges of typical per-unit
values of X"d are 0.07 to 0.14 for two pole turbine generators
and 0.12 to 0.17 for four-pole turbine generators.
The negative-sequence reactance Xg2 of a synchronous
machine is that met by a current whose phase sequence is
opposite to that of the generated voltage. For this reason, Xg2 is
usually taken as the average between the direct and quadrature
axis subtransient reactances, X"d and X"q. For turbine gener-
ators, X"d is nearly equal to X"q, and the ranges of values
cited above for X"d may be used for Xg2 as well as for Xg1 .
The zero-sequence reactance Xgo of a generator varies
with the armature winding pitch and is usually from 10 to 70
percent of the direct axis subtransient reactance. For turbine
generators, a range of typical values for Xgo would be from
0.01 to 0.14 per unit. It should be that these values do not
include any impedance ~ N that may be deliberately inserted
between the neutral of the wye-connected generator and
ground. As shown in Figure 11A1, the neutral impedance is
independent of the generator's zero-sequence impedance. To
account for the presence of the neutral impedance, 3 ~ N
must appear in the zero-sequence equivalent circuit.
For most systems, there will be one or more transformers
separating the distribution circuit from the generator. If there
is no way the distribution circuit can be supplied except
through a transformer with a delta-connected main winding,
as is usually the case, then the generator's zero-sequence
impedance has no effect on the zero-sequence impedance
seen by a distribution system fault This can be deduced from the
zero-sequence equivalent circuit of a delta-wye transformer
bank (Figure 1OA 1). As a result, on most present-day systems,
generator zero-sequence impedance is of no significance in
the calculation of distribution system faults.
References 3 and 4 provide more thorough treatment of
generator impedances. Also, in a specific situation, the typical
values cited for Xg1, Xg2 and Xgo may not apply. Wherever
the generator impedance is not negligible in distribution-system
fault studies, it is best to use specific impedance values
provided by the generator manufacturer.
Source Impedance
One convenient approach to distribution-system fault
calculations is to begin at the low-voltage (LV) bus of the
distribution substation, calculate the currents for the various
possible types of fault at that point, and, moving away from
29
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)

LOAD

LOAD

LOAD

LOAD
~ LQAO

DISTRIBUTiOt-j
} SUBSTATION B
DISTRIBUTION
} SUBSTATION A
PRIMARY
P, DI.STR.· IBUTION
PRIMARY } CIRCUITS
DISTRIBUTION
CIRCUITS {

Figure 12A1.
Diagram of a distribution system.

the substation, repeat the calculation procedure at each point
of interest on the circuit. To do this, one must first know the
value of the source impedance at the substation low-voltage
bus. This is the impedance looking back into the system
supplying the distribution circuit, as illustrated in Figure 12A 1.
At point P1, for example, the source impedance is the
equivalent impedance of the network of transformers, trans-
mission lines, and generators supplying the low-voltage (LV)
bus in substation A. The source impedance used for other
distribution circuits served by the same bus in substation A
will be identical to that seen at point P1. In general, however,
in moving to another substation in the system, the source
impedance will change. Thus, the impedance looking back
into the system at point P2 in substation 8 may be much less
than it is at P1 if substation 8 is electrically closer to the system
generation than is substation A.
METHODS FOR FINDING SOURCE IMPEDANCE
Depending on the information available, several methods for
finding source impedance may be used.
Method A
In cases where the distribution system is fed through a simple
radial transmission system with a generator at the other end,
the source impedance can be calculated by hand. Using the
per-unit system, the source positive-sequence impedance is
the sum of the positive-sequence impedances of all system
components from the distribution substation low-voltage bus
up to and including the generator. The negative-sequence
source impedance is found in a similar fashion. The zero-
sequence source impedance is usually not the sum of the
component zero-sequence impedances because of the effect
of the transformer connections. An example of the calculation
of source impedance using Method A is presented below
under "Fault Calculation Procedures and Examples."
Method B
From a short-circuit study of the transmission system, obtain
the per-unit values of fault current for a three-phase fault
{It30) a line-to-line fault (ltLL), and line-to-ground fault {ltLG)
at the high-voltage bus of the distribution substation.
Preferably, these per-unit fault currents should be complex
numbers. Also, if the per-unit value of V, the voltage at the
substation high-voltage bus used to calculate the fault currents,
was any value other than 1 + jO, it is important to know the
per-unit value used. Then the sequence-source impedances
at the high-voltage bus (HV) can be found as follows:

30

(18)
(19)
(20)
-2: S1, -2: S2, and -2: so are the sequence-source impedances
at the high-voltage (HV) bus of the distribution substation, and
~ 1 is the fault impedance used in the short-circuit study
Jsually, only bolted faults are calculated in transmission-system
short-circuit studies, and -2: 1 is zero and can be omitted from
Equations 18 through 20. Also, it is common to calculate only
three-phase and line-to-ground faults. If these are the only
fault-current values available, then assume -2: S2 = -2: S1. In
11ost situations, Equations 18 through 20 would be replaced
':JY the following:
(21)
(22)
3V
rso = - - 2rs1 (23)
IfLG
Note that Equations 18 through 20 and 21 through 23 involve
::omplex number calculations and will lead to source impedances
:ontaining both resistance and reactance terms. However, if,
from the short-circuit study, only the magnitudes of the fault
:urrents and the magnitude of the per-unit voltage V are
known, then the equations can only provide the magnitudes
of the source impedances. In this event, it would be necessary
either to assume the source impedances are pure reactances
or to assign some reasonable resistance and reactance values
that combine to give the proper magnitude. Generally, since
resistances are normally omitted in transmission-system
short-circuit studies, it is appropriate to assume the impedances
produced by solution of Equations 21 through 23 are pure
reactances.
The -2: s1, -2: S2, and -2: so values obtained from the above
equations are high-voltage bus values and must be appropri-
ately combined with the per-unit sequence impedances of the
substation transformer to give the desired source-sequence
impedances at the low-voltage bus of the substation. Also, it
-nay be necessary to calculate -2: so at the high-voltage bus
Equation 20 or 23) if the substation transformer connection
IS such that the zero-sequence system impedance viewed
from the low-voltage side of the substation is unaffected by
j'je value of -2: so. For example, of the eight transformer
connections shown in Figure 1 OA 1, only in the case of
connection 3 (wye-wye grounded) will -2: so be added to the
:ransformer zero-sequence impedance and therefore affect
'dhe zero-sequence source impedance seen from the low-voltage
bus. With each of the other seven connections, the low-voltage
zero-sequence source impedance is independent of -2: so
seen at the high-voltage bus.
A1
Method C
In some cases, only the three-phase fault kVA available at the
high-voltage bus is given. This is similar to the fault-current
approach outlined in Method B, except that only three-phase
fault information is provided. In this situation, a value for
magnitude of -2: s1 is calculated by converting the fault kVA
to a per-unit fault current magnitude. Then, use Equation 21,
assuming a nominal system voltage if the actual value of V
at the high-voltage (HV) bus is unknown. Or, the per-unit
magnitude of -2: s1 can be found directly from the following:
V2
I r 81 1= k_V._'A_30-"-F-AU_l_T_Ik_V._'A_B
kVA3111 FAULT-PU
where
I -2: s 1 I = magnitude of positive-sequence source impedance
in per-unit,
V = line-to-line voltage at high-voltage (HV) bus of substation
in per-unit,
kVA3r;,FAULT =available three-phase fault kVA,
kVAs = base kVA, and
kVA30 FAULT-PU = available three-phase fault kVA in
per-unit.
As in Method B, assume I -2: S2 I = I -2: 81 I if no further
information is provided. If a value of -2: so is needed at the
high-voltage bus, it must be estimated based on prior experience
with the system under study, since it cannot ·be obtained
knowing only the three-phase fault kVA. Here again, the
substation transformer connection should be determined
first. For many connections, -2: so at the high-voltage bus is
not needed for fault calculations on the distribution system.
Method D
Another possible origin of sequence-source impedance
information is the bus-impedance matrix data used in some
transmission-system short-circuit studies. In these studies,
the following conditions prevail: each generator is represented
by a constant voltage behind the machine reactance (usually
transient or subtransient reactance), the shunt connections
(for example, line capacitances to ground) are neglected, all
the transformers are set at nominal taps, and ground is taken
as a reference. In the bus-impedance matrix, the diagonal
elements are the impedances seen from each bus looking
back into the system. These diagonal elements are also
called the driving-point impedances. If the high-voltage bus of
the distribution substation is represented in the bus-impedance
matrix, then the diagonal element corresponding to the high-
voltage bus in the positive-sequence bus-impedance matrix
is the desired value of -2:81. The similar diagonal element in
the zero-sequence bus-impedance matrix is the desired
value of -2: so. As in Method B, these values must then be
appropriately combined with the substation transformer per-unit
sequence impedances to produce the source-sequence
impedances at the low-voltage bus of the substation.
Fault Impedance
In the application of overcurrent protective equipment to
distribution systems, it is important to have a knowledge of
minimum as well as maximum fault-current levels. This
31
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Tools for Fault Analysis (Continued)
means that a fault study should result in both maximum and
minimum values of fault-current magnitude at each node of
the circuit.
Generally, on a radial system the conditions that produce
maximum fault-current levels are: maximum voltage, source
impedances for maximum generation conditions, and zero
values of fault impedance. Conversely, the usual conditions
for minimum fault currents are minimum voltage, source
impedances during times of minimum generation, and some
non-zero value of fault impedance. (In most practical situations,
these conditions are valid for maximum and minimum
magnitudes of current for three-phase, line-to-line, and line-
to-ground faults. However, there are actual circuits where the
current magnitude in one phase of a double line-to-ground
fault will increase when going from a zero to a non-zero value
of fault impedance. This is covered briefly under "Basic
Approach" in the section titled "Fault Calculation Procedures
and Examples:')
In many fault studies, it is customary to use a nominal system
voltage in the fault-current equations. Frequently, no distinction
is made between circuit loading conditions that produce
maximum and minimum voltages. Also, it is assumed that the
voltage at an end of the circuit has the same magnitude as
the voltage at the substation. Furthermore, in many studies,
maximum and minimum generation-source impedances are
assumed to be equal. The validity of these assumptions
varies from one circuit to another. But if they are reasonable
assumptions for a given circuit, then only fault impedance
permits a distinction to be made between maximum and mini-
mum faults.
Fault impedance (~f) is simply the impedance in the fault
(Figure 20A 1, Page 37). It is not positive- or zero-sequence
impedance, which are system characteristics. It is not neces-
sarily related to any ground impedance or any so-called
ground effects. Earth resistivity and mutual impedance
between an overhead conductor and a conducting ground
plane are examples of ground effects. Both of these affect the
values of ~ 1 and ~ o, but not ~ t, which is a highly variable
item, depending on the cause of the fault, the type of fault, and
the environment. A line-to-line fault on an overhead circuit
caused by a dry or dead tree branch can be a high-impedance
fault and ground is not involved at all. A fallen conductor will
be a low ~ f fault if the conductor drops into a stream or
ground water, but it can be a high ~ f fault if it drops onto a
dry pavement where ground-contact resistance is high.
Also, in any specific fault situation, ~ f is a time variable. A
fault may begin as a high-impedance, low-current fault and
progress to a low-impedance, high-current fault. Conversely,
a fault may start out with some fault impedance that increases
to infinity if the fault is self-clearing, such as a fault caused by
an animal that positions itself between a phase conductor
and ground.
32
By now it is probably apparent that fault impedance is a
nebulous quantity. Selecting an appropriate value for ~ f is by
far the weakest link in the procedure for finding minimum fault
currents on a system. Therefore, some engineers elect not to
calculate minimum fault currents at all. Instead, they pick a
value such as the current-carrying ability of the conductor at
the given point on the circuit as the minimum fault current at
that point. Then, by selecting a recloser or other protective
device on the source side of this point so that it will operate
to clear a current of at least this magnitude in a sufficiently
short time, they prevent damage to the conductor. A disad-
vantage to this approach is that fault currents below the ther-
mal limit of the conductor may not be detected.
Other engineers calculate minimum fault currents using
some stated value of ~ t. Generally, it is assumed to be a
pure resistance. If ~ f could be measured in a large variety of
fault situations, the value would be found to be statistically
distributed over a wide range. A study of this type was
conducted in the 1930s on various 26 to 220 kV systems. An
EEl and Bell System report (Reference 13) of the analysis of
1375 faults on these systems states the most frequently
occurring values of apparent fault resistance ranged from
5 to 25 ohms. An IEEE Committee Report (Reference 14)
states that fault impedance was used in calculations by three
of the 26 companies surveyed. Two of the three companies
used 20 ohms and one used 40 ohms. Of the remaining 23
companies, seven reported they used zero fault impedance and
16 gave no response. A Rural Electrification Administration
Bulletin (Reference 15) recommends using 40 ohms for ~ f in
minimum line-to-ground fault calculations, but does not give
the basis for the recommendation.
Whatever value is chosen for ~ f in a given situation, the
minimum fault currents resulting from calculations should not
be used indiscriminately. A 40-ohm fault at the end of a long
circuit may produce a calculated current in some source-side
device that appears to be less than normal load current.
Conversely, if nothing other than zero is used for ~ t, then a
fault midway on a feeder or close to the substation may produce
a calculated minimum fault current that is too large, and the
result might be selection of a source-side device setting or
rating that prevents detection of fault currents smaller than
those calculated. Thus, judgment is required in the use of
calculated minimum fault-current values, no matter what
value of fault impedance is used in the calculations. It is
desirable to arrive at a minimum fault current that establishes
with reasonable confidence the lower end of the fault-current
range at each point of a circuit. The goal is to make the
probability of occurrence of faults with currents below this
range as low as possible, recognizing that there is always the
possibility of high-impedance faults occurring that cannot be
detected by the protection system.
 A1

System Faults
TYPES OF FAULTS
The type of fault that can occur depends on the distribution
system. Line-to-ground, line-to-line, and double line-to-ground
faults are common to single-, two-, and three-phase systems.
Three-phase faults are, of course, characteristic only of
three-phase systems.
Line-to-ground faults result when one conductor falls to
grou nd or contacts the neutral wire. Possible points along a
<istribution system where such faults can occur are shown in
Figure 13A 1.

\-vv-
!'J ~
>
~
~ "
...
~,.,.,. ,,. (\
Figure 14A1.
Figure 13A1. Line-to-line faults.
Une-to-ground faults.

Line-to-line faults result when conductors of a two-phase

or three-phase system are short-circuited as shown in Figure
14A1. They can occur anywhere along a three-phase wye or
delta system, or along a two-phase branch.
Double line-to-ground faults result when two conductors
Bl and are connected through ground, or when two conductors
contact the neutral of a three-phase or two-phase grounded
system. Figure 15A1 shows a typical faulted circuit.
This section covers some of the principles underlying the
development of equations for the calculation of currents
leSUiting from power-system faults. The derivation of the
~ation for single line-to-ground faults is given in detail,
beginning with the equations for the symmetrical components
ol the line-to-ground voltage of phase A at the terminals of a
symmetrical three-phase, wye-connected, synchronous
onachine with balanced generated voltages. Equations for
alher types of faults are stated without derivation, since the
Figure 15A1.
procedure followed is similar to that for single line-to-ground Double line-to-ground faults.
faults.

Yollages at the Terminals of a Generator

Figure 16A1 shows a wye-connected synchronous generator Va1 = Ea1- Ia1 r1 (24)
with its neutral grounded through an impedance ~ n.
For a generator that is loaded, the currents Ia, lb, and Ic
Va2 = Ea2- Ia2 r2 (25)
are non-zero. In is the current in the neutral connection. The
Vs represent terminal voltages and the E's are generated
(26)
dages. Voltage equations for the three balanced symmetrical
CXliTlponent representations of this machine's phase A terminal
dage are written:

33
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

..
Ia

.-------------------------~----------•v.
V ao =- In r n + Eao - lao r 9o
= -3 lao rn + Eao - lao rgo
= Ea0 - Ia0 {3r n + rg 0 ) (28)
Comparing Equations 28 with 26 shows

ro= 3rn+ -r 90 (29)

..____________• vb
Remembering that, for balanced generator voltages,
= = =
Ea2 Eao 0, and Ea 1 Ea, Equations 24 through 26
now become

~--------------------•vc
..
lc Va1 = Ea- Ia1 r1

Va2 = -Ia2 r2
(30)

(31)

Figure 16A1. Va0 = -Ia0 (3rn + r 90 ) (32)

Wye-connected synchronous generator.
For balanced generated voltages, Ea2 = Ea0 , = 0, and Ea1 is
simply Ea. Also, ~ 1 and ~ 2 are the positive- and negative-
sequence impedances, respectively, of the generator. The
value of r 1 depends on whether sub-transient, transient, or
steady-state conditions are being studied. The value of r 2 does
not vary with these conditions. Generally, for turbine-generators
and salient-pole machines, r 2 equals the subtransient value
of~ 1.
The value of ~ o in Equation 26 is not just the zero-
sequence impedance of the generator. It also must include
the effect of r n, the impedance between N and ground. This
These are the general equations for the symmetri
components of the line-to-ground voltage of phase A at th
terminals of a symmetrical three-phase, wye-connected, sy
chronous machine with balanced generated voltages. Th
can be used as the basis for the symmetrical compone
analysis of a variety of dissymmetries. In the followin
discussion, they are used to investigate a line-to-ground fau
on an unloaded generator.
...-------------------------. v.,
.. Ia,

is done as follows:
By Kirchoff's Law, the current in the neutral is

In= Ia+lb+Ic
Substituting the symmetrical component equivalents of the
phase currents:

In = Ia1 + Ia2 + lao + Ib1 + Ib2 + Ibo

+ Ic1 + Ic2 + leo
Since both the positive- and negative-sequence components
of current form balanced phasor diagrams (Figure 3A 1), note
that
Also, since the zero-sequence currents are in phase and
equal in magnitude,
Therefore,
(27)
Thus, considering only zero-sequence components, the
generator diagram becomes that shown in Figure 17A 1,
where r go is the zero-sequence impedance per phase of the
generator. Based on this diagram, the zero-sequence compo-
nent of phase A terminal voltage to ground can be written as
lc.
•
' - - - - - - - - -.... Vc,
Figure 17A1.
Generator diagram considering only zero-sequence
components.
Equations for a Single Line-to-Ground Fault
First, the symmetrical, wye-connected generator previou
described is considered to determine the value of fault curre
produced if one of the phase terminals is grounded through
a fault impedance when the generator is operating unloaded
This involves a symmetrical three-phase system with dissym-
metry at only one point in the system. Here, the dissymmetry
is a line-to-ground fault, but it could also be a line-to-line or a
double line-to-ground fault, or even one or two open phases..
The general procedure in developing equations for these
situations is to replace analytically the phase currents and
voltages at the point of dissymmetry by their symmetrical
components.Then, utilizing what is known about the system

34
 A1
(such as sequence impedances of lines, transformers, etc.) and solving for
and the character of the dissymmetry, analytical expressions
are developed for any unknown symmetrical components. Ia1
These then are transformed back into phase quantities using
expressions similar to Equation 2 (page 10). Ia1 = Ea (35)
This analytical transformation from phase quantities into r 1 + r 2+ r + 3rn + 3rt
90
symmetrical components and back again is employed only in Figure 18A1 illustrates that the phase A current due to the
1lle development of the equations. The equations express the fault equals the current in the generator neutral, since this is
unknown phase quantities in terms of known phase quanti- the only return path. Since Ia = 3Ia1 and In = 3Iao
ties and known sequence impedances. The purpose here is = 3Ia 1, the fault current It is
ID illustrate analytical transformation for one particular type of
It = Ia = In = 3Ea
dssymmetry, and to show how fault-current equations using r 1 + r 2+ r + 3rn + 3rt (36)
symmetrical components are developed. 90
Frequently, the terms in the denominator involving generator
neutral impedance and generator zero-sequence impedance
are all lumped together as

(37)

so that Equation 36 may be rewritten in its more common

..
form as
lb=O
L....--'----e Vb (38)

If desired, expressions for voltage conditions (both phase-

ground and phase-phase) at the fault can be found in a similar
fashion.

lc=O Sequence Networks

L....------..:•---· Vc As mentioned, a balanced three-phase system can be analyzed
on a single-phase basis. This is also true for each of the three
F~gure 18A1. symmetrical component systems that result from the application
Diagram for line-to-ground case study. of the method of symmetrical components to unbalanced
three-phase systems. This means, for example, that the
three-phase positive-sequence network can be replaced for
purposes of calculation by an equivalent single-phase network
Figure 18A1 illustrates the case under study. The only new and can be represented by a one-line impedance diagram. The
symbol introduced is r t, the impedance of the fault from terms positive-sequence network, negative-sequence network,
phase A to ground. and zero-sequence network apply to these single-phase net-
First, look at the conditions at the generator terminals that works. The currents and voltages shown in the one-line dia-
describe this one type of dissymmetry. They are: grams of these networks are those of phase A, the phase
lb=O lc=O Va=Ia~ normally chosen for reference.
The three sequence networks are interconnected in different
ways, depending on the type of unsymmetrical condition. An
By using the above value for lb and Ic in the current equations, example of the interconnection of the sequence networks for
which correspond to the voltage Equation 3 (page 10), the a phase A-to-ground fault at the terminals of an unloaded
symmetrical components of the phase currents are: wye-connected generator is given in Figure 19A1, which
reveals that the interconnection diagram is the graphic equivalent
Ia1 = (Ia +alb + a2Ic) /3 = Ia/3 of Equation 35.
The use of sequence networks is not always essential for
Ia2 = (Ia + a2Ib + ale) /3 = Ia/3
the application of the method of symmetrical components
Ia0 = (Ia + Ib + lc) /3 = Ia/3 (33) but, in many cases, it also provides a better understanding of
the relationships involved. Having drawn the diagram in
Therefore, Ia1 = Ia2 = lao (34) Figure 19A1, for example, one could write the equation for Ia1
(Equation 35) by inspection. Also, if the neutral of the gener-
Since Va = Iart ator is not grounded, the zero-sequence network will be open
circuited and it will be clear from Figure 19A1 that no path
and since Va=Va1 +Va2+Vao exists for the flow of current. However, it will be equally clear
from an examination of Equations 35, 36, or 38, since an
we find, using Equations 30, 31, and 32 ungrounded neutral means r n and r o are both infinite.
Iart= Ea - Ia1 r 1 - Ia2 ~ -lao (3m+ rg 0 ) In considering more complicated systems than the single
unloaded generator used for an initial example, the sequence
But since Ia = 3Ia1 and la1 = la2 = lao this becomes network concept becomes more important. In analyzing con-
ditions on an interconnected system of generators, trans-
3Ia 1rt = Ea - Ia1 r 1 - Ia1r 2 - Ia1 (3rn + r 90 ) formers, and transmission and distribution lines, the normal

35
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

procedure is to obtain the sequence impedances of the various
system components and then combine these into the
sequence networks representing the entire system. Next, if
faults, for example, are being calculated, each sequence network
is reduced until an equivalent sequence impedance, as
viewed from the fault point, is obtained. Any generators in the
positive-sequence system can be replaced by a single
Thevenin-equivalent generator representing the voltage at
the fault point prior to the fault. (This is described in the next
section, "Equations for Other Fault Conditions.") Doing this
would produce sequence network equivalents somewhat
similar to those in Figure 19A1. The networks could then be
interconnected to permit the study of various fault conditions
or to permit the direct use of fault-current equations such as
Equation 38.
Again, it should be noted that the discussion here is confined
to line-to-ground faults. The sequence network connections
for other types of faults are given ample treatment in
References 1, 3, 4, 5.
The preceding is only a brief sketch of the use of sequence
networks. If the system under study is radial, as most distribution
circuits are, then sequence networks are not as useful as
they are with looped systems. However, even with radial systems,
there are situations where drawing the sequence network
representation of the problem is beneficial.
Equations for Other Fault Conditions
The development of the equation for the current in a line-to-
ground fault (Equation 38) involved only a fault at the terminals
of an unloaded generator. However, the form of the equation
is valid for any complicated system that has been reduced to
its Thevenin equivalent.
THEVENIN'S THEOREM
Thevenin's theorem states that a linear network terminating
on two points, a and b, and containing any number of voltage
sources may be replaced by a single voltage source and a
series impedance between a and b. The series impedance is
the impedance of the network measured between a and b
with the internal voltage short-circuited. The single voltage

POSITIVE-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS

Ea
+ v., POSITIVE-SEQUENCE NETWORK

- Ia,

NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS

v., NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE NETWORK

-
la,= la,

ZERO-SEQUENCE REFERENCE BUS

Va, ZERO-SEQUENCE NETWORK

-
la,= Ia,

Figure 19A1.
Interconnection of sequence networks for phase A-to-ground faults.

36
 A1
source is equal to the open-circuit voltage measured 2
between a and b. This is the Thevenin-equivalent generator 1I 1= j+jf3v, 1 ro + 3rt -a r2 1
mentioned earlier. r 1 r 2 + (r 1 +r 2 )(ro +3rt) (43)
It should be noted that Thevenin's theorem applies only to In these equations, I is the rms value of the steady-state
linear networks: that is, to those networks in which the resist- symmetrical a-c phase current flowing into the fault; Vt is the
ances, inductances, and capacitances are constant and are rms value of the steady-state a-c voltage to ground at the
independent of the current and voltage. Examples of nonlinear fault prior to the occurrence of the fault; :Z:: 1, :Z:: 2. and :Z:: o are
elements are skin-effect resistance and transformer magnetizing the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence impedances of
inductance. These elements have important effects in transient the system viewed from the fault; and :Z:: t is the fault imped-
overvoltage studies and, generally, Thevenin's theorem cannot ance associated with a given type of fault (see Figure 20A 1).
oe applied in studies involving them to simplify any part of the The vertical line notation ([I]) means that the magnitude of
network containing the nonlinear elements. However, for the the complex number within the lines is to be taken; i.e.:
purposes of most steady-state load and fault-current calcula-
bons, R, L, and C values are constant, and Thevenin's theo- if I = A + jB, then II I= .V A2 + B2
rem is applicable.
Any consistent set of units may be used for these variables
Thus, assuming linearity, an extensive power system with
in the fault-current equations. For example, they all may be
many generators and closed loops can be reduced to the
expressed in per-unit, or in amperes, volts, and ohms. They
simple system shown in Figure 16A1. From this viewpoint,
also may be expressed in some other set of units, provided
me symbols in Equation 38 can be given a new meaning. Ea
appropriate scale factors are introduced. The nomenclature
s the Thevenin-equivalent open-circuit voltage at the fault above associates rms values with I and Vt, since these are
point: that is, the line-to-ground voltage prior to the fault. The
the values normally used in steady-state fault calculations.
sequence impedances are no longer confined to generator
However, the equations are more general than this. If, instead
and neutral impedances, but now represent the equivalent
of an rms voltage, the crest value of the steady-state a-c voltage
mpedances of the entire system as viewed from the fault
to ground is used for Vf, then the resulting current value will
::JOint with all voltage sources shorted. On a large interconnected
be a crest value also.
rransmission system, the series impedance equivalent is
found for each of the sequence networks by systematically
reducing the network of impedances (by means of delta-wye
and wye-delta transformations) until single values of :Z:: 1, :Z:: 2,
and :Z:: o are obtained. On a radial distribution system, this
:an be a relatively simple procedure. On a large interconnected
network, it can be a laborious task, especially if the calculations
are done by hand. This is one reason for the initial success of
a-c network analyzers, now replaced by the more accurate
and more powerful digital load-flow and short-circuit programs
,see Computer Programs section).
So far, only single line-to-ground fault conditions on a
oower system have been discussed. The procedure followed
1n developing the line-to-ground fault-current equation can THREE-PHASE FAULT LINE-LINE FAULT
easily be duplicated for other types of faults. These equations
are derived in References 1, 3, 4, and 5, or can be developed
oy the reader.

EQUATIONS FOR FAULT-CURRENT MAGNITUDES

The equations for fault-current magnitudes for all of the vari-
ous types of faults are:
Three-phase Fault V
I I I= Ir1 ~ rr I (39)
LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT DOUBLE LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT
Line-to-Line Fault
Figure 20A 1.
I I I=l±i Fault-impedance convention for Equations 39 through 43.
(40)

Line-to-Ground Fault
Some points of interest should be noted about Equations
I I I= I 3Vt I 39 through 43. In most short-circuit studies, only three-phase
r 1 + r 2 + r 0 + 3rt (41) and single line-to-ground faults are calculated. The reason for
this is that a three-phase fault usually, but not always,
Double Line-to-Ground Fault produces the maximum fault current. (On some distribution
1I I= l-i-f3V, 1 ro +3rt -ar2 1 circuits, a line-to-ground fault near the substation can produce
rr 2 + (r 1 +r 2 )(ro +3rt) (42) fault current exceeding that produced by a three-phase fault
1
at the same point.) And the single line-to-ground fault is the
And, in the other phase associated with this fault, most common type of fault.

37
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)
The other two types of faults, however, should not be
completely ignored. For example, double line-to-ground faults
are difficult to calculate by hand, but there is little justification
for omitting them from a computer program for short-circuit
studies. In finding maximum fault currents, it is customary to
assume a zero value for fault impedance r t, because it is
apparent from Equations 39 through 41 that, with practical
r
values of system impedances, any values of f greater than
zero will reduce the resulting fault current. This is not apparent
from Equations 42 and 43, since r t appears in the numerator,
as well as the denominator, of these expressions. On some
actual systems, it has been demonstrated that introducing a
r
small resistive value of f makes the magnitude of the fault
current in one phase of a double line-to-ground fault greater
r
than the fault magnitude with zero f. In fact, in these cases,
it was surprising that a double line-to-ground fault with fault
impedance produced a current magnitude in one of the faulted
phases roughly ten percent greater than the current magni-
tudes of both three-phase and single-phase faults with zero
fault impedance. Thus, the current magnitudes produced by
double line-to-ground faults can be significant. It cannot be
said that they are always less than the magnitudes of three-
phase or line-to-ground faults.
Also, line-to-line faults cannot always be ignored, especially
if the circuit has single-phase laterals consisting of two phase
conductors. In general, in situations such as the development
of computer programs for fault calculations, there are argu-
ments in favor of calculating all types of faults.
ASYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENT*
Definition and Significance
Some knowledge of the behavior of the actual current waveform
in a circuit following a fault is important in the application of
devices such as fuses, sectionalizers, reclosers, and breakers
for distribution-system overcurrent protection.
The fault-current equations, 39 through 43, are applicable
only for steady-state conditions. They calculate the rms values
of fault currents that have persisted for periods sufficiently
long so that all initial transients have disappeared. They tell
nothing about either the rms or the instantaneous values of
current in the time immediately following the fault.
R L
~~~--~-----,
I
I
,--L-.
SWITCH
I LOAD I
=E sin (wt + ¢] '--r-'
I solution. These are also the d-e and a-c components, respec-
....__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___. _____ .JI
Figure 21 A1.
Single-phase circuit for study of current behavior
immediately following a fault.
* Portions adapted from material in Reference 17.
38
Observing the behavior of current in a single-phase circuit
(Figure 21 A 1) provides some guidance on this type of informa-
tion. The circuit consists of an ideal sinusoidal voltage source
and a series combination of resistance, an inductance, and a
switch.
The dotted portion of Figure 21 A 1 serves as a reminder
that a circuit in which a fault occurs may normally be carrying
some load. If the fault is represented by the closing of the
switch, then the load is shorted and, in the steady state, the
fault current is unaffected by the load. However, before the
fault occurs, i(t) is affected by the load, so in theory, the
behavior of i(t) in the period after the fault in which transients
exist is influenced by the prefault load current. But in most
practical situations, the fault current is the dominant factor
and load current is ignored.
The determination of how the fault current behaves as a
function of time involves the solution of the following differential
equation:
Ri + L-ffi= E sin (wt +e)
(44)
where R and L are the circuit resistance and inductance,
respectively; i is the instantaneous current in the circuit
(Figure 21 A 1) after the switch is closed; E is the crest value
of the sinusoidal voltage source; w is the source generator's
angular frequency; and 4> is the angle separating the voltage
zero and the time at which the fault occurs (t=O).
The details of the solution of Equation 44 are well covered
in Reference 16 and other textbooks, so only the result is
stated here. Assuming the prefault current to be zero (i.e.,
load current = 0) then the solution is
·Rwt
i = Ae X+ 8 sin (w+ e-o)
A= E sin (0-e)
where
,f R2 + X2
E
B = r,f:;;R:;;:2:::+:::;:X;:;;:2
()=tan · 1 ~)
and X =wl (45)
The first term in Equation 45 is the transient part of the
solution, since it is decaying exponential whose value disappears
eventually. The second term is the steady-state part of the
tively. The second term is a sinusoidal function of time whose
crest value is simply the crest value of the supply voltage
divided by the magnitude of the system impedance as viewed
from the fault. The phase difference 0 between the supply
voltage (E sin(wt+ 4>)) and the steady-state fault current
depends only on the X/R ratio of the circuit impedance.
The significance of the transient and steady-state components
of the fault current is best illustrated by considering an actual
example. Figure 22A 1 shows a specific circuit with an X/R
ratio of 5. The circuit is supplied by a 60-hertz source
(W=377), with the fault arbitrarily occurring (switch closes) at
20 degrees on the voltage wave. The numbers obtained from
the general solution, Equation 45, are given in the figure.

R X
SWITCH CLOSES
· Att=O
Figure 22A1.
illustration of significance of transient and steady-state fault-current components.
Figure 23A 1, however, graphically illustrates the interaction
:i the terms of the equations. The curves were plotted from
ne specific example of Figure 22A1 and the time base is
;raduated for that solution. The curves themselves are
abeled with the general equation symbols, so that the interaction
:i curves and equations is clearly shown. The upper curve
snows the voltage waveform. The fault is assumed to occur
~=0) at a point on the ascending voltage wave 20 degrees
after a voltage zero. The lower graph shows the total fault current
solid curve) and its transient and steady-state components
jotted curves) plotted on a time scale identical to that of the
..oltage waveform. The solid current curve, which is the wave·
shape that would be observed on an oscilloscope connected
nto the circuit, is the sum of the two dotted curves. Although
"'$ither of the two current components could be recorded in
his transient period by an oscilloscope, the dotted curves are
still of interest since they provide a better perspective of
asymmetry.
Asymmetry in an a·c power system is the phenomenon
whereby the symmetrical current oscillations about the zero
ine are shifted so that they oscillate around some transient
-eference line that is neither straight nor zero. In Figure 23A 1,
:Tie total current is oscillating around the decaying exponential
:;urve, which means that the exponential curve is the new
--eference "zero" line for the sine wave. This will make the total
:urrent wave asymmetric with respect to the true zero line,
since the positive loops of current reach different crest
'Tlagnitudes than the negative loops.
Now that asymmetry has been defined, what is its significance
n dealing with fault currents? The answer lies in two important
aspects of the problem: first, the magnetic force exerted on
carts due to the current, and, secondly, the thermal or joule
content of the fault current. Both the thermal and magnetic
lorce characteristics are a function of the square of the current.
In Figures 22A 1 and 23A 1, the first peak of the asymmetrical
Naveform has a magnitude approximately 1.5 times the crest
value of the steady-state waveform. For example, at this point
::he magnetic forces on interrupting equipment are about 2.25
jmes the forces caused by the steady-state fault current. In
:he same fashion, if the first loop is not only greater in ampli·
:ude but is above the zero line for longer than half a cycle (as
:n Figure 23A 1), then the i2t content of the current (that is, its
::hermal or heating effect) is much greater. Both of these
affect the design and application of the protective equipment
used on a power system.
A1
E= 100VOLTS X= 100HMS
w =377 RADIANS/SECOND R=20HMS
¢ = 20° = .349 RADIANS X=5
R
~=10.20HMS
·1 X 78.7o
SUBSTITUTING INTO EQUATION 45 {)=tan R
75 41 1.373 RADIANS.
i = 9.8 sin (1.024) e' .
+9.8 sin (377tt1.024)
= 8.37 e' 75.41 + 9.8 sin (377t- 1.024)
This is where the significance of current asymmetry lies. In
designing and applying devices that will be exposed to fault
currents, transient as well as the steady-state fault currents
must be considered, since both thermal effects and mechanical
forces can be greatly magnified in the initial transient period.
Application of Current Asymmetry Information
The maximum magnetic forces produced in a device occur at
the instant the current is maximum. In Figure 23A1 for example,
the total current has peaks at approximately 7, 15, 24, and 32
milliseconds for the time range displayed. A protective
device, such as a recloser, in a circuit where this fault current
is flowing will experience peak magnetic forces at the same
times. From the equipment design and application viewpoint,
the largest of the peaks is of interest, since it subjects equipment
to the severest test with respect to magnetic forces. For certain
values of the voltage phase angle ( c/>) (Equation 44), the
largest peak will occur in the first current loop, as shown in
Figure 23A1. However, there are other values of 4> for which
the largest peak will not occur until the second loop. Figure
24A 1 shows a current waveform of this type.
The larger of these peaks can be found mathematically by
differentiating the current expression in Equation 45 with
respect to its two independent variables t and cf>. (The other
variables, E, R, X, and w, are fixed for any given circuit).
When this is done, it is found that the larQer of the two
"largest" peaks occurs for zero voltage angle cp. which places
it in the first current loop. The current waveform thus resembles
that shown in Figure 23A 1 rather than that in Figure 24A 1
This 4> = 0 condition is called the condition of maximum
asymmetry.
References 17, 18, and 19 provide a thorough treatment of
the mathematics of analyzing current under the condition of
maximum asymmetry, and the details are well worth studying
for a clear understanding of the implications of asymmetry.
They show that some of the effects of asymmetry are
dependent only on the X/R ratio of the circuit; also, that the
effects on the peak value and the energy content of the first
current loop are much greater than the effect on the rms
value. For the condition of maximum asymmetry, the rms
value of the first current loop can be as great as 1.7492 times
the rms value of its steady-state symmetrical component
(References 17, 18).
39
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

+ 100
e (t) 100 Sin (377t + .349)

VOLTAGE

5 20

-100

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

TIME {CYCLES)

754
I (t) = 9.8 Sin (377t- 1.024) + 8.37e'
+15 7
..,.,.,.......... ,
TOTAL
CURRENT
/ ClJRRENT
,.."" '
w
w
a:
----r---- .' """ '\
\
'\
·~ 1/ · - - -..
I
{
I
1- I I
2 0
w I 20
a: 5 I
,gj TIME(ms) · I
0 I
-5 /
I
/

-10
'' ...... _.....,,. /

-15

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

TIME (CYCLES)

Figure 23A1.
Interaction of terms of equations in Figure 22A1.

40

Figure 24A1.
Current waveform with largest magnetic-current peak in
the second loop.
However, the peak of the first current loop can be as great as
two times the peak of the steady-state component, and this
energy content can be six times that of the first loop of the
symmetrical a-c component (Reference 17). From the viewpoint
of equipment design and application, these peak current and
energy comparisons are more meaningful than a comparison
of rms values.
The discussion here is confined, however, to rms relationships,
since this is the way equipment is now rated and standards
are written. The root-mean-square (rms) value of an arbitrary
current is
(46)
where i = a current function of time
t =time
T = time interval specified for the rms
determ in at ion.
If i = B sin wt, where B is the crest value of a sinusoidal
current, Equation 46 shows that I = B/{2 so long as T is an
integral multiple of a half cycle. From a physical viewpoint, a
sinusoidal current with a crest value of B will have the same
effect on p loss in a conductor as a d-e current whose
value is B/ or this reason, I is sometimes called the effec-
tive value of i, but this {2 relationship does not in
general hold for an asymmetrical waveform. Applying
Equation 46 to Equation 45 results in a detailed expression
for the rms value of the asymmetrical waveform, and the time
interval for the integration or averaging process definitely
influences the outcome (References 17, 18). Identifying the
rms value of the steady-state a-c component of current in
Equation 45 as I and the rms value of the total current as 1',
then a useful measure of an asymmetrical waveform is the
ratio I'll. Fault-current calculations (Equations 39 through 43)
produce values of I. If an appropriate value for the ratio I'll is
known, it can be multiplied by the calculated I value to obtain
the rms value of the asymmetrical waveform.
Gross and Thapar (Reference 19) cite an expression that
is a function only of X, R, and </>. For any given value of X/R,
the value of I'll with respect to </>can be maximized and then
plotted as a function of X/R. (For the reader who has gone
into the details of asymmetry calculations, Hshould be noted
that this procedure involves maximizing 1', not i. Maximizing I'
A1
is the same as maximizing I'll, since I is constant. The
condition for maximum i is a zero voltage angle </>, as
described earlier. But for maximum I', the value of </> is
always greater than zero. If I' is calculated for the first current
loop, the maximum value of I'll is 1. 7662. It occurs at an X/R
ratio of 200 and an angle</> of 12 degrees.) The result of plot-
ling the maximums of I'll is shown in Figure 25A 1.
While the integration time interval T for finding I, the rms
value of a symmetrical waveform, is constant n, the interval
for finding I' varies with X/R and 0. The T used to find I' in
Figure 25A 1 is not constant, but it is always the time to the
first current zero of the asymmetrical waveform.
At a point of fuse application on a specific circuit - if for
example, the rms symmetrical fault current for a line-to-ground
fault is known (Equation 41) - the single-phase equivalent
X/R ratio can be found from the total system impedance used
in the fault calculation. For a line-to-ground fault with zero
fault impedance, this would be (2-21 + -2 o)/3. The reactive
part of this impedance divided by the real part is the single-
phase equivalent X/R ratio. An I'll value can be found from
Figure 25A 1 for this value of X/R. This multiplied by the
calculated rms symmetrical fault current will produce the
greatest rms asymmetrical value possible for that type of
fault.
The same procedure is used for all types of faults possible at
the fuse location. Then, the largest rms symmetrical and
asymmetrical values can be used for selecting the fuse cutout
with the proper interrupting ratings. (Since Figure 25A 1 is based
on the analysis of current in a simple R, X series circuit, the pro-
cedure described is not precisely correct for finding the RMS
of the asymmetrical current in a double line-to-ground fault or
in any system whose symmetrical component equivalent circuit
involves parallel paths. More study of the transient behavior
of fault current for various types of faults and various systems
needs to be made. However, the procedure described is
more precise for line-to-line and single line-to-ground faults
than simply using the X1/R1 ratio, which, strictly speaking, is
valid only for three-phase faults.)
This, briefly, illustrates the application of current asymmetry
information of the type provided by Figure 25A 1, which, as
noted, is based on the first current loop. This is especially
useful in the application of fuses, since many fuses interrupt
at the current zero following the initial loop. It is also useful in
checking the momentary ratings of switches, sectionalizers,
and breakers. However, the use of Figure 25A 1 for selecting
breakers or reclosers with adequate interrupting capacity can
result in the selection of ratings much higher than necessary.
In this instance, the rms value of the first current loop is too
conservative for comparison with the interrupting ratings of
breakers and reclosers, since these devices do not usually
interrupt for a number of cycles after fault initiation. For many
practical values of X/R ratio, this means much of the asymmetry
has disappeared, and the device is interrupting essentially a
symmetrical current. The procedure to follow in selecting
breakers and reclosers with adequate interrupting ability for
a specific circuit is given in industry standards (References
20, 21).
41
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

., •i ,·

1.8 "'

1.7
~ ··- ,_,-
.. ·
/
,JJ/
1.6 '

PLOT OF MAXIMUM VALUES OF 1'/1 VERSUS X/R

WHERE 1'/IIS THE RATIO OF THE RMS
Q 1.5 OF THE FIRST LOOP OF THE ASYMMETRICAL
~
WAVEFORM TO THE RMS OF THE FIRST
LOOP OF THE SYMMETRICAL WAVEFORM.
1-
ffi 1.4 ~
0:::
0:::
:::1
1/~
0
1.3

1.2
/ "
,.

/~
1.1

1.0 - ~
v "

I' t,l . " I ..

0.9 I I I I

.2 .5 2 5 10
' 20 50 100

SHORT CIRCUit RAtl6 X/R

Figure 25A1.
Result of plotting the maximums of 1'/I.

MOTOR-CURRENT CONTRIBUTIONS 50 hp in Table 8A 1) a conservative estimate is the 3.6

If short-circuit current contributions from large rotating machinery
are neglected in system fault studies, the increased current
may cause the interrupting capacity of a device to be exceeded.
To determine rotating machinery contributions, the reactance
(or impedance) is calculated using the multiplies in Table
8A 1, and all three-phase motors above 50 hp are treated as
sources. As an aid in understanding this complex subject,
following is an excerpt from ANSI/IEEE Standard 141-1986,
from which the table (number 24 in the ANSI/IEEE text) has
been reproduced. The excerpt has been slightly edited to
eliminate potentially confusing references to material not
cited in this manual.
To simplify comprehensive industrial system calculations, a
single combination first-cycle network is recommended ...
based on the following interpretation of ... standards.
Because the initial symmetrical rms magnitude of the current
contributed to a terminal short circuit might be 6 times
rated for a typical induction motor, using a 4.8 times rated
current first-cycle estimate for the large low-voltage induction
motors (described as all others, 50 hp and above in Table
8A 1) is effectively the same as multiplying subtransient
impedance by approximately 1.2. For this motor group,
there is reasonable correspondence of low- and high-voltage
procedures. For smaller induction motors (all smaller than
times rated current (equivalent of 0.28 per unit impedance)
first-cycle assumption of low-voltage standards, and this is
effectively the same as multiplying subtransient impedance
by 1.67.
With this interpretation as a basis, the following induction
motor treatment is recommended to obtain a single combi-
nation first-cycle short-circuit calculation for multivoltage
industrial systems:
(a) Include connected motors, each less than 50 hp, using
a 1.67 multiplying factor for sub-transient impedances.
if available, or an estimated first-cycle impedance of
0.28 based on motor rating.
(b) Include larger motors using the impedance multiplying
factors of Table 8A 1. Most low-voltage motors 50 hp and
larger are in the 1.2 times subtransient reactance group.
An appropriate estimate for this group is first-cycle
impedance of 0.20 per unit based on motor rating.
Short circuits can be calculated using procedures described
in the following section. The multiple sources and impedances
are paralleled to the point of fault (Reference 24).

42
 A1
TABLE 8A1
Rotating- Machine Reactance (or Impedance) Multipliers
Type of Rotating First-Cycle Interrupting
Machine Network Network
All turbine generators; all hydrogenerators with amortisseur windings; all condensers 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd"
Hydrogenerators without amortisseur windings 0.75 Xd" 0.75 Xd"
All synchronous motors 1.0 Xd" 1.5 Xd"
Induction motors
Above 1000 hp at 1800 r/min or less 1.0 Xd" 1 .5 Xd"
Above 250 hp at 3600 r/min 1.0 Xd" 1.5 Xd"
All others, 50 hp and above 1.2 Xd" 3.0 Xd"
All smaller than 50 hp Neglect Neglect
From ANSI/IEEE C37.010-1979 (2) and ANSI/IEEE C37.5-1979 (3)
1. Xd"of synchronous rotating machines is the rated-voltage (saturated) direct-axis subtransient reactance.
2. Xd"of synchronous rotating machines is the rated-voltage (saturated) direct-axis transient reactance.
3. Xd" of induction motors equals 1.00 divided by per-unit locked-rotor current at rated voltage.

FAULT CALCULATION PROCEDURES For each identified type of overhead and underground line,
AND EXAMPLES use Tables 1A 1 through 7 A 1 to find its positive- and zero-
This section outlines a procedure for finding fault currents on sequence impedances in ohms/1 000 feet. In some situations,
a distribution system and includes some numerical examples. the tabulated impedances may not be applicable, and it will
be necessary to resort to calculations using impedance
Assumptions equations.
lin the following fault calculation examples, the underlying 4. Determine line-section sequence impedances in ohms. For
assumptions are: each line section of the circuit diagram, multiply the section
1. System frequency is 60 hertz. length in thousands of feet by the ~ 1 and ~ o values from
2. Distribution feeders radiate from only one substation. There Step 3 in ohms/1000 feet.
is no other source of power feeding into the distribution 5. Select fault impedance.
circuits. In general, fault-current calculations are made both with
3. The supply system is represented by the source impedance and without a fault impedance. Also, it is important to note
at the substation low-voltage bus. This is the impedance that, in some cases, the maximum fault current corresponds
looking back into the system supplying the distribution to a double line-to-ground fault with impedance (see pages
circuit. 37 and 38).
4. The current prior to the fault is neglected: that is, all shunt
connections (loads, line charging, etc.) are neglected. 6. Calculate total sequence impedances at point of fault.
Thus, the voltage at each node of the circuit will be Add the positive-sequence impedances from Step 4 of all line
assumed to be the nominal distribution voltage. sections connecting the point of fault to the source, including
the positive-sequence source impedance determined in
Basic Approach Step 2. Repeat the procedure for the negative- and
This section describes an effective and readily usable proce- zero-sequence impedances, with the negative-sequence
dure for calculating fault currents in a radial distribution sys- impedance of a line section being equal to its positive-
tem. An example of its application to a simple system is pro- sequence impedance.
'iided in the next section. Also, since much of the procedure
IS easily programmable and many fault-current calculations 7. Find symmetrical fault currents.
today are done on a computer, results from a computer study Use the formulas developed under ''Types of Faults" to calcu-
are included. late the following currents:
The procedure consists of the following steps: A. Three-phase fault
1. Draw circuit diagram.
A. Label the points on diagram where fault currents are to (39)
be calculated.
B. Line-to-line fault
B. Identify the different types of overhead circuit and under-
ground cable used.
C. For each line section, write on the diagram the circuit (40)
type of the section and its length in feet.
C. Line-to-ground fault
2. Calculate sequence-source impedances.
Depending on what information is available on the supply
I I I= I 3Vt I
system, use one of the methods outlined previously to
calculate the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
r 1 +r 2+r 0 + sr t (41 )
impedances. An example illustrating the use of method A D. Double line-to-ground fault
begins on the next page.
3. Determine line-section sequence impedances by type in
III=I-if3V, ra+3rt-ar2 I
ohms/1000 feet.
r 1 r 2+ <r1 +r 2)(ro +3rt) (42)
And, in the other phase associated with this fault,

43
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

9. Record fault-current range on circuit diagram.

III=I+i-f3Vt ro+3rt-a2r2 I
r1 r
2 + ( r 1 +r 2 )(ro +3rt) (43)
In these equations, I is the rms value of the steady-state
symmetrical a-c phase current flowing into the fault; Vt is
the rms value of the steady-state a-c voltage to ground at
the fault prior to the occurrence of the fault; r 1, r 2, and
r o are the total positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
impedances (from Step 6) of the system viewed from the
fault; and r f is the fault impedance associated with a given
type of fault (see Figure 20A1).
The vertical line notation ([I]) means that the magnitude
of the complex number with the lines is to be taken, i.e.
if I = A+jB, [I) = ,fA2 + 82
8. Calculate asymmetrical fault current at point of fault for
each type of fault
r
A. Calculate the equivalent impedance e from Equations
39 through 43. For example, the equivalent impedance
for a line-to-ground fault is (Equation 41 ):
re = r1 + r2 +ro + 3Z:f
3
r
B. Calculate the X/R ratio of a: i.e., the imaginary part of
re divided by the real part of r e.
C. From Figure 25A 1, find the asymmetry ratio corresponding
to this X/R value: that is, the ratio of the rms of the first
loop of the asymmetrical waveform to the rms of the first
loop of the symmetrical waveform.
D. Calculate the first loop asymmetrical fault current rms
by multiplying the symmetrical fault current from Step 7
by this asymmetry ratio. (As noted on page 41 , this use
of an equivalent impedance X/R ratio is not precisely
correct for all types of faults.)
The symbol, 502 1183 , as used for the circuits, indicates
1451
a minimum available symmetrical current of 502 amperes
(rms), a maximum available symmetrical current of 1183
amperes (rms), and a maximum asymmetrical fault cur-
rent of 1451 amperes (ins).
10. Steps 6 through 9 are repeated for each fault point selected
Example ot Source-Impedance Calculation
Figure 26A 1 illustrates the per-unit calculation of sequence-
source impedances of a distribution circuit supplied by a radial
transmission system. To apply the per-unit method properly
to a source-impedance calculation in a three-phase system
of several voltage levels, it is necessary to select a three-phase
base kVA common to all voltage levels, and base voltages
that are line-to-line values conforming to line-to-line voltage
transformation ratios. For this example, the generator rating
(40,000 kVA) is arbitrarily selected as the base kVA. The
base voltages are 6.9 kV, 138 kV, and 12.47 kV.
Since the generator kVA rating is identical to the base kVA,
and its voltage rating is 6.9 kV, the per-unit values of generator
reactance can be obtained directly from Figure 26A 1. In
accordance with the previous comments on generator
impedances, the subtransient value of reactance Xd is used;
and since this is a turbine generator, assume xq = X(t Thus,
for the generator, the per-unit values of sequence Impedances
are:
r1 = jX"d = j0.15 pu
r2 = r1 = j0.15 pu
ro = jX"90 = j0.05 pu

~ GENERATION

+ TRANSMISSION

+ DISTRIBUTION
-1
.6."]_
... .6.~

~ T1 T2

8 ~
12.47 kV

i
6.9kV 138kV 51.6MILES 3-1/0cu
0
p
6.9kV 50mVA ~~ = 31.3 + j 37.8.0 10mVA
40mVA X=10% DJ = 46.1 + j 157.9.0 X=7%

l<d= 15%

Xg= 5%

Figure 26A1.
Per-unit calculation of sequence-source impedances.

44
 A1
Percent transformer impedance is based on the transformer 1. Draw circuit diagram.
rating. The stated impedances of the transformers cannot be A single-line diagram of the system used in the example is
used directly, since their ratings differ from the base kVA. To shown in Figure 27A 1. The system consists of an overhead
convert the impedances of T1 and T2 to the new base, apply circuit and an underground circuit at 12.47 kV. Nodes at
Equation 14 (page 13). which fault currents will be calculated are numbered, and line
lengths and types are identified. Examples of fault-current
ForT1 r1 = j0.10 X ~gggg = j0.08 pu calculations are given for node 5. The same procedure can
be repeated for any other point.
2. Calculate sequence source impedances.
ForT2 r1 = j0.07 x ~gggg = j0.28 pu The sequence-source impedances calculated previously
are used for this example:
These values apply whether the transformers are viewed
from their high- or low-voltage terminals. However, because r1 = r 2 = .255 + j2.291 ohms
the transformers are connected delta-grounded wye, the r 0 = o + j1.089 ohms
zero-sequence impedances will change from one side to the
other (see Figure 1OA 1 ). This will be taken into account later. 3. Determine sequence-line impedances by type in
For the transmission line, impedances are stated in ohms. To ohms/1 000 feet.
get per-unit values, apply Equations 12 and 5. Between the fault at points and the source, one type of
overhead line (Type 1) and one type of underground cable
r 8 = 1000E~ = 1000 (138) 2 =4761 ohms
(Type 3) are used. Their respective sequence impedances
kVA 8 400000 .
in ohms/1 000 feet are obtained from Tables 1A 1 and 4A 1,
and are as follows:
r 1 = _1_ (31.3 + j37.8) = .0657 + j.0794 pu Type 1, 3-1/0 CU (phase) and 1-No. 2 CU (neutral), from
476.1
Table 1A1:
ro = _1_ (46.1 + j158.) = .0968 + j.3317 pu r 1 = .1150 + j.1386, ro = .2328 + j.4034
476.1
Type 3,3-780 MCM AL, 175-mil XLP cable with 1/3 size con-
Keeping in mind the transformer connections and the fact centric neutral, from Table 4:
that zero-sequence impedance cannot be reflected through a
delta-connected winding (Figure 1OA 1), the sequence-source r 1 = .0550 + j.0581, ro =.1188 + j.0305
impedances of the system viewed from point P on the distribution
circuit then become:
4. Determine line-section sequence impedances in ohms.
r1 = r2 The sequence impedances of each section of line or cable
Generator 0 + j0.15 0 between the source and the fault can be calculated by
T1 0 + j0.08 0 multiplying the impedance in ohms/1 000 feet by the length
Transmission 0.0657 + j0.0794 0 of the section in 1000 feet. In this example, impedance values
T2 0 + j0.28 0 + j0.28 will be given with only three decimal places.
Total 0.0657 + j0.5894 pu 0 + j0.28 pu Section Type Length ~ 1 (ohms) ~ o (ohms)
1-2 3 8.448 .465 + j .491 1.004+j .258
To express these source impedances in ohms on a 12.47 kV 2-3 1 4.224 .486 + j .588 .983+j1.704
base, first find the base impedance at this voltage from 3-5 1 21.278 2.447 + j2.949 4.953 + j8.584
Equation 12:
2 5. Select fault impedance.
r = 1000 ( 12.47) = 3 8875 ohms
B 40000 . In the computer results presented later, fault impedances
of 0 and 20 ohms are used in the overhead portion of the
Then the source impedances in ohms as viewed from the system. On the underground portions, only a zero fault
low-voltage bus of the substation are: impedance is used.
r1 = r2 = {0.0657 + j0.5894) 3.8875 6. Calculate total sequence impedances at point of fault. The
total system sequence impedances at the faulted node 5
= .255 + j2.291 ohms are the sum of the sequence impedances of the sections
between the source and node 5.
r 0 = {O + j0.28) 3.8875 Total positive- and negative-sequence impedances:
= .0 + j1.089 ohms .255 + j2.291 source
+ .465 + j.491 section 1-2
Example of Distribution-System Calculation + .465 + j.585 section 2-3
The distribution system used in this example is typical from +2.447 + j2.949 section 3-5
the standpoint of commonly encountered conductor sizes r1 = r2 - 3.653 + j6.316 ohms at node 5
and configurations. Fault currents at one point of the system
are calculated in detail following the procedure outlined in the
previous section. The results of a computer study giving the
fault currents at every specified point of the system also are
included.

45
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

138~
SOURCE IMPEDANCES
at 12.47 kV {Node #1):
i! 1 .256 + i 2.291 ohms
i!0 0 + j 1.089 ohms
12.47kV LINE TYPES

17
OVERHEAD
{ (1)3-1/0CU& 1-#2CU
(2) 1-#2CU & 1-#4CU . II
422'
14)
¥
;
~· UND!=RGROUND
{ (3)3-750MCMAL.XLPCABLES
WITH 1/3 SIZE CONCENTRIC NEUTRAL
I
1
+ 2 3 (4)1·1/0AL.XLPCABLEWITH I
16 0+-++f*-t-t-1~-t-t-IHQ+f-lf+fo++-11++++'10---------a FULL SIZE CONCENTRIC NEUTRAL :
4699' 4224'
+
528':
13) t
t
1320'
(1)

14) 6 3960'
(3)
(4)
.3168'
18 ~ 11)
9

3326'
(3)

++++-+0 14 5
475'
14)
6 o-------o--------;...--.0
10660' 14098'
.8
I
(1) I 12)
I
I 13411'
3-PHASE 3-PHASE II 121
11111111 I
13 OVERHEAD UNDERGROUND I
------
· 1-PHASE
+-t++++
1·PHASE
0
7

Figure 27A 1.
Circuit diagram for sample case.

Total zero-sequence impedance: b. Line-to-line fault, using Equation 40:

.000 + j1.089 source II I= I ±j.f3Vt I =I ± j.f312470 I

+ 1.004 + j.258 section 1-2 r 1 + r 2+ r 1 2.[3 (3.653 + j6.316)
+ .983+j1.704 section 2-3
+ 4.953 + j8.584 section 3-5 =7199.56 1 ±i 1
=
~ 0 6.940 + j11.635 ohms at nodes 4.218 + j7.293

7. Find symmetrical fault currents.

=7199 ·56 =854.541 amperes
8.425
In this example, ~ f is zero. Since the voltage is an rms
value, all calculated currents are also rms values. c. Line-to-ground fault, using Equation 41:
a. Three-phase fault, using Equation 39:
II I= I 3Vt I
II I= I Vt I=I 12470 I r1 + r2 + ro + 3rf
r r
1 + 1 -Y3 (3.653 + j6.316)
I 3* 1247o I
=7199.561
1
1 = rs (2(3.653 + j6.316) + (6.940 + j11.635))
3.653 + j6.316
=7199.56 1
-;:=;:::::::==~=7.:~~
=7199.56 14.749 +1j8.089 1
" (3.653)2 + (6.316)2
7199 ·56 =986.738 amperes =7199 ·56 =767.555 amperes
9.380
7.296
46
 A1
d. Double line-to-ground fault, using Equation 42: for node 5 impedances
~ = 8.089 = 1 703
I\= 0
J-i'i'3(r +3r,-arz)Vt \ R 4.749 .
r 1 r 2 + (r1 + r 2) (r 0 + 3r1 ) from Figure 25A 1,
= 7199.56\ ~((6.940 + j11.635)- (-.5 + j.866)
(3.653 + j6.316)2 + 2(3.653 + j6.316)
\ IAs\ =\I\ x 1.130
=767.555 x 1.130 =867.337 amperes
(3.653 + j6.316)H-n I D. Double line-to-ground fault:
(6.940 + j11.635)
r = r 1r 2 + (r 1 +r 2) + (r 0 + 3r 1)
= 7199.56 1 -i 1
e {3 (ro + 3r, -ar2)
1.361 + j7.763
7199 ·56 = 913.527 amperes for node 5 impedances
7.881
Similarly, in the other phase associated with this fault, X 7.763
using Equation 43: R= 1.361 = 5 ·706
from Figure 25A 1,
I
I I = 7199.56 I . I
I 6.105 + j5.070
7199 ·56 = 907.261 amperes \ IAs\ =Jrj x 1.471
7.935 = 913.527 x 1.471 = 1343.798 amperes
J.. Calculate asymmetrical fault current at point of fault for
each type of fault. In the other phase associated with this fault, from
=or each type of fault, the asymmetrical current is obtained Equation 43:
oy first calculating the X/R ratio of the equivalent impedance
:2- e of the fault. X/R = Imag ( -:2- e)/Real( -:2- e). Then, using r = r1 r2 + (r1 +r2) + (ro + 3r,)
XR ratio calculated, find from figure 25A 1 the corresponding e {3 (ro + 3r, -a 2r2)
asymmetry ratio and multiply this by the rms symmetrical
"7ault current to get the rms asymmetrical value. and
A. Three-phase fault:
X 5.070
R= 6.105 = 0 ·830
r.: = r1 + rt
ior the node 5 impedances: from Figure 25A 1,

x_ 6.316 _ \lAs\ =\I\ x 1.013

'i- 3.653- 1.729
= 907.261 x 1.013 = 919.055 amperes
from Figure 25A 1,
9. Record fault-current range on circuit diagram.
The minimum available symmetrical current of 277
IAs\=\I\ X 1.134 amperes (rms), the maximum available symmetrical cur-
rent of 987 amperes (rms), and the maximum asymmetri-
= 986.738 x 1.134 = 1118.961 amperes cal fault current of 1344 amperes (rms) are recorded on
B. Line-to-line fault: the circuit diagram in Figure 28A 1.
10.Steps 6 through 9 are repeated for each fault point.
~
r.: -- r1 +r2+
{3 COMPUTER CALCULATION OF FAULT CURRENTS
for node 5 impedances The results of a computer program calculation of fault currents
for the sample system at every node are given in Table 9A 1.
X 7.293 For each node, the listing gives two rows each of rms symmet-
~= 4.218 = 1. 729 rical fault currents, rms asymmetrical fault currents, and X/R
ratios for the various types of faults: three-phase, double line-
from Figure 25A 1, to-ground, line-to-line, and line-to-ground. The first row shows
results based on zero fault impedance. The second row is
based on the fault impedance entered as program input. In
IAs\ = Jrj x 1.134
this sample case, zero -:2- t is used on the cable portions of
= 854.541 x 1.134 = 969.049 amperes the circuit, and a 20-ohm -:2- tis used on the overhead portions.
Whenever a zero appears in the Table 9A 1 data, it indicates
C. Line-to-ground fault:
that that kind of fault cannot exist at the indicated node of the
circuit. For example, at node 7, three-phase, double line-to-
ground, and line-to-line faults are not calculated, since this is
a node on a single-phase lateral.

47
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
System Faults (Continued)

TABLE 9A1
Results of Computer-Program Calculation of Fault Currents
Fault Currents (Amps) and X/R Ratios
Column**: See Explanation in Text, Previous Page

I Type of Fault I Type of Fault

Node I ** I 3-Phase I LL-G I LL-G I LL I L-G Node I ** I 3-Phase I LL-G I LL-G I LL I L-G
1 SYM 3123. 3720. 3526. 2705. 3793. ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 3032.
353. 2616. 2794. 593. 355. 0. 0. 0. 0. 3032.
ASYM 4907. 3862. 3547. 2885. 6095. X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.97
377. 2787. 2983. 834. 380. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.97
X/R 8.98 1.06 0.75 0.11 11.12 10 SYM 2245. 2083. 2756. 1944. 2579.
0.11 0.12 0.11 4.48 0.09 2245. 2083. 2756. 1944. 2579.
2 SYM 2506. 2497. 3068. 2170. 2947. ASYM 2923. 2378. 2862. 1981. 3078.
2506. 2497. 3068. 2170. 2947. 2923. 2378. 2862. 1981. 3078.
ASYM 3424. 2791. 3112. 2242. 3749. X/R 3.12 1.78 0.24 0.32 2.16
3424. 2791. 3112. 2242. 3749. 3.12 1.78 0.24 0.32 2.16
X/R 3.87 1.62 0.36 0.26 2.83 11 SYM 2059. 1831. 2518. 1784. 2322.
3.87 1.62 0.36 0.26 2.83 2059. 1831. 2518. 1784. 2322.
3 SYM 2013. 1870. 2141. 1743. 2013. ASYM 2603. 2112. 2659. 1808. 2673.
335. 1665. 1822. 533. 332. 2603. 2112. 2659. 1808. 2673.
ASYM 2553. 1992. 2271. 1768. 2419. X/R 2.75 1.87 0.16 0.36 1.85
354. 1685. 1852. 704. 351. 2.75 1.87 0.16 0.36 1.85
X/R 2.79 1.26 0.14 0.36 2.23 12 SYM 1924. 1665. 2340. 1666. 2138.
0.16 0.38 0.34 3.33 0.15 1924. 1665. 2340. 1666. 2138.
4 SYM 1749. 1608. 1772. 1514. 1623. ASYM 2383. 1932. 2499. 1684. 2407.
329. 1440. 1590. 512. 323. 2383. 1932. 2499. 1684. 2407.
ASYM 2145. 1699. 1895. 1528. 1910. X/R 2.52 1.91 0.11 0.40 1.67
346. 1449. 1608. 662. 339. 2.52 1.91 0.11 0.40 1.67
X/R 2.42 1.20 0.05 0.41 2.04 13 SYM 1729. 1449. 2082. 1497. 1879.
0.18 0.45 0.38 3.04 0.18 1729. 1449. 2082. 1497. 1879.
5 SYM 987. 907. 913. 855. 767. ASYM 2084. 1692. 2226. 1506. 2058.
294. 799. 913. 414. 277. 2084. 1692. 2226. 1506. 2058.
ASYM 1119. 959. 961. 855. 867. X/R 2.25 1.97 0.04 0.44 1.47
303. 801. 915. 495. 281. 2.25 1.97 0.04 0.44 1.47
X/R 1.73 1.20 0.18 0.58 1.70 14 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2056.
0.27 0.67 0.51 2.16 0.33 0. 0. 0. 0. 2056.
6 SYM 785. 723. 714. 679. 586. ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2281.
276. 633. 730. 372. 254. 0. 0. 0. 0. 2281.
ASYM 875. 767. 743. 680. 658. X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.56
282. 637. 732. 431. 256. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.56
X/R 1.60 1.23 0.23 0.63 1.64 15 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2188.
0.31 0.75 0.53 1.91 0.40 0. 0. 0. 0. 2188.
7 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 526. ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2456.
0. 0. 0. 0. 241. 0. 0. 0. 0. 2456.
ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 579. X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0. 1.65
0. 0. 0. 0. 243. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0. 1.65
X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 16 SYM 1972. 1721. 2403. 1708. 2202.
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.41 1972. 1721. 2403. 1708. 2202.
8 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 518. ASYM 2459. 1993. 2556. 1728. 2498.
0. 0. 0. 0. 240. 2459. 1993. 2556. 1728. 2498.
ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 569. X/R 2.60. 1.90 0.12 0.39 1.73
0. 0. 0. 0. 242. 2.60 1.90 0.12 0.39 1.73
X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.49 17 SYM 2.60 1.90 0.12 0.39 1.73
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.42 0. 0. 0. 0. 2125.
9 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2597. ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2377.
0. 0. 0. 0. 2597. 0. 0. 0. 0. 2377.
X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.62
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.62
18 SYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2107.
0. 0. 0. 0. 2107.
ASYM 0. 0. 0. 0. 2349.
0. 0. 0. 0. 2349.
X/R 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.60
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.60

48
 A1
The circuit diagram of Figure 28A 1 includes current values
obtained from the program results displayed in
Table 9A1.

3-PHASE 3-PHASE
111111111
OVERHEAD UNDERGROUND
17 ++++++
¥
+
1-PHASE 1-PHASE

+ 2 L..-...=....:'-=--.....1 3
16~~H+~~~~+H~~HO-------------o
+
+
+
0
18

.+++++015

++++-+0 14
o----------9--------oS
I
I
I
12387l:141
I
I
I
I
124~~:.261 b 7

figure 28A1.
Cin:uit diagram with fault-current ranges.

49
A. Overcurrent Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Principles of Overcurrent Protection Page
OA 1 Reclosers and fuses protect feeder segment and taps against temporary and transient faults ..................7
1A 1 Conventional definitions of protective devices based on location .........................................8
Tools for Fault Analysts
2A1 Diagram of balanced three-phase system showing conductor and phase relationships ........................9
3A1 Balanced systems of phasors used in three-phase symmetrical component analysis ........................10
4A1 Diagram of single-phase transformer with zero impedance serving a load impedance ....................... 13
5A1 Actual configuration of phase conductors referred to in Figure 6A 1 ...................................... 15
6A1 Assumed configuration of phase conductors for simplified impedance calculation ........................... 15
7A1 Cross-sectional geometry of concentric cables ......................................................22
8A1 Per-unit equivalent circuit for a two-winding transformer ...............................................26
9A1 Positive- and negative-sequence per-unit equivalent circuits of a transformer ..............................27
10A1 Transformer connections and zero-sequence equivalent circuits .........................................28
11A1 Sequence equivalents of a generator ..............................................................29
12A1 Diagram of a distribution system .................................................................30
System Faults
13A1 Line-to-ground faults ...........................................................................33
14A1 Line-to-line faults .............................................................................33
15A1 Double line-to-ground faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........................................33
16A1 Wye-connected synchronous generator ............................................................34
17A1 Generator diagram considering only zero-sequence components ........................................34
18A1 Diagram for line-to-ground case study .............................................................35
19A1 Interconnection of sequence networks for phase A-to-ground faults ......................................36
20A1 Fault-impedance convention for Equations 39 through 43 ..............................................37
21A1 Single-phase circuit for study of current behavior immediately following a fault .............................38
22A1 Illustration of significance of transient and steady-state fault-current components ...........................39
23A1 Interaction of terms of equations in Figure 22A 1 .................................................... .40
24A1 Current waveform with largest magnetic-current peak in the second loop ................................ .41
25A1 Result of plotting the maximums of I'll ............................................................. 42
26A1 Per-unit calculation of sequence-source impedances ................................................ .44
27A1 Circuit diagram for sample case ................................................................. .46
28A1 Circuit diagram with fault-current ranges .......................................................... .49
TABLE Tools for Fault Analysis Page
1A1 Impedance of copper conductor ..................................................................16
2A1 Impedance of ACSR conductor ..................................................................17
3A1 Impedance of bare all-aluminum conductor .........................................................18
4A1 Impedance of 15 kV three-phase underground cable with 175-mil cross-linked polyethylene insulation ..........23
5A1 Impedance of 15 kV three-phase underground cable with 220-mil cross-linked polyethylene insulation .......... 23
6A1 Impedance of 15 kV three-phase underground cable with 175-mil cross-linked polyethylene insulation .......... 24
7A1 Impedance of 15 kV single-phase underground cable with 220-mil conventional polyethylene insulation .........24
System Faults
8A1 Rotating-machine reactance (or impedance) multiplies ............................................... .43
9A1 Results of computer-program calculation of fault currents ............................................. .48

50
 Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS

AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

An Introduction
This section bridges the gap between fundamentals and theory,
and application specifics. Now that the previous section (A1)
nas supplied the basis for understanding and analysis of
overcurrent phenomena, we present a discussion of the
equipment available for reducing or eliminating the potential
dangers of overcurrent to distribution systems and their
:omponent feeders and apparatus. The following overcurrent
protection section (A3) contains specific examples of how this
equipment is used, with particular emphasis on the
coordination of devices to achieve the desired balance
between protection and continuity of service.
The overcurrent protection equipment covered ranges from
single-action devices requiring replacement of at least a key
component after each operation (fusing equipment) to apparatus
designed for repeated operation over many years (reclosers,
circuit breakers). Each has its place in present-day electrical
distribution systems. Each is discussed in the following pages
as to function and characteristics, available types, and general
selection and application factors.

Table of Contents, Page 2

Index of Figures and Tables, Page 79

51
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Fusing Equipment
Fuses are the most basic protective devices available for
overcurrent protection on the distribution system. Their primary
function is to serve as inexpensive weak links in the circuit-links
that open to clear (interrupt) overcurrents and protect equipment
against overloads and short circuits. They can also be used
for line sectionalizing.
Fuses are available in a variety of types offering a wide
selection of operating characteristics. The basic types include
expulsion fuses (covered under "fuse links" and "fuse cutouts"
in the following discussions), vacuum fuses, and current-limiting
fuses.
DESIGNS AND CHARACTERISTICS
Fuse Links
Fuse links serve as expendable, inexpensive "weak links" in
expulsion-type protective devices, the most common of which
are cutouts. That is, fuse links are the components replaced
after providing the desired protection, just as blown household
fuses are replaced without disturbing the fuse box.
The principal component of a fuse link is a fusible element
of various materials and dimensions that determine the time-
current characteristics. In parallel with the element is a strain
wire to remove tension from the fuse link. The construction
(Figure 1A2) utilizes a button head and a leader designed to
allow mechanical interchangeability in the cutouts or other
devices in which fuse links are used. Surrounding the fusible
element is an auxiliary tube that aids in the extinguishing of
low-current faults.
Some links make use of dual elements that reduce the
long-time minimum-melt currents without reducing short-time
minimum-melt currents. These types have special application
for overload protection. Switch links, on the other hand, have
no element, but are used to convert the fuse-link holder into
a disconnect switch, if required.
The characteristics of an expulsion fuse link are defined by
its time-current characteristics (TCC). On TCC graphs
(Figure 2A2), the minimum-melt curve is the average melt
less the manufacturer's tolerance, approximately 10 percent,
with positive variations. The total clearing time is the average
melt plus manufacturer's tolerance plus arcing time, with vari-
ations in the negative direction. All curves are developed at
25° C with no preloading.
Expulsion fuse links are covered under ANSI standard
C37.43, which defines characteristics for the following types
of links.
The "N"-rated link was the first attempt at standardizing
fuse-link characteristics. The standard dictated that it would
carry 100 percent of its rated current continuously and would
melt at less than 230 percent of its rating in five minutes.
From this, an upper limit for the TCC at five minutes is
defined. Since only the low-current end was standardized,
the actual TCC shape was determined by fuse manufacturers
and was highly variable.
K and T links - "fast" and "slow" types, respectively - were
also defined by standards in the early 1950's. For the Klink,
a speed ratio of 6 to 8 is defined and for a T link, 10 to 13.
The speed ratio is the ratio of minimum-melt current at 0.1
second to minimum-melt current at 300 or 600 seconds,
depending on the fuse-link current rating.
Using this system, three points are established to
adequately describe the fuse curve: 0.1 second, 10 seconds,
and 300 seconds (600 seconds for 140- and 200-amp links).

Single Element FUSE ElEMENT AUXILIARYTUBE LEADER

En~ineered for accurate Provides gases for low- Stranded for strength
fusmg using a single tin current interruption. and flexibility.
element for cooler oper-

BUTIONHEAD
STRAIN WIRE
ation.

FERRULE
L
Provides exceptional ten- Copper construction for
sion relief in excess of better soldering, conduc-
standards. tivity, and strength.

Dual Element FERRULE SEAL AUXILIARY TUBE

Retains tube to assure Provides gases for low-
low-current interruption. current interruption.

BUTIONHEAD

FUSE ELEMENT LEADER

Designed for slow-speed, Stranded for strength and
high-surge withstand flexibility.
characteristics.

Figure 1A2.
Fuse-link construction, single and dual element.

52
 A2

Fuse Cutouts
300 As stated earlier, distribution expulsion fuses must be used in
conjunction with another device for proper operation. The
200
most typical devices are cutouts, available in open-link, open,
and enclosed design (Figure 4A2).
100 These devices operate on the "expulsion" principle by
80
60 means of a fuse link and an arc-confining tube with a deionizing
fiber liner. When the fusible element of the fuse link melts, the
40 fiber liner melts, thereby emitting deionizing gases, which
30 accumulate within the tube. The arc is stretched, compressed,
20 and cooled within the tube, and gas escaping at the tube
ends carries away a portion of the arc-sustaining particles.
10 Reestablishment of the arc after current zero is reached is
8 prevented by the deionizing gases, and by extreme gas pressure
6 and turbulence, which increase the dielectric strength of the air
a;- 4 \ gap in the tube. High-pressure gases then expel arc-supporting
-g 3 \
ions remaining in the tube.
i
w
2
1\1\
\ '
Open-link cutouts, the simplest design, rely only on the
fuse auxiliary tube for arc confinement and to clear currents.
~ 1\1\ MAXIMUM CLEARING TIME In both open-type and enclosed cutouts, however, the fuse link
~ 1
.8 \ / is inserted in a bone-fiber tube or fuseholder that enhances
v
\'r-v v
.6 fault-clearing capability. Enclosed cutouts have terminals,
.4 fuse clips, and fuseholder mounted completely within an
.3 \ insulating enclosure, whereas open cutouts, as the name
.2 1\ indicates, have these parts completely exposed .
\ Expulsion cutouts are covered by ANSI standard C37.42.
\ They have maximum voltage ratings of 5.2 kV through 38 kV
.1 and, as a result of testing, have defined symmetrical inter-
.08
.06 7 \ rupting ratings. (Asymmetrical values also are provided in the
.04
v·.V \ \ standards "for information only.") Table 2A2 summarizes the
ratings most commonly used. In addition to continuous current,
.03 f-- _
.02
MINIMUM
MELTING TIME
\
\ "' maximum voltage, and interrupting current, ANSI C37.42
states that distribution-cutout ratings also shall include

.01
I I
I I \"' frequency, basic impulse insulation level (BIL), load-break
current, and short-time current.
g 8 88 gr-- 80 0
0
0
0
0
g
N C"l VLC'l
~ g LC'l
TABLE 2A2
CURRENT (amperes) )
Summary of Available Ratings for Distribution Cutouts
Figure 2A2. (Expulsion Type)
Typical time-current curves for 10K link. Max Design Cont. Current Interrupting
Voltage Type Ratings Sym.Amps
(kV) (amps) (kA)
Typically, in addition to these points, the long-time continuous 5.2 Enclosed 50,100 & 200 1.6 through 12.5
current of a fuse link also is specified. This would generally 7.8 Enclosed 50, 100 1 .4 through 8.0
be 150 percent of rating for tin links and 100 percent of 7 .8 Open Unk 50 1 .2
7.8/13.5 Open 100,200 3 .6 through 12.5
rating for silver links. 15.0 Open Unk 50 1.2
The standard also specifies preferred and nonpreferred 15.0 Open 100,200 2.8 through 10.0
ratings. (Table 1A2.) "Basic" and "intermediate" might be better 15/26 Open 100, 200 1.8 through 5.6
terms, since the categories were established primarily to 18 Open Unk 50 .75
27 Open 100 1.1 through 8.0
facilitate rule-of-thumb coordination, and neither group is 38 Open 100 1.3 through 8.0
actually preferred. ..
See manufacturers ' catalogs for spec1f1c rat1ngs.
Typical fuse curves of various types of links are shown in
Rgure 3A2. It should be noted that there are several types of
fuse links - not all recognized by standards - other than
those described here.

TABLE 1A2
Standard Fuse-Link Ratings
"Non-Prefferred"
Preferred Ratinas Ratinas
6, 10, 15, 25, 40, 8, 12, 20, 30,
I 65,100,140,200 50, 80

53
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Fusing Equipment (Continued)

1000

TYPICAL TIME-CURRENT CURVES

TYPES K. T. N. AND S FUSE LINKS

CURRENT {amps)

Figure 3A2.
Comparison of various fuse-link time-current characteristics.

Current-Limiting Fuses 2. The general-purpose current-limiting fuse is designed to

Current-limiting fuses {Figure 6A2) are basically non-expulsion
fuses that limit the energy available to the protective device.
Thus, the possibility of catastrophic failure of the protective
device can be reduced.
Current-limiting fuses are available in three basic types:
1. The backup or partial-range fuse must be used in conjunction
with an expulsion fuse or some other device, as it is only
capable of properly interrupting currents above a specified
level (typically 500 amperes).
interrupt all fault currents from its rated interrupting current
down to the current that causes element meHing in one
hour.
3. The full-range current-limiting fuse interrupts any continuous
current (up to the rated interrupting current) that will cause
the element to melt.

54
 A2

MOUNTING
BRACKET

LINE
TERMINAL

LINE
TERMINAL

Open Open-Link

Enclosed

Rlgure 4A2.
J!'stribution-type fuse cutouts.

CLIP STYLE

HINGE STYLE WITH

ARC-STRANGLER®
LOADBREAK DEVICE

Figure 6A2.
Current-limiting fuse.

Figure 5A2.
Loadbreak fuse cutout.
55
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Fusing Equipment (Continued)

A current-limiting fuse, as shown in Figure 7A2, consists of
a fusible element of silver wire or ribbon. The ribbon is wound
around a supporting member ("spider") which may or may not
produce ionizing gas to aid in clearing. The fuse is filled with
sand and installed in an insulating tube, typically of glass
porcelain or epoxy
The operation of the fuse is dependent on its type. For all
types, high-fault current clearing is basically the same. A flow
of current melts the full length of the element and the resulting
arc causes the element to explode, thereby vitrifying the sand
and forming a glass tunnel which confines the arc. This glass
tunnel, known as fulgurite, restricts the arc by increasing the
resistance. Current is reduced and forced to an early current
zero.
In partial-range and full-range fuses, provision must be
made for intermediate- and low-current clearing. In Cooper
current-limiting fuses, for example, an "M spot" (a bit of tin-
lead alloy) is placed in the center of the main fusible element
to lower its initial melting temperature (Figure 8A2, Example
A). As soon as the element melts at the M spot, current is trans-
ferred to an auxiliary element, a small wire wound adjacent
to the main element and gapped closely to the main element
about one-quarter of the distance from each end. A voltage
gradient appears across the arc at the M spot and across
both auxiliary element gaps (Example B). Therefore, if the
main element continues to arc, it now must do so in three
locations, thereby tripling the arc length and the area avail-
able to dissipate the circuit energy (Example C). During the ini·
tial arc period, sufficient heat is generated to decompose the
spider in that area, and the blast of gas evolving from the spi-
der cools the fulgurite and reduces the length of arc needed to
achieve fault interruption.
With other types of fuses, such as the Cooper NXC@
capacitor fuse, the melting of the M spot ignites a squib at the
end of the fuse that operates similarly to an expulsion fuse
and cutout to provide low-current clearing.
For current-limiting fuses, important factors to consider
include let-through current, the melt l2t, the let-through l2t,
and peak-arc voltage. Let-through current (Figures 9A2 and
10A2) depends on the point of fault initiation in the X/R of the
fault current. The minimum-melt 121 measures the fuse's ability
to withstand transients without being damaged. The let-through
121 measures the fuse's ability to reduce destructive effects on
faults. Peak-arc voltage is related to available fault current,
the point on the cycle at which fault interruption occurs, or
system voltage, depending on the type of element. Silver wire
elements have a uniform cross-sectional area, and the peak-arc
voltage is a function of available fault current and the voltage
rating of the fuse (Figure 11 A2). Ribbon elements have notches
or cutouts which provide arc-voltage-generation control; as a

Clip-Style Current-Limiting Fuse END CAP

STANDARD
CONSTRUCTION Seated to the fuse tube
using a magnetic forma-
END FITTINGS~-:-------------_j
(CONTACTS} .
tion technique where
high-energy capacitors
Silver- or tin-plated as discharge into a maQnetic
required. Copper or red core to provide consistent
brass provides excellent force around the cap cir-
current- and heat-con- cumference.
ducting properties.
~-----EPOXY BOND
SILVER R I B B O N - - - - - - - - - - - - - For added cap-retention
ELEMENT strength.
High-purity sliver with
::!:5% tolerance assures NOTE: All 8.3, 15.5 and
accurate melting charac- 23 kv 2-lnch-dlameter NX
teristics. fuses have magniformed
end fittings.
SPIDER -:-:--:-:-:-:::-::-::7'----------
Gas-evolving support AUXILIARY ELEMENT
element to cool heat dis- - - - - - - - - - - - S i l v e r wire melts rapidly
sipated during fuse opera- to aid in low-current
tion and aid lowcurrent operation.
clearing.
: - - - - - - - - - - M SPOT(SOLDER)
AUXILIARY CONTACTS - - - - - - - . Reduces melting temper-
cause the arc length to ature of silver element at
triple during low fault cur- low fault-current opera-
rents, thus dissipating cir- tion.
cuit energy more rapidly.
----------HIGH-TEMPERATURE-
SAND-FILLED RESISTANTTUBING
Silica sand (99.5% pure) Contains internal pres-
fuses into a glass-like tun- sures during fuse opera-
nel structure (fulgurite) tion.
during fuse operation. dis-
sipating arc heat energy
rapidly.
INDICATOR BUTION - - - - - - - - . . .
Indicates a blown fuse
when protruding.

Figure 7A2.
Basic components of Cooper NX® current-limiting fuse.

56
 A2
result, peak-arc voltage is mainly a function of system voltage
(Figure 12A2).
The ability to reduce the energy available to the protective
equipment, as shown in the preceding figures, is the biggest
advantage of current-limiting fuses.

MAIN ELEMENT

MSPOT\.. \

INDICATOR
WIRE
AUX. ELEMEN~ f \
GAP ELECTRODES

.....-::INITIAL ARC

B~\==~====~~c===~==~f
___ /f K
GAPS FIRE

v AUXILIARY ELEMENT
BURNING OPEN

Figure 8A2.
Low-current operation of Cooper NX current-limiting
fuse.

100
_,
~.

-
50
' ~
/
~ v ,.....,. 200
!50
"'
- ~ ::::
i---"" 130
~ 20 .... 100
~ ~ ~ ;..... 75

~ ~ ~ .,.
::::. ......
~ 65
-lij 10 ~~ 50
45
40
!
1-
z
~
a:
:::>
(,)
5
- --
~
L. ~ ~ .....
::,.....-
"""'
~~ ...-:::: ;....
~
.,...,.. ......-::
.,...,.. ~ .....
;.....
......
~ ¥~&20.
12
10
30&35

- -
~ """' ~ ~ .......
J:

-
(!l
2
...... ....... ~ 68
:::>
..... ......... ......... ...... 1""""- ~r""'
0
"""' .....
a:
J:
1-
._!.
w
~~ k t::: .,...,.. .......
.,...,..
AMPERE RATINGS
v
...J
::!
~
,., .... .....
OF FUSES
.5
1/: ....... .... r-
~ / .... .......
::!
~

.2

.1
.1 .2 .5 2 5 10 20 50 100

AVAILABLE CURRENT (nns symmetrical kiloamperes)

Figure 9A2.
Maximum Jet-through current for NX current-limiting fuses - 4.3 and 5.5 kV.

57
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Fusing Equipment (Continued)

100
/
50
/
/ ,.... ~-"'!~
0
~
Q) 20 k t;:: ::::;:. ;;;
::;...
,.... ~~~88065
~~
0.
E
"'
.Q
:i2 10
~~F' ~ """"
~
......... ::.I-" 50
40

-
-"

-
30
"'
Q)
8
1-
z
w
a:
a:
::J
5

~~
1/"
~~ ~

- ::> --
1- ,.,..
- ~
~ ~ ::;;..--
....-:: ....
....
25
20
12 & 18
10
8

-
~ .........
0
I
2 .... ~ f::::: 1- 1- .... 6
(!)
:..- ~ ~ 1-"" .........
::J
0
a:
I ~~ ~

- ~.-'"'
1-"" ...- ~ .... 3:ij
-_
1-

-
1.5
t!.
w
....1 / ...- ....
:;
::J .5 .... AMPERE RATINGS
/ ~
:; ..... ,..- OF FUSES

-
x ~~ I-"'
<(
:; v ~--"' ""' ... ,..- ~
.2
l..,.....-
"""" ...- ""'
.1 ............ 1-
.1 .2 .5 2 5 10 20 50 100
AVAILABLE CURRENT (rms symmetrical kiloamperes)

Figure 1OA2.
Maximum let-through current for NX current-limiting fuses- 8.3, 15.5, and 23 kV.

120

100
38 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
c>
w
<!) 80
~
:..J
§2 27 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
{)
a: 60
< I_ I I_
~ 23 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
<
w !_ I I
a. 15.51KV FUSE~ 1.5 THRU 12 AMP
:::!!: 40
::::> I I I I I I
:::!!: 8 3 KV FUSES 1.5 THRU 12 AMP
~ ·
5.~ KV FUS~S
1
6THRU 12 AMP
I I -~
:::!!:
20

0
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .7 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70
AVAILABLE CURRENT (rms symmetrical kiloamperes)

Figure 11 A2.
Maximum peak-arc voltage for current-limiting fuses as related to available current.

58
 A2
phase-to-phase fault when one fuse operates before the second
·oo has a chance to melt.
For ungrounded systems, the maximum voltage rating of the
I cutout should equal or exceed the maximum system phase-
90

80
v to-phase voltage. For grounded systems on single-phase
taps, the maximum voltage rating should equal or exceed the
maximum phase-to-ground voltage of the system, provided
the BIL rating is compatible. For three-phase applications, a
>
=-
·-
70 / cutout should be used with its maximum voltage rating equal
to or greater than the maximum phase-to-phase voltage. On
three-phase systems, however, faults that produce conditions
~
':::: I for which a single cutout must interrupt against phase-to-phase
> 60
:i
< 50 I
v voltage are relatively rare, so that slant-rated cutouts may
commonly be used. Table 3A2 lists typical cutout applications.

v
TABLE 3A2
"'~ Typical Open-Type Cutout Applications
::i: Recommended EC~u,\~ion

/I
::; 40
::i: Svstem Voltage (kV) Cutout Ratin kV *
X Four-Wire
<: Nominal Maximum Multigrounded Delta
::i: 30
Neutral
-
20 / 2.4
2.4/4.16
4.16
2.54
2.54/4.4
4.4
7.8/15
-
7.8/15
-
7.8/15

/
I 4.8
4.8/8.32
5.1
5.1/8.8
-
7.8/15
7.8/15
-
10 6.9 7.26 - 7.8/15

0 /
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
6.93/12
7.2
7.2/12.47
7.62
7.3/12.7
7.62
7.62113.2
8.1
7.8/15

7.8/15
-
-
7.8/15
-
7.8/15
CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (kv) 7.62/13.2 8.1/14.0 15 -
7.97 8.4 - 7.8/15
Figure 12A2. 7.97/13.8 8.4/14.5 15
Maximum peak-arc voltage for current-limiting fuses as 8.32 8.8 - 7.8/15
related to circuit voltage. 8.32/14.4 8.8/15.2 15
12/20.8 12.7/22 15/27 -
12.47 13.2 - 7.8/15
FUSE APPLICATION FACTORS
13.2/22.9 14/24.2 15/27 -
13.2 14 - 7.8115
.Fuse CutoutS/Fuse Links 13.8 14.5 - 7.8/15
3ecause fuse links are used primarily in expulsion-fuse 14.4/24.9 15.2/26.4 15/27 -
14.4 15.2 15
:utouts, the first step in their application is selection of the -
19.9134.5 21.1/36.5 27/38
appropri~te fu~ cutout rating. To determine this rating, system 34.5 36.5 - 27/38
<'Oitage, msulat1on level, maximum available fault current at
application point, X/R ratio, and maximum load current must
.For mulllph~;~se il!ults not mvolvtng ground, slant-rated units rely on two
cutouts tn senes to mte!"'upt the tault and share the recovery voltage. In systems
all be known. From this, the fuse cutout can be selected wtth an ?~er-/underbutld of the same voltage or a situation where the line
~tonalizmg cutouts are spaced apart on diftarent spans, conditions could
:lased on continuous current, voltage, and interrupting capacity. extst where one cutout would be required to interrupt at phase-to-phase
The rated continuous current of the fuse cutout should be voltage. In such applications, lull-rated cutouts must be used.
;;reater than the maximum continuous load current the cutout
11ould be required to carry, including normal currents overload
The symmetrical interrupting rating of a fuse should be
currents, sustained harmonic currents, etc. '
equal to or greater than the maximum fault current at the fuse
Voltage selection is made based on the phase-to-phase or
location. Cutout interrupting ratings are based on X/R values
ohase-to-ground v?lta~~· depending on the system grounding
that are equal to or greater than those encountered on the
and whether the c1rcu1t 1s three phase or single phase. Either
majority of distribution systems. Close to substations where
X/R ratios may be particularly high, cutouts may ha~e to be
a full-rated cutout or a slant-rated cutout can be used.
. By standards, ~ full-rated cutout, which is designated by a
derated as shown in Figure 13A2.
s1ngle voltage rat1ng (such as 15 kV), must be able to interrupt
Where system fault currents are known, it is a simple matter
any ~ault curr~nt up to its maximum interrupting rating at its
to choose a cutout whose symmetrical and asymmetrical
max1mum des1gned voltage.
interrupting ratings are greater than the symmetrical and
. T~e rating of a slant-rated cutout (for example, 15/27 kV)
asymmetrical values of fault current. For example, Table 4A2
1mphes that one cutout i~ capa~le of i~terrupting its full rating
lists both types of interrupting ratings for a cutout with
when the lower voltage IS applied to 1t. It also is implied that
100 ampere fuse holder, and such information is available
two cutouts in series will interrupt the full rating when the
from cutout manufacturers. Also, asymmetrical fault current
higher number is applied (representing a high-magnitude
can be calculated by multiplying the symmetrical value by a
phase-to-phase fault). The cutout must also be able to inter-
factor obtained from the curve shown in Figure 13A2.
rupt low currents .(typicE~:IIY up to 500-1000 amperes) at the
h1gher voltage rat1ng. Th1s would represent a low-magnitude

59
 A2
Generally, single-phase circuits may be protected by current-
limiting fuses whose ratings are greater than the line-to-
(/)
w 120· ground voltage, whereas three-phase circuits require fuses
>
cr: ~, with suitable line-to-line ratings. In certain cases, line-to-
3 115 ·-.....t/1\1 ground ratings may be applied on three-phase systems,
:::i
::l
:l. 110 '' provided the post-interruption voltage impressed across the
fuse does not exceed the maximum design voltage. For this

-- ----' .. '....'........'~ , .. __
5 condition, it is assumed that two current-limiting fuses in
f
JJ
105 ---~llVEA series will share the impressed voltage for the given fault
:2 condition. Table 5A2 shows the recommended voltage ratings
- 100 and applications of current-limiting fuses.
:,)
~
:::; 95
' ---,., For equipment protection, the interrupting requirement of
the current-limiting fuse must coordinate with the equipment
...J
2
90
40 30 20 10 0 10
'' .........
it is protecting. The time-current characteristic must also
coordinate with other protective devices on the system, par-
20 30 40 50 ticularly when there are backup fuses and an expulsion fuse
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE DEGREES CENTIGRADE
must be relied on for low-current clearing. These points will
be discussed in more detail in later sections.
Figure 15A2.
Ambient temperature derating factors for fuse links. Like fuse links, current-limiting fuses must be derated
under certain ambient temperature conditions. The derating
factors for various applications are shown in Figure 16A2.
Current-Limiting Fuse Selection
:::;,ment-limiting fuses are selected primarily on the basis of
:'leir voltage rating. Factors to consider in determining suit- 140
::.Die ratings are the type of system, maximum system volt-
:;.ge, transformer winding conditions if fuses are to protect a 130
::-ansformer, neutral grounding, and type of loading. 120

I=' 110 IN FUSE CANISTER IN OIL -

TABLE 5A2 z
w .....

""'--
I I I
Recommended Current-Limiting Fuse Voltage Ratings a: 100
ecce
System Voltage (kV) Recommended NX Fuse Rating (kV) 125 90
... l'...... I IN TRANSFORMER
BUSHING
Four-Wire ~!:;j
u.;W ~~ I
Multigrounded Delta (!l:::E 80
/
"' " "
Nominal Maximum Neutral ?;:::E
!;(:::) 70
Single- Three- Single- Three- a:!!] FREE AIR
Phase Phase Phase Phase wz ~
o- 60
2.4 2.54 - - 4.3 4.3 1-:::E
z..J "
2.4/4.16 2.54/4.4 4.3 5.5* w<C 50
4.16 4.4 - 4.3 4.3 a:?;
CC:::E
4.8 5.1 - 5.5 5.5 :>a 40
4.8/8.32 5.1/8.8 5.5 8.3* - - Uz
lL
6.9 7.26 - - 8.3 8.3 0 30 DERATING FACTOR FOR NX FUSES
6.93/12 7.3/12.7 8.3 15.5* - e3
7.2 7.62 - - 8.3 8.3 20
7.2112.47 7.62/13.2 8.3 15.5* - - 10
7.97 8.4 - 8.3 8.3
7.97/13.8 8.4/14.5 8.3 15.5* -
8.32 8.8 - - 8.3 8.3 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
8.32/14.4 8.8/15.2 8.3 15.5* - -
12120/8 12.7/22 15.5 23* - - FREE AIR OR TOP OIL TEMPERATURE
12.47 13.2 - - 15.5 15.5
13.2122.9 14/24.2 15.5 23* - - Figure 16A2.
13.2 14.5 - 15.5 15.5 Ambient temperature derating factors for NX current-
14.4/24.9 15.2/26.4 15.5 27* - - limiting fuse applications.
14.4 15.2 - 15.5 15.5
19.9/34.5 21.1/36.5 23 38* -
34.5 36.5 - 38 38

'.!>.line-to-neutral rating may be used if certain parameters are met;

see three-phase applications.

61
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Automatic Circuit Reclosers

An automatic circuit recloser is a self-contained device with the nications equipment allowing it to be linked with supervisor
necessary circuit intelligence to sense over-currents, to time and systems and/or peer devices.
interrupt the overcurrents, and to reclose automatically to re·
energize the line. If the fault should be "permanent:' the recloser RECLOSER CLASSIFICATIONS
will "lock open" after a preset number of operations {usually Automatic circuit reclosers are classied on the basis of single-
three or four) and thus isolate the faulted section from the main phase, three-phase or triple/single. Table 6A2 summarizes
part of the system. typical ratings in these classifications and identifies units
Most faults on overhead distribution systems - perhaps as specifically designed for pad-mounted installation.
high as 70 to 80 percent- are likely to be temporary in nature
and last only a few cycles to a few seconds at the most. Single-Phase Reclosers
Automatic circuit reclosers, with their ''trip and reclose" capa- Single-phase reclosers {Figures 17A2 and 18A2) are used
bility, eliminate prolonged outages on distribution systems for protection of single-phase lines, such as branches or taps
due to temporary faults or transient over-current conditions. of a three-phase feeder. They can also be used on three·
Although overcurrent protection is the primary duty for phase circuits where the load is predominantly single-phase.
reclosers, electronically controlled devices can be programmed Thus, when a permanent phase-to-ground fault occurs, one
to operate on a variety of circuit conditions. Some controls phase can be locked out while service is maintained to the
include voltage inputs. Controls can be equipped with commu- remaining two-thirds of the system.
TABLE 6A2
Summary of Cooper Reclosers
Interrupting Rating
Voltage Rating Max Cont. Current (sym amps at Interrupting Insulating Reloser
(kV) Rating (amps) max voltage) Medium Medium Control Typet
ISingle· Phase
50 1250 Oil Oil Hydraulic H
100 2000* Oil Oil Hydraulic 4H
200 2000* Vacuum Oil Hydraulic V4H
200 2000* Vacuum Oil Hydraulic PV4H**
15
280
280
4000*
6000
Oil
Vacuum
Oil
Oil
Hydraulic
Hydraulic
L
V4L I
560 10000* Oil on Hydraulic D
400 8000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VXE
400 8000 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA1
800 12500 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA1
100 2500 Oil Oil Hydraulic E
280 4000 Oi Oil Hydraulic 4E

s
27 400 8000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VXE
400
800
8000
125000
Vacuum
Vacuum ~ic
S ric
NOVA1
NOVA1
35 560 8000 Oil Oil r DV
rhrAB·Phase
100 2000* Oil Oil Hydraulic 6H
200 2000* Oil Oil Hydraulic V6H
560 10000* Oil Oil Hydraulic w
560*** 10000* Oil Oil Electronic WE
560 12000 Vacuum Oil Hydraulic PWH**
15 560 12000 Vacuum Oil Hydraulic vw I
560 12000 Vacuum Oil Electronic PWE***
560*** 12000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VWE
630 12500 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA
800 12500 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA
800 16000 Vacuum Solid Dielectric Electronic NOVA
560*** 12000 Vacuum Air Electronic VSA12
560 16000 Vacuum Air Electronic VSA16
800 16000 Vacuum Air Electronic VSA16
1 ~o~
8
~g~og ~:g~um
uum ~~~ ~~~ronic
tronic
VSA,~~
VSA2 A
560 12000 Vacuum Oil Hydraulip VWV27
27 560*** 12000 Vacuum Oil VWVE27
560 12000 Vacuum Oil PWVH**
560 12000 Vacuum Oil nic PWVE**
Vacuum So~~~ Dielectric
~5~ 12~gp0 Electronic NOVA
8 0 125 Vacuum Soli Dielectric Electronic NOVA
560 8000 Oil Oil Hydraulic wv
560*** 8000 Oil Oil Hydraulic WVE
35 560 12000 Vacuum Oil Hydraulic VWV38
560*** 12000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VWVE38
560*** 12000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VS012
560 16000 Vacuum Oil Electronic VS016
ITrlple Single

I&R!I
15 400 12500 Vacuum f<.!QYA
800 12500 Vacuum NOVA
27 400 12500 Vacuum NOVA
800 12500 Vacuum NOVA
* Interrupting rating Will be higher at lower voltage.
•• Pad-mounted reclosers. All others are overhead- or substation-type
••• Continuous current rating can be extended to 800 amps with an accessory . .
t NOTE: Recloser type designations are assigned by the manufacturer and are not universal. Cooper Power Systems type des1gnabons are the most complete
listing of reclosers in the industry, and are used in this manual for convenience in identifying recloser groupings and ratings.

62
 A2

Figure 17A2.
Pole-top installation of single-phase recloser.

Figure 18A2.
Single-phase recloser.

~19A2.
•~Type NOVA-TS Triple-Single Recloser.

63
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Automatic Circuit Reclosers (Continued)

Three-phase Reclosers
Three-phase reclosers (Figures 20A2 and 21A2) are used
where lockout of all three phases is required for any permanent
fault, to prevent single phasing of three-phase loads such as
large three-phase motors.

Triple-Single Reclosers (Figure 19A2)

Triple-Single Reclosers are electronically controlled and have
three modes of operation. In the single-phase mode each
phase responds to fault currents independently. This mode
will allow only the phase experiencing the fault to trip while
maintaining continuity of service on those unaffected.ln addi-
tion, the control can sense, trip and lockout for ground faults.
Ground faults are an imbalance between all three-phases
and as a result all three phase will trip and lockout all three-
phases. Ground faults sensing is automatically disabled anytime
a phase fault has resulted in the tripping or lockout of one- or
two-phases.
The single-phase trip/three-phase lockout mode permits
single-phase trip operation for single-phase faults, three-phase
operation tor ground faults. Permanent phase or ground faults
will result in the lockout of all three phases.
The three-phase mode will operate exactly like a the three-
Figure 20A2.
phase recloser described above. Three-phase recloser.

Figure 21 A2.
Three-phase NOVA electronically controlled recloser.

64

Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
-1ydraulic control is used in single-phase reclosers and three-
:::~ase reclosers listed in Table 6A2. This type of control, which
s an integral part of the recloser, senses an overcurrent by
-neans of a series trip coil connected in series with the line.
Nhen current in excess of the coil's minimum trip rating flows
·'irough the coil, a plunger is drawn into the coil to trip open
::1e recloser contacts. Timing and sequencing are accom-
::Jiished by the "pumping" of oil through separate hydraulic
:1ambers.
One of two contact closing methods is used in hydraulically
::ontrolled reclosers. In single-phase reclosers rated 280
a11peres and below, and in three-phase reclosers rated 200
amperes and below, contacts are closed by springs loaded
':!Y movement of the series-trip-coil plunger during the over-
:;ment opening operation. On 560-ampere single-phase
·eclosers and three-phase reclosers rated 400 amperes and
.., igher, closing power is provided by a separate closing solenoid
::!"!ergized from the line potential on the source side of the
·ecloser. (An optional closing solenoid arrangement can be
Jsed for closing from ex1ernal120- or 240-Vac power.)
Electronically Controlled Reclosers
--,e electronic method of recloser control is more flexible,
~10re easily adjusted and tested, and more accurate than
··ydraulic control. The electronic control conveniently permits
::1anging the time-current characteristics, trip current levels,
3.!1d recloser operation sequences without deenergizing or
Jntanking the recloser. A wide range of programming options
3.llow the operation of the control to be modified to solve many
:: fferent application problems.
Electronic controls are available utilizing microprocessor
ogic. Greatly simplied, the operation of the logic is illustrated
'1 Figure 21A2. (1) Line current is sensed by three bushing-
:Jpe sensing transformers inside the recloser. Secondary
:urrents from these transformers are carried to the control by
a rnulticonductor cable that also carries trip-and-close signals
:::;ack to the recloser. When these secondary currents, (2)
"towing through sensing circuits in the control, exceed a level
A2
proportional to the minimum trip current programmed, (3) the
level-detection and timing logic is activated. After a time
delay, as determined by the programmed time-current char-
acteristic, (4) the trip circuit is energized, sending a trip sig-
nal to the recloser. (5) A sequence counter then operates, (6)
causing the reclosing and reset logic to begin timing and
advancing the control program to its next preset operation.
After the programmed reclosing time expires, (7) a close
signal is sent to the recloser and the current sensing begins
again. When the reset time expires, the sequence counter
resets the control program to its starting position.
The control will lock out immediately following a trip signal
after the programmed number of trip operations occur. When
locked out, the control does not reset or send a close signal
until the closing operation is manually activated from the control
panel or by a remote signal.
Electronically controlled reclosers utilized solenoids, motors
or magnetic actuators to open and close interrupters.
~sol Interrupters
Reclosers utilize either oil or vacuum as the interrupting
medium. When oil is used, the same oil is used for both arc
interruption and basic insulation. Some reclosers with
hydraulic control also utilize the same oil for the timing and
counting functions.
Use of vacuum as an interrupting medium provides the
advantages of reduced maintenance and minimum external
reaction. Some recloser types are available with either an oil
interrupter or a vacuum interrupter. Vacuum reclosers may
utilize either oil or air as the basic insulating medium.
Types of Insulating Mediums
Reclosers insult those components at line potential with any
one of the following materials:
• Mineral Oil
• Air
• High dielectric gas, such as SFa
• Solid dielectric, such as polymers.

CLOSE-INITIATING CIRCUIT
RECLOSER
TRIP-INITIATING CIRCUIT
I (~)
/1"~
,.._:_.. "-~":
:--- SENSING
LEVEL DETECTION
SEQUENCE RECLOSE
TRIP
BUSHING r-- CIRCUIT r- AND
r- CIRCUIT :--- COUNTER r-- TIMING
C-T's
r--
TIMING CIRCUIT
.... r-

~ PHASE-TRIP NETWORK t
~---1 ------- I
I I I I
l!
1
SENSING
ciRCUIT

I _ _ _ __.JI
I
~1
I LEVEL DETECTION
TIMIN~~?RcUIT
I- - - - - - -I
I
r---
I
- RESET
TIMING
-
GROUND-TRIP NETWORK

Figure 22A2.
Block diagram of electronic recloser control.

65
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Automatic Circuit Reclosers (Continued)
Figure 23A2.
Electronic recloser controls utilizing microprocessor
based logic.
RECLOSER LOCATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
Reclosers can be used anywhere on a system where the
recloser ratings are adequate for the system requirements.
Logical locations are:
1. In substations as the primary feeder protective device.
2. On the lines at a distance from a substation, to sectionalize
long feeders and thus prevent outages of the entire feeder
when a permanent fault occurs near the end of the feeder.
3. On the taps of main feeders, to protect the main feeder
from interruptions and outages due to faults on the taps.
Pad-mounted Reclosers
In addition to overhead and substation types, reclosers are
available as pad-mounted units to provide simple, direct
connections to underground cable systems.
Some substations utilize UG cable and pad-mounted
equipment to achieve smaller size and low profile, possibly
with feeder circuits exiting via UG cable and changing to
conventional overhead distribution feeders at nearby riser
poles. In such substations, and wherever underground sys-
tems convert to overhead, pad-mounted reclosers offer the
advantages of convenient UG cable connection and low pro-
file while providing the desired protection for downline over-
head distribution feeders.
Pad-mounted reclosers can also be used on UG systems
for protection of the cable circuits and as primary protection
for transformers. In these applications, where reclosing oper-
ations are not used, the recloser can be set for one-trip oper-
ation to lockout, thus providing an economical circuit/trans-
former protective device.
RECLOSER APPLICATION FACTORS
Six major factors must be considered for proper application
of automatic circuit reclosers:
1. System voltage.
2. Maximum fault current available at the point of recloser
location.
3. Maximum load current.
4. Minimum fault current within the zone to be protected by
the recloser.
66
5. Coordination with other protective devices on both source
and load sides of the recloser.
6. Ground-fault sensing.
System Voltage
The system voltage will be known and the recloser must have
a voltage rating equal to or greater than the system voltage.
Maximum Fault Current
The maximum fault current will be known or can be calculated.
The recloser interrupting rating must be equal to or greater
than the maximum available fault current.
Maximum Load Current
The maximum continuous current rating of the recloser must be
equal to or greater than the maximum load current anticipated
for the circuit.
In hydraulically controlled reclosers, the continuous current
rating of the series coil selected may be equal to or greater
than the anticipted circuit load. The coil can be selected to
match the present load current, anticipated future load current,
or substation transformer capacity. The minimum trip rating,
also a property of the series coil, normally is twice the coil's
continuous rating and should be at least twice the expected
peak load current.
In electronically controlled reclosers, the minimum trip current
is selected independently of the recloser's maximum continuous
current rating, although it normally does not exceed twice
that value. Generally, a trip current value at least twice the
expected peak load current is used.
For some circuits, such as those that have high air
conditioning loads or electric heating loads, difficulties may be
experienced when attempting to re-energize the circuit after
an extended outage (cold load pickup}. For these applications,
a trip current setting of 250 percent, or higher, of the peak
load current may be required.
Minimum Fault Current
The minimum fault current that might occur at the end of the
line section to be protected must be checked to determine
that the recloser will sense and interrupt this current.
NOTE: The "minimum fault current" values used in applying
reclosers and other overcu rrent protection devices are
arbitrary values based on the particular utility's determination
as to the level of protection needed for the zone in question.
Obviously, the true minimum fault level at any point on any
system is zero.
Coordination with Other Protective Devices
Coordination with other protective devices, both source-side
and load-side, becomes important after the first four application
factors are satisfied. Proper selection of time delays and
sequences is vital to ensure that any momentary interruption
or longer outage due to faults is restricted to the smallest
possible section of the system. Generally, the time-current
characteristics and operating sequence of a recloser are
selected to coordinate with source-side devices. After a specific
recloser size and sequence are determined, protective
equipment farther down the line is then selected to coordinate
with it.

DUAL TIMING
Automatic circuit reclosers have dual timing capabilities that
serve an important function in coordinating with other protective
devices and in helping limit the areas affected by permanent
faults. A typical recloser operating sequence to "lockout" (for
a permanent fault) is illustrated in Figure 23A2.
As shown, the first fault-current interruptions (one or more)
are performed in accordance with a "fast" timing characteristic.
The remaining interruptions to lockout incorporate a prede-
termined time delay. The first operations are fast in order to
clear temporary faults before any downline fuse operation. If
the fault is permanent, the time-delay operation allows a
device nearer the fault to interrupt the overcurrent, thereby
limiting the outage to a smaller portion of the system.
Ground-Fault Sensing
The majority of faults on the typical utility system (wye con-
nected) involve either the neutral or the ground and are com-
monly referred to as "ground" faults. Such faults are com-
monly revealed through the detection of over-current, which
is accomplished by sensing the residual current of three-
phase current transformers. The residual current measured,
the zero-sequence current of the circuit, is comprised of both
the line-to-ground (or neutral) fault current plus the unbal-
ance current of the three-phase feeder.
The standard phase-current sensing of reclosers will
detect ground-fault currents when the total current through
any phase (load plus ground fault) exceeds the minimum
phase-trip setting. However, since this setting is relatively high
(two to two-and-a-half times peak load current), many ground
faults may not be detected. Since many of the ground faults
occur at some distance from the substation, the magnitude is
limited by the line impedance, ground resistance, and arc
resistance.
j ! "FAST" ,dPER:b.'T'IONS .
(~O!iTACTS ¢ LOSED)
-
T IME
RECLOSING INTERVALS (CONTACTS OPEN)
Figure 24A2.
Typical recloser operating sequence to lockout.
A2
A three-phase recloser can have a more sensitive setting
for ground faults, and thus have greater "reach," by utilizing
residual current detection for ground-fault sensing. This sensing
permits setting of the ground-fault trip current well below the
phase-trip current.
Many utilities utilize a ground-fault trip setting approximately
equal to the peak load current. This results in a ground-fault
setting of 40 to 50 percent of the phase-trip setting and
ensures that there will be no unnecessary trips due to load
unbalance or operation of downline single-phase protective
devices (fuses or reclosers).
When even greater recloser reach is needed, the ground-fault
trip setting can be more sensitive than the peak load current
To prevent any unnecessary trip operation, the ground-fault
trip setting must be greater than the normal maximum phase-
current unbalance plus the added unbalance that would be
created by an operation of the largest downline single-phase
protective device. Note, however, that sympathetic tripping
conditions may in some cases dictate higher settings.
When ground-fault sensing is used with a three-phase
recloser, the ground-fault settings (minimum trip and timing)
must be coordinated with the phase-trip settings of the downline
single-phase recloser. That is, the ground-fault minimum trip
and timings must be greater than those of the downline
recloser. This will insure trip and lockout of the downline
recloser on any fault beyond it without causing lockout of the
upline three-phase recloser.
"TIME-DELAY" OPER.ATIONS
(CONTACTS CLOSED)
RECLOSER
LOCKOUT
(CONTACTS OPEN)
•
 A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Sectionalizers
A sectionalizer is a protective device that automatically isolates
faulted sections of line from a distribution system. Normally
applied in conjunction with a backup recloser or breaker, a
sectionalizer does not have any fault-interrupting capability of
its own. Rather, it counts the operations of the backup device
during fault conditions and, after a preselected number of
current-interrupting operations and while the backup device
is open, the sectionalizer opens to isolate the faulted section
of line. This allows the backup device to reclose into the
remaining unfaulted sections, thus restoring them to service.
If the fault is temporary, however, it will be cleared by the
backup device prior to the sectionalizer count to lockout, and
the sectionalizer will remain closed. The sectionalizer mechanism
then automatically resets to prepare for another complete
cycle of operations should a new fault occur.
Compared to fuse cutouts, which do, of course, have full
interrupting capability, sectionalizers provide several advantages
that, depending on the application and the particular utility's
approach to overcurrent protection, can offset a higher initial
cost. These advantages include application flexibil ity,
convenience, and safety.
After a permanent fault, for example, the fault-closing
capability of a sectionalizer greatly simplifies testing of the
circuit, and if the fault is still present, interruption takes place Figure 25A2.
safely at the backup recloser. Since replacement fuse links Typical electronically controlled sectionalizer.
are not required, the line can be tested and restored to service
with far more speed and convenience. Also, the possibility of
error in selecting the size and type of fuse link is eliminated.
In addition to providing the general advantages just cited, Electronically Controlled Sectionalizers
sectionalizers are particularly suitable for two applications The electronic control used with larger three-phase sectionalizers
where time-current characteristics (which sectionalizers do is more flexible and more easily adjusted than the hydraulic
not have) might pose coordination problems: control. It conveniently permits changing actuating current
1. They can be used between two protective devices with levels, shots to lockout, and memory time without deenergizing
operating curves that are close together. This is a vital or untanking the sectionalizer. A wide range of accessories is
feature in locations where additional coordination steps are available to modify the basic operation and solve many
impractical or impossible. different application problems.
2. They can be used on close-in taps where high fault Line current is detected by sensing current transformers in
magnitude prevents coordination of fuses with the backup the sectionalizer. Intelligence from the current transformers is
recloser or breaker. sent to an electronic cirruit that counts the nurroer of operations
of the backup interrupting device and then sends a trip signal
when necessary to activate an electromechanical release of
SECTIONALIZER CLASSIFICATIONS
the contact opening springs. Some electronically controlled
Sectionalizers are available in single- and three-phase versions sectionalizers are motor operated and may be closed either
controlled by hydraulic or electronic counting mechanisms: electrically or manually; others must be manually closed.
Table 7A2 lists representative ratings. Figure 24A2 shows an
electronically controlled unit. SECTIONALIZER FEATURES
Sectionalizer features include count reset, ground-fault sensing,
Hydraulically Controlled Sectionalizers
and various restraints that prevent unnecessary or undesirable
Hydraulic control, as used in all single-phase sectionalizers
operation and lockout (for example, by distinguishing
and in smaller three-phase units, is an integral part of the between the operation of load-side and source-side inter-
sectionalizer. This type of control senses overcurrent by
rupting devices). These features are covered in detail in the
means of a coil connected in series with the line. When over-
discussions of sectionalizer applications in Section A3.
current flows through the coil, a plunger is drawn into the coil
to arm the counting mechanism. When the over-current dis-
SECTIONALIZER APPLICATION FACTORS
appears, a count is accomplished by "pumping" oil through
hydraulic chambers. After a preselected number of pumping The following factors must be considered when applying
operations, a latch is released to allow preloaded springs to sectionalizers:
open the contacts. Hydraulically controlled sectionalizers 1. System voltage.
must be manually closed. 2. Maximum load current.
3. Maximum fault current available.
4. Coordination with other protective devices.

68
 A2

System Voltage greater than the maximum available fault current. The maxi-
The system voltage will be known and the sectionalizer must mum fault timing of the backup device must not exceed the
have a voltage rating equal to or greater than the system voltage. short-time rating of the sectionalizer.

Maximum Load Current Coordination with Other Protective Devices

The sectionalizer continuous-current rating should be equal
to or greater than the anticipated maximum circuit load.
Maximum Fault Current
The maximum fault current will be known or can be calculated,
and the sectionalizer momentary ratings must be equal to or
Coordination with other protective devices, both source-side
and load-side, becomes a factor after the first three factors
are satisfied. At .this point, actuating levels, shots-to-lockout of the
backup device, and memory time of the sectionalizer become
prime considerations. These considerations are discussed in
detail in Section A3, "Applications and Coordination."

TABLE 7A2
Typical Sectionalizer Ratings
Hydraulically Controlled- 14.4 and 24.9 kV
Three-Phase
Single-Phase, Type GN3:14.4 kV, 110-kV BIL
Type GH: 95- or 125-kV BIL Type GN3V: 24.9 kV, 125-kV BIL
Continuous Symmetrical Actuating
Current Interrupting Current Short-Time Current Ratinas lamoeresl
Rating (loadbreak Rating Momentary Momentary
(amperes) amperes) (amperes) and Making One- Ten- and Making One- Ten
Current Second Second Current Second Second
(asymmetric) (symmetric)
5 1-Phase 3-Phase 8 800 200 60 800 200 60
10 Units Units 16 1600 400 125 1600 400 125
15 24 2400 600 190 2400 600 190
25 40 4000 1000 325 4000 1000 325
35 56 6000 1500 450 6000 1500 450
50 308 440 80 6500 2000 650 7000 2000 650
70 112 6500 3000 900 8000 4000 900
100 160 6500 4000 1250 8000 4000 1250
140 224 6500 4000 1800 8000 4000 1800
160 256 - - - 9000 4000 2600
185
200
296
320
-
-
-
-
-
-
9000
9000
5700
5700
2600
2600
Electronically Controlled, Three-Phase-14.4, 24.9, and 34.5 kV
14.4-kV, 24.9-kV, 110-kV 34.5-kV and 150-kV BIL
and 125-kV BIL
Continuous Symmetrical Actuating
Current Interrupting Current Short-Time Current Ratinas lamoeres)
Rating (loadbreak Rating Momentary Momentary
(amperes) amperes) (amperes) and Making One- Ten- and Making One- Ten-

I 16
Current
(asymmetric)
Second Second Current
(symmetric)
Second Second

24
40
56
80
200* 440 112
160
9000 5700 2600 - - -
224
256
296
320
16
24
40
56
80
400** 880 112 15000 10000 3500 15000 10000 3500
160
224
320
448
640
• Type GN3E: 14.4 kV; Type GN3VE: 24.9 kV.
- Type GV: 14.4 kV; Types GW : 34.5 kV.
NOTE: Sectionalizer type designations are assigned by the manufacturer and are not universal. Cooper type designations are used in this manual for CCliMliWn:e
in identifying sectionalizer groupings and ratings.
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Circuit Breakers and Relays

Circuit breakers and relays are grouped together in this dis- Circuit breakers also have a stored-energy mechanism that
cussion of equipment characteristics and general application allows the breaker contacts to be closed several times after
factors because relays are normally used with breakers to power has been lost. The types of stored-energy mechanisms
achieve automatic tripping and closing of breaker contacts in and the respective numbers of closing/opening operations
overcurrent protection service. Subjects to be covered include required by ANSI37.12-1981 are as follows:
classifications of breakers and the selection of appropriate 1. Compressed air or other gas: two closing/opening
ratings, plus the types of relays used in distribution protection operations.
and their time-current characteristics. 2. Pneumatic or hydraulic: five closing/opening operations.
3. Motor-compressed spring: one closing/opening operation,
CIRCUIT BREAKER CHARACTERISTICS with spring reset within ten seconds.
AND CLASSIFICATIONS
A circuit breaker is usually employed at the substation level
in distribution-system overcurrent protection applications. By
definition (ANSI C37. 100), a circuit breaker is a mechanical
switching device capable of making, carrying, and breaking
currents under normal circuit conditions, and also capable of
making, carrying for a specified time, and breaking currents
under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as short circuits.
Breakers can be tripped and closed manually or by the use
of external relays or electronic controls. Because of their high
interrupting capacity and high continuous current capacity,
they are relatively expensive and bulky compared to other
distribution-system protective devices.
Circuit breakers can be classified according to both their
interrupting medium and their method of storing energy.
Interruption of currents following separation of contacts may
take the following forms:
1. Oil interruption.
2. Vacuum interruption.
3. Air-blast interruption.
4. SF6 (gas) interruption.
5. Air-magnetic interruption-available with indoor (metalclad)
breakers.
In distribution-system applications the breakers usually are oil,
vacuum, or air-magnetic. Examples of breakers with distribution
voltage ratings are shown in Figure 25A2 (oil interruption)
and Figure 26A2 (vacuum interruption).

Figure 26A2.
Kyle Type VSA20B air-insulated, electronically-controlled
vacuum circuit breaker.

70
 A2
TABLE 8A2
Preferred Ratings for Outdoor Oil Circuit Breakers
Related Required Capabilities
Current Values
Rated Values Max 3-Second Closing-
I Symmet- Short- and-
I Current rical Time Latching
Voltage Insulation Level Rated Transient Inter- Current- Capability
Rated Short- Recovery Rated rupting Carrying 1.6 K
Rated Withstand Continuous Circuit Voltage Per- Rated Capability Capability Times
Rated Test Voltage Current Current Rated Rated missible Max Rated
Rated Voltage at at Time to Inter- Tripping Voltage K Times Rated Short-
Max Range Low 60Hz Rated Point P rupting Delay Divided Short-Circuit Circuit
'lloltage Factor, Frequency Impulse (Amperes, Max kV T2 Time y byK Current Current
{llV, rms) K (kA, rms) (kV, Crest) rms) (KA,rms (ps) (Cycles) (Seconds) (kA, rms) (kA, rms) (kA, rms) (kA, rms)
Col. 1 Col. 2 Col.3 Col.4 Col. 5 Col. 6 Col. 7 Coi.S Col.9 Col.10 Col.11 Col.12 Col.13
15.5 2.67 600 8.9 36 5 2 5.8 24 24 38
15.5 1.29 1200 18 33 5 2 12 23 23 37
25.8 2.15 See Discussion 1200 11 52 5 2 12 24 24 38
38 1.65 in Text 1200 22 63 5 2 23 36 36 58
48.3 1.21 1200 17 80 5 2 40 21 21 33
72.5 1.21 1200 19 106 5 2 60 23 23 37

CIRCUIT BREAKER RATINGS
~EMA SG-4 preferred ratings for alternating-current high-
dage circuit breakers are listed in Table 8A2 (a slightly
-evised version ofTable 3 in ANSI C37.06-1979). The ratings
and their applications are explained below in accordance
rih the ANSI standards. Note that headings in the text relate
1D table column headings.
Rated Maximum Voltage (Col. 1)
The wltage rating is based on ANSI C84-1-19n, voltage ratings
b electric power systems and equipment (60 Hz), where
applicable. It is the maximum voltage for which the breaker is
designed and the upper limit for operation.
Rated Voltage Range Factor, K (Col. 2)
K is the ratio of maximum rated voltage to the lower limit of the
'31Qe of operating voltage, in which the required symmetrical
cni asymmetrical current interrupting capabilities vary in
nverse proportion to the operating voltage.
1R ated Withstand Test Voltage,
Low Frequency (Col. 3)
The rated low-frequency withstand voltage (dry) is the test
dage that a new circuit breaker, when tested dry and under
specified conditions, must be capable of withstanding for one
"'''inute without puncture or flashover. When tested wet and
mer specified conditions, a new outdoor circuit breaker and
edernal components shall be capable of withstanding the
low frequency for ten seconds without flashover or puncture.
IR ated Withstand Test Voltage,
-.,ulse (Col. 4)
The rated withstand impulse-test voltage consists of full-wave
IPlplllse and a chopped-wave impulse. A new circuit breaker
n.~st be capable of withstanding each without flashover or
puncture when tested under specified conditions. The full-wave
mpulse voltage is the crest value of a standard 1.2 x 50
mpulse voltage wave. The rated chopped-wave impulse with-
stmd test voltages shall consist of 129 percent of rated full-
rcrve impulse withstand voltage chopped at a minimum time
of two microseconds and 15 percent chopped at a
"'linimum time of three microseconds.
Rated Continuous Current at 80Hz {Col. 5}
~ is the maximum 60-Hz current the circuit breaker can
any continuously without exceeding allowable temperature
'IISieS. Standard values are 800, 1200, 2000, and 3000
amperes. The continuous load current of the system- including
load transfer and contingencies-plus allowances for load
growth dictate the continuous current rating required.
Rated Short-Circuit Current
(at Rated Maximum kV) (Col. 6)
To obtain the required symmetrical-current interrupting capability
of a circuit breaker at an operating voltage between 1/K times
rated maximum voltage and rated maximum voltage, the
following formula shall be used:
Rated Symmetrical-Current Interrupting Capability =
. . (Maximum Voltage}
Rated Short-C1rcu1t Current Rated Operating Voltage
For operating voltages below 1/K times rated maximum
voltage, the required symmetrical-current interrupting capability
of the circuit breaker shall be equal to K times rated short-circuit
current.
Transient Recovery Voltage,
Rated Time to Point P (Col. 7)
At its rated maximum voltage, each circuit breaker must be
capable of interrupting three-phase ungrounded terminal
faults at rated short-circuit current in any circuit in which the
three-phase ungrounded-circuit transient recovery voltage
does not exceed the rated transient recovery-voltage envelope.
For circuit breakers rated 72.5 kV and below, the envelope Is
defined by the rated values of E2 and T 2 from ANSI C37.06-
1979. E2 = 1.88 times rated maximum voltage, and T2 is the
rated time to point P given in Table 8A2, Column 7.
Rated Interrupting Time (CoL 8)
The rated interrupting time of a circuit breaker is the maximum
permissible interval between the energizing of the trip current
at rated control voltage and the interruption of the main current
in all poles on an opening operation. The current interrupted
must be within the required interrupting capabilities and
equal to 25 percent or more of the required asymmetrical
interrupting capability at rated maximum voltage.
Rated Permissible Tripping Delay (Col. 9)
The rated permissible tripping delay is the maximum value of
time for which the circuit breaker is required to carry K times
rated short-circuit current after closing on this current and
before interrupting. K is the rated voltage range factor of
Column 2.

71
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Circuit Breakers and Relays (Continued)
Rated Maximum Voltage Divided by K (Col. 1 OJ
Throughout most of a circuit breaker's voltage range, the
interrupting rating increases as the voltage decreases
reflecting, of course, the established relationship between
voltage and current. The figures in this column indicate the
lowest voltages at which this relationship applies, which
means that the interrupting rating does not change at lower
voltages.
Maximum Symmetrical Interrupting
Capability (Col. 11)
For polyphase and phase-to-phase faults, the required
symmetrical interrupting capability is the highest value of the
symmetrical component of the short-circuit current - in rms
amperes at the instant of primary arcing-contact separation -
that the circuit breaker shall be required to interrupt at a
specified operating voltage on the standard operating duty
and irrespective of the direct-current component of the total
short-circuit current. The numerical value at an operating voltage
between 1/K times rated maximum voltage and rated maxi-
mum voltage shall be determined by the following formula:
Rated Symmetrical _ Rated Short-
Interrupting Capability - Circuit Current
X Rated Maximum Voltage
Operating Voltage
In no case shall the required symmetrical interrupting
capability exceed K times short-circuit current.
For distribution-voltage-level breakers (i.e., breakers rated
below 72.5 kV and having a continuous-current rating 1200
amperes and below), the duty cycle is CO+ 15s + CO as
defined in ANSI/IEEE C37.04-1979; which means that the
breaker must be capable of closing into its maximum-rated
interrupting capability, interrupting, remaining open for
15 seconds, reclosing, and interrupting again. Breakers with
continuous current rating above 1200 amperes are not
intended for reclosing service applications. When such
applications arise, the manufacturer should be consulted for
capability factors.
Whenever a circuit breaker is applied on a duty cycle having
either more operations or a shorter time interval between
operations, its rated short-circuit current and rated interrupting
capabilities must be modified by the reclosing capability factor R.
ANSI/IEEE C37.04·1979 defines R as
R = 1OO·D (percent)
and
0 = d1 (n-2) + d1 (15-t1) + d1 (15-t2) 0 ...
15 15
where D = total reduction factor in percent
d1 = calculating factor for D in percent of breaker
symmetrical interrupting capability at operating
voltage from Figure 27 A2 (based on Figure 2
in ANSI C37.06-1979).
n = total number of openings
t 1 =first time interval less than 15 seconds
t2 = second time interval less than 15 seconds
ts = ...
72
The following conditions must be observed:
1. A duty cycle shall not contain more than five openings.
2. A period between opening operations greater than 15 minutes
shall be considered a new operating cycle.
In addition, asymmetry in the fault current at the time of
contact parting must be considered. This magnitude is
between the symmetrical fault-current value and the maximum
asymmetrical fault-current value.
Figure 28A2 (which is Figure A12 in ANSI C37.010-1972)
tabulates multiplying factors for this consideration - based
upon X/R of the circuit, contact parting time, and interrupting
time of the breaker. Thus, symmetrical fault current is multiplied
by the appropriate factor and compared to the standard or
modified maximum symmetrical interrupting rating as
appropriate.
Three-Second Short·Time Current-Carrying
Capability (Col. 12)
The short-time current-carrying capability is that value of rms
short-circuit current that the circuit breaker shall be capable
of carrying for three seconds. This rms value, determined
from the envelope of the current wave at the time of the maximum
crest, does not exceed 1.6K times rated short-circuit current;
or, its maximum crest value does not exceed 2. 7K times the
rated short-circuit current, and the rms value determined
over the complete three-second period does not exceed K
times rated short-circuit current.
Closing·and·Latching Capability (Col. 13)
The circuit breaker shall be capable of closing and, immediately
thereafter, latching any normal-frequency making current thai
does not exceed 1.6K times the rated short-circuit current or
whose maximum crest (peak making current) does not
exceed 2.7K times the rated short-circuit current. This corre-
sponds to an X/R ratio of approximately 20. Higher X/R values
may require the use of a circuit breaker with a higher inter-
rupting rating and thus a higher close-and-latch rating. This
rating should be compared to the maximum asymmetricai
fault current as calculated in Section A1 (see "System
Faults").
Note that for outdoor circuit breakers rated at 121 kV and
above, the rated voltage range factor K was changed to unity.
1.0, to simplify rating and testing procedures.
- d•=3
--
'----;? KA=OT018.
d, = 1/6KA
KA=18T075-
-
15
._
-
o 10 20 30 .co so eo 10 80
BREAKER SYMMETRICAL INTERRUPTING CAPABILITY
IN KILOAMPERES AT OPERATING VOLTAGE
Note: See Section 5.10.2.6 of ANSI/IEEE C37.04-1979 for procedures
lor calculating the reclosing capabilities using the reduction factor, d1.
Figure 27 A2.
Interrupting capability factors for reclosing service.
 A2

130

120

110

100

90

80

a: 70
><
0 60
~
a:
50

10~-+~~~4---~~-1
CONTACT PAFlTiNG 2-CYCLE
TIME BREAKER
o~~------~~~~~
1.0 . 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1,0 u 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1;3 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
MULTiPLYiNG FACTORS FOR E/XAMPERES

Figure 28A2.
Multiplying factors for three-phase and line-to-ground faults fed predominantly through two or more transformations.

TYPES OF RELAYS
Flelays provide the intelligence for identifying fault currents,
u timing and reclosing, and, in general, for controlling the
operation of a circuit breaker. They are an externally applied
apparatus, in that the breaker by itself has no fault-sensing
capability. There are many varieties of relays for sensing and
responding to a multitude of system conditions and quantities,
n:luding overcurrent, overvoltage, differential, impedance,
phase sequence, etc. The types most applicable to distribution-
system protection are the overcurrent relay (Figure 29A2}
and the reclosing relay, and both are used in most applications.

OVERCURRENT RELAY
Tune-Current Characteristics
The time-current characteristics of an overcurrent relay are
represented by a family of curves as shown in Figure 30A2.
The position of the curve is determined by the choice of tap
and adjustment of the time lever. The tap setting determines
1he minimum value of secondary-current input reached by
progressive increases that will cause pick-up of the relay. The
system current at which the relay picks up is defined as minimum
1rip and is determined by lhe following:

Minimum Trip =CT Ratio X Tap Setting

Trip time is determined by the time-lever setting. A higher Figure 29A2.
Typical time-overcurrent relay.
time-lever setting causes the induction disk to rotate a
greater distance, resulting in longer trip times.Thus, the tap
setting establishes the horizontal position of the curve and
1he time-lever setting establishes the vertical position of the
curve.

73
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Circuit Breakers and Relays (Continued)

1' 1\'
6
,\ l\ i\
1\1
\' ' \ l
TYPICAL TIME CURVES
TYPECQ-8
OVERCURRENT RELAY
50-60 CYCLES

5 \
~' .\1\
'~ \~ ~,~
l
"Ni I,
,\ \ ~·,1\ ~ 1\ Ill
(/)
0
z
0
()
4
'
I' ~ ' ~
~
~ ~ 1\ ~ i\ 1\
\I\
.\
1\ 11
TIME DIAL SETTING

~'\ i\\'~~r.~
w ~
(/) 10 '\

3 1\ 8 ~
9 '~ ~
....
I' ' ~ "' ~
'~ ~ ~ I'
7 •'
1\ 6~ !'- r--- h.
I\,4~ 1\~ f\ "' "

~ ""
~

r--- I' r ~,.._

.~.

" " r-- r-. ~ ..... ~~~--

5
~ ~
2 I
3
~ l'lllo

~ ~ !"""" ,.... 1--

I~ r'l
~ 2

,,
l'\. 1\ ' f\ ~" ~ ~ r--- ,.... .... r-.
" f' ~ ~~--
~ ~'-t- ~'-""~

ttJ
~
1'1

~
""',.._ f' ""
~ ..._,
I'
~ ~ r--.. ~ ~ ~ """"
~~

~
I""- r--
1111

,.}':1 ..........
"' ~ r--- ...... ~
"··,'"

~~~ ~ ..._, ,.....,., .....

......... """""

~
'fi"
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
MULTIPLES OF TAP VALUE CURRENT

Figure 30A2.
Time-current characteristics of a typical overcurrent relay on the same

There are many different shapes of time-current characteris-
tics available, and the type chosen is dependent upon the
application. Figure 31A2 shows the relationship among the
various families of curves when set on the same tap.
In general, the very inverse and extremely inverse relays are
used for distribution-system protection, since fault-current
magnitude is usually a function of fault location and only
slightly a function of generation and voltage conditions. These
relays provide excellent coordination with fuses and good
recloser coordination in addition to providing load pick-up
capability after an extended outage. Inverse and moderately
inverse relays are generally applied where fault-current
magnitude is primarily a function of generation condition at
the time of fault. Inverse short-time relays are applied for
protection of equipment such as power rectifiers, where fast
tripping is desirable, but tripping not as fast as would be
provided by an instantaneous element. Inverse long-time
relays provide protection for motors against overloads where
thermal devices are not applicable.
 A2

100
0.030
60
~
30 1\ 0
z
rJl

0 0.020
0.025
\ 1\..

"'
u

10 1\ ~
w
rJl

w
I O.Q15
:::!: '' " MAX
r--....
!'--.t--
~ 0.010 r--..... MIN ~

\
""'
:::>
6 :.<:
LONGTIME
~ 0.005

3 '\ 0

'\I\"- 0
rJl 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10
Cl
z
~
MULTIPLES OF PICK-UP
0
u
w
rJl 1.0
r--...... ..... Figure 32A2. . . .
~ t'-INVERSE Typical instantaneous tnp charactenst1c.
.......
~ o.e ..... 1-~VERY
i=

0.3
1\.
~HORT
\ INVERSE First, assume the following relay and settings have been
chosen:
.....__
IME ~ COB Relay
EXTREMELY
0.1
r--...... INVERSE
BOO : 5 CT Ratio
Tap5
0.06 Time Lever 1.5
IT Tap 12

' Refer to Figure 30A2 for the family of curves for the COB
inverse relay, and proceed as follows:
1.5 5 10 20 50
MULTIPLES OF TAP VALUE CURRENT
1. Minimum Trip = 1 x tap value = CT Ratio x Tap Setting
=BOOx 5
Rgure 31A2. 5
Relationship of various families of overcurrent relay
curves. =BOOA
When plotting on log-log TCC paper:
1X = BOOA
lftstantaneous Trip
rn addition to a time-current characteristic, which is a function 2X = 1600A, etc.
of induction disk movement, overcurrent relays also have an 2. To select the correct curve using the 1.5 time lever setting,
nslantaneous-trip mechanism, which operates magnetically. we must interpolate between the 1 and 2 settings at:
lllnimum value of trip current is determined by adjusting the
position of a plunger inside a solenoid. Different continuously
For 2X =
1600A, T = 2.1 + (4-2.1) X 112 = 3.05 s
~ustable ranges are available by inserting different instan-
For 3X = 2400A, T = .7B + (1.6B- .7B} X 112 = 1.23s, etc.
llaneous elements.Tap settings are indicated, and the
These points are plotted on TCC paper and the result is
nnmum trip is a function of secondary input current and the
setting chosen. This is expressed as: shown in Figure 33A2. To this curve should be added the circuit
breaker interrupting time.
fT Minimum Trip = CT Ratio x Instantaneous Tap Setting
3. The instantaneous element characteristics are shown in
Figure 32A2. Using the maximum curve:
Figure 32A2 shows a typical instantaneous trip character-
sic plotted as a multiple of pick-up current. When transferred Minimum Trip = 1 x Tap value = CT Ratio X Tap Setting
til standard log-log paper, the curves plot as straight lines.
=B00x12
As stated, inputs to both instantaneous and time trips are 5
pEMded by secondary CT current. The CT ratio should be
!1l!f so that the continuous current (including emergency con- = 1920A
dlons} does not exceed the rating of the CT. Often a ratio of For 2X = 3B40A, T = .03 s
1:JS to 1.50 times peak load current is selected to allow for For 3X = 5760A, T = .022 s
energency load-growth conditions. etc.
In order to coordinate the relay with other devices, it is
aJnWOOn to represent the relay curve on log-log paper on a
The curve is added to the time characteristics and the
pTal of time versus primary CT current - a procedure best
combination curve is shown in Figure 34A2. If breaker oper-
iiEtrated by an example.
ating time is added to the instantaneous curve, it would move
upwards slightly.

75
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Circuit Breakers and Relays (Continued)

60 3600
50 3000

40 2400

. 30 1800

20 1200
CO-S RELAY
800:5CT
TAP5
TL 1.5
10 600

8 480

6 360
5 300
4
'\ \ I I I
240

3 180

2 ' ~ 120

\
'\ 60

~ .8
' 48 ....,
['-.
z
~
8
~
.6
.5
' ~
36
30 z
~ .4
24 g
~
i= .3 ' ' I" r
~

.2 ~-- ._."'-
12

0.1 6.0

.08 4.8

.06 3.6
.05 3.0

.04 2.4

.03 1.8

.02 1.2

8 888 8§
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 33A2.
Time characteristics of C0-8 relay using the 1.5 time-lever setting.

76
 A2

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400

30 1800

20 CO-S RELAY 1200

800:5CT
TAP5
TL 1.5
(IT 12
10 600
8 480

6 360
5 300
4 \ 240 .
_1_

3 \ 180

2
' ~ 120

\
~ 60

~ .8
' 1'- 48
:::j
z
~-
8
:.:
.6
.5
' !\ 36
30 z
~ .4 24 ~
~
~ .3 ' ~
f"
18 (/)

"~~~~~-..
~:X:
.2 12 m
-~
-- .............
~
§
0.1 6.0
.08 4.8.

.06 3.6
.05 3.0
-
.04
"" "" i"'lll
2.4

.03 1.8

' "- ,, 1.2

8 8 88 8 § '~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

::;gure 34A2.
nstantaneous trip characteristic combined with time characteristic from Figure 32A2.

77
A. Overcurrent Protection
2. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Circuit Breakers and Relays (Continued)

Reset Microprocessor Based Relay

One final characteristic of the time-overcurrent relay is identified
as reset. Reset is the state of the relay when all response to
decrease of input has been completed. That is, the induction
disk has returned to its unactuated or "home" position. Disk
reset time for various electromechanical relays is available
from the manufacturers and is very important when coordinating
with reclosing relays. For the example, given, reset time is
eight seconds.
With the advent of the macroprocessor based relay, the
relay can perform a single function such as the relay shown
in Figure 35A2 or multiple functions like the relay shown in
Figure 36A2. Microprocessor based relays provide more
functionality, easier get up and require less service than
electromechanical relays.

RECLOSING RELAY
The reclosing relay's only function is to begin counting the
instant the circuit breaker (in response to the over-current
relay) opens and to send a "close" signal back to the breaker
at prescribed times. There are generally two types of reclos-
ing relays: synchronous-motor timed and electronically
timed.

455
Figure 36A2.
Edison® Relay.
Figure 35A2.
Diagram of relay reclose settings of 2, 15, and 45 seconds.

With the synchronous motor type, reclose is accomplished by

cam-initiated switching, and timing is begun after the first trip
operation. Reset usually occurs ten seconds after a successful
reclose, or it can be delayed to the final reclose. For example,
a typical reclose setting of 2, 15, 45 would appear as shown
in Figure 35A2.
The reclosing relay, therefore, does not time the interval
between fault clearing and the successive reclose. Rather, it
sets up an entire sequence based on the moment of fault
clearing.
Apply the above reclose setting to the example under
"Overcurrent Relay," keeping in mind that the overcurrent
relay disk requires eight seconds to reset.
Upon the occurrence of a short circuit, the overcurrent
relay will sense the high-magnitude current pick-up,
time out to trip, and direct the circuit breaker to open. Figure 37 A2.
Edison® ldea•M Relay.
At this instant, the disk begins to reset and the reclosing
relay begins counting. After two seconds, the reclose relay
signals the circuit to close. If the fault persists, the overcurrent
relay will again begin timing, but a reclose interval of two sec-
onds allows the disk to reset only 2/8 or 25 percent of the
required time. Thus, when the second fault-timing sequence
occurs, the disk will need to travel only 25 percent of the dis-
tance to trip. Trip time will be four times faster and may
impede coordination.

78
 A2

Index of Figures and Tables

R GURE Fusing Equipment Page
1A2 Fuse-link construction, single and dual element .. .... . . ......... .. . . ..... ... . ... ...... .... . .... .. . . .52
2A2 Typical time-current curves for 10K link ............................................................53
3A2 Comparison of various fuse-link time-current characteristics ... . ........... .. .......... ... .......... .. .. 54
4-A2 Distribution-type fuse cutouts .. . ........... . ............ .. .......... .. ...................... .. ... 55
5A2 Loadbreak fuse cutout . ...... .. ............ . ...................................................55
6A2 Current-limiting fuses . .. ..... . ........................ . ...... . ................ . .......... .. .... 55
7A2 Basic components of Cooper NX current-limiting fuse .... ............. ........ . . . .... . . .. . . .... .. .. ...56
BA2 Low-current operation of Cooper NX current-limiting fuse ..... . ... . ....... .. .......... . ................57
9A2 Maximum let-through current for NX current-limiting fuses - 4.3 and 5.5 kV .. ... ..........................57
l 10A2 Maximum let-through current for NX current-limiting fuses- 8.3, 15.5 and 23 kV ...........................58
11A2 Maximum peak-arc voltage for current-limiting fuses as related to available current ........ . . .... ..... ... ... 58
l 2A2 Maximum peak-arc voltage for current-limiting fuses as related to circuit voltage . ...................... . .... 59
l.3A2 X/R derating factors for fuse cutouts ..... . ........ . .. . ... . ........... . ....... . .... . .. . . ........ ... 60
1-4A2 Preload derating factors for fuse links ........ . . .. ....... .. ... . . .. .... ..... . . .... . . . ............. .. 60
l.5A2 Ambient temperature derating factors for fuse links ...................................................61
•6A2 Ambient temperature derating factors for NX current-limiting fuse applications .............................61
Automatic Circuit Reclosers
17A2 Pole-top installation of single-phase reclosers ... .. ........ .... . ...... .. . . ... ......... .. ........ .. ... 63
"'l8A2 Single-phase recloser ...... .... ..... ... .. . . ...... .. .... ..... . ... .... . ..... . ........ . .... . ... . .. 63
"'9A2 Kyle Type NOVA-TS Triple-Single Recloser ......... . ................... . ....... .. ..... ... .. .. .. . ... 63
2!lA2 Three-phase recloser ............... . ............................................. ... .... .. .... 64
Z1A2 Three-phase hydraulically controlled recloser .. ... .......... .. ........... . ...... . ... .. ........ ... ... 64
Z2A2. Block diagram of electronic recloser control .... .... ........ . ........................................65
Z3A2 Electronic recloser controls utilizing microprocessor-based logic ...... .. ............... . ............ .. .. 66
2'CA2 Typical recloser operating sequence to lockout ..... . .... .. . . ...... .. . ..... ... . ......................67
Sectionalizers
:!5A.2 Typical electronically controlled sectionalizer ............... .... ...................... . .......... . ... 68
Circuit Breakers and Relays
25A2 Kyle Type VSA20B air-insulated, electronically-controlled vacuum circuit breaker ..... .. ................. .. .. 70
'llA2. Interrupting capability factors for reclosing service ... ... . .... . ....... .. .... .. .... ... ...... ...... ..... 72
2BA2 Multiplying factors for three-phase and line-to-ground faults fed predominantly through two or more
transformations .. ....... ... ..... .. ................ .. ........ . ... .... ...... .. .......... . ..... 73
.2iA3 Typical time-overcurrent relay . ... ........... .. ................................... . ......... .... .. 73
JDA2 Time-current characteristics of a typical overcurrent relay on the same tap ..... . ..........................74
31 A2. Relationship of various families of overcurrent relay curves ............... . ............................75
J2A2 Typical instantaneous trip characteristic .... ..... .... ... .. ... ......... ... .......... . ............ . ... 75
:3SA2. Time characteristics of C0-8 relay using the 1.5 time-lever setting .................... . ......... . . . ......76
:MA2 Instantaneous trip characteristic combined with time characteristic from Figure 32A2 ......... .. ............. 77
J5A2 Diagram of relay reclose settings of 2, 15 and 45 seconds .............................. ... .......... .. 78
:ISA2 Edison Relay ................ ... ...................... .. .......... .. ........... . ............ . .78
'UA2. Edison Idea Relay ............ . ........................ .. ... .... .... .. ....... .. . . .... . ... . .. . .. 78
'"'ABLE Fusing Equipment Page
1A2 Standard fuse-link ratings ....................... ... .... .. ..................... .... ........... . .. 53
2A2 Available ratings for distribution cutouts (expulsion-type) .................. .. .... .. ................... .. 53
3A2 Typical open-type cutout applications .......... .. .......... .. ....................... . .............. 59
4A2 Interrupting ratings for open cutout with 100 ampere fuse holder . .. .......... . ............. .. ........... 60
5A2 Recommended current-limiting fuse voltage ratings .. . ....... . .......... . ........... ... .... . ...... .. .61
Automatic Circuit Reclosers
~ Summary of Cooper reclosers . .. ........ ..... ............................ .. ....... . .......... ... 62
Sectionalizers
~A2. Typical sectionalizer ratings ..... ... ...... ...... .................... .... .......... ........... . ... 69
Circuit Breakers and Relays
iA2 Preferred ratings for outdoor oil circuit breakers . .. .. ... ..... . ............... .. ........ ....... •• ___ ••71
80

3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
An Introduction
;).ercurrent protection encompasses two overlapping areas
concern: protection of specific feeder sections or apparatus,
and protection of the overall feeder or distribution system. It
s principally the latter that is involved in the "coordination" of
~ive equipment, but even protection designed primarily
iJr a single transformer or other apparatus might require the
:::o::lfdination of two or more devices to assure the desired
·esponses to different types of faults and to avoid potential
ll&nger to adjacent equipment and lines.
The application and coordination of overcurrent protection
iQ.ipment obviously will have considerable effect on continuity
r:l service, which ideally means limiting any fault-induced
Table of Contents, Page 3
Index of Figures and Tables, Page 150
Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
service interruption to the fewest possible customers and the
shortest possible time. Weighed against this ideal are cost
considerations, discussed in general terms in the preceding
section (A2).
Throughout the application and coordination recommenda-
tions that follow, consideration is given to the need for an
overcurrent protection philosophy, both in regards to specific
equipment areas and for the overall distribution system.
Readers not already working with an established protection
philosophy may find it helpful, if questions arise, to review the
appropriate discussions in Section A2 on equipment charac-
teristics and application factors.
81
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

Coordination Basics
Before the application of overcurrent protective devices can
be discussed in detail, the fundamentals for coordinating
devices installed in series must be established. Some of what
follows will sound familiar, as it is partly a review of principles
stated previously, in Section A 1.
First, those series devices whose zones of protection overlap
must be coordinated so that the device nearest the fault (the
"protecting" device) will operate before the upline device next
closest to the fault (the "protected" or "backup" device) can
function. The relative locations of "protecting" and "protected"
devices in a simple over-current protection scheme are
shown in Figure 1A3.
Protective devices are located at the coordinating points.
Device A is at the substation, C and H are in the feeder, B is in
the branch tap off the feeder, D is on the distribution trans-
former primary, and E, F, and G are service entrance fuses
on the distribution transformer secondary. All devices must
be selected to carry normal load current and respond prop-
erly to a fault, as follows:
• With respect to C, the protecting device is H, which means
that, for a fault at point 1 , device H must interrupt and C
must not open.
• With respect to A, the protecting device is C, which must
interrupt permanent fault current at point 2 before A operates
to lockout.
• Device B also is a protecting device for A and must operate

---1
SUBST~TION A PROTECTING similarly to C for a fault at point 3.
DEVICE • Only device A functions for a fault between A and C, such
~
as at point 4.
> PR;ECTED • For a transformer fault at point 5, device D interrupts current
OR BACKUP and permits normal load current to flow in the rest of the
DEVICE
C ) PROTECTING system.
DEVICE • For an overload on the transformer secondary at point 6,
device E interrupts that circuit only, so that power to the
transformer may be continued and customers on the other
Figure 1A3. secondary taps will receive service.
Conventional definition of protective devices based on
location. Fuse links are indicated for illustration.

Such coordination of properly selected and installed

devices will make possible the achievement of these basic
rules of distribution protection:
1. Give all faults a chance to be temporary, for most of them
are - perhaps as high as 70 to 80 percent.
2. Lock out (interrupt power) only for permanent faults.
3. Remove only the smallest possible portion of the line from
service.
In a typical, more complex protection scheme than that
shown in Figure 1A3, some devices serve both protecting
and protected roles, depending on the location of specific
faults. Also, devices with automatic reclosing capability, such
as circuit reclosers, are provided at appropriate points to permit
momentary interruptions in response to temporary faults. DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERrv~~

EXAMPLE OF SYSTEM COORDINATION

Figure 2A3 diagrams overcurrent coordination for a system in
which a substation receives power from a high-voltage
transmission line and steps the voltage down to 7.2/12.47 kV.
Power to the customer is delivered by 7200 - 120/240-volt
transformers.
LOAD LOAD LOAD

Figure 2A3.
Typical example of system coordination.

82
 A3

Fuse-Fuse Coordination
The first step in establishing a fuse-fuse coordination philosophy
is strict adherence to the just-described fundamentals for
ax>rdinating series protective devices. All faults should be
given a chance to be temporary, lockout should occur only for
permanent faults, and when lockout does occur, only the
smallest possible portion of the line should be removed.
For series-coordinated devices, the trip zones of protection
owertap. An accepted rule for coordinating fuse links is that
!he maximum clearing time of the protecting link should not
aceed 75 percent of the minimum melting time of the pro-
tected link. This assures that the protecting link will interrupt
n clear the fault before the protected link is damaged in any-
way, as further explained below.
Three methods that may be used in coordinating fuses are
1he application of time-current curves (TCCs), the use of
the feeder.
Even more difficult to quantify are the effects of predamage
- the degree to which fuse clearing characteristics may be
affected when currents approach the minimum melt of the
time-current characteristic. To avoid the effects of predamage,
in no case should the protected link be allowed to experience
a current within 90 percent of its minimum-melt curve.
Example of fuse-link coordination based on TCC comparisons:
Figure 3A3 shows a typical study for part of a system with
feeder fuse A and branch-line fuses B and C. Known maximum
available fault current in symmetrical amperes and normal
load current are shown at each coordination point. Type T tin
links will be used in all protective devices.

____3~:---------~---0--+-J~'OJS_A_~_P_E_R-ES---r--~
mordination tables, and rules of thumb. The TCC method,
fhe most accurate, must be used for critical coordination
areas. Tables, which are derived from TCC coordination, are
ll!latively accurate and can be used in repetitive situations. jr sar ~L
~=~des of thumb, the least accurate, will achieve satisfactory SUBSTATION A ~~~
toofdination in limited applications where fuses are used all
il one series, in either preferred or nonpreferred ratings.
36AMPERES' @
TCC COORDINATION METHOD 21 AMPERES
....,__ ,....15T
ID most cases, the entire system coordination is based on
TCCs for one particular fuse type (K, T, N, etc.) throughout
!he system. If so, coordination is somewhat simplified. Figure 3A3.
In applying fuse links as the protective devices in Figure Diagram for study of TCC fuse coordination method.
1A3, coordination should assure that the source-side protect-
ed ink (A) is not damaged when a fault occurs in the zone of
eiher load-side protecting link (B or C). Factors to consider in
a:complishing this are: Figure 4A3 shows maximum clearing-time and minimum
1. Tolerances. melting-time curves for possible links to be used at points A,
2.. Ambient temperature. B or C on the system. The 15T link, rated 23 amperes
1 Preloading effects. continuous, will meet the 21 ampere load current and provide
4. Predamage effects. a maximum clearing time of 0.021 second for 1550 amperes
at point C. Minimum melting time is not a critical factor if no
In practice, rather than going through a detailed analysis of other devices need be coordinated with the last fuse link on
~lEse factors (they are discussed below), a derating factor of the branch.
75 percent can be used. This will achieve the desired coordi-
'111fion (and prevent damage to the protected link) by assuring
'hal the maximum clearing time of the protecting link is no
peater than 75 percent of the minimum melting time of the
praected link. .16
-\
15T 25T 30T

'~"
\
BOT
...............
~\
2

15
As previously stated, the tolerance in time-current
c:haracteristics is automatically taken into account in standard
TCCs. Simply overlaying the curves and comparing maximum
\\ 1\ -,~,,

' ...
'\.
j\ ',
'\. 08
\. \. 07
dearing of protecting links to minimum melt of protected links !\. 1\ '~ \. \.
,_. account for tolerance. ll 1\ ~
oorg
Published TCCs are based on a 25° C ambient temperature.
~r temperatures will reduce the melt time and lower
.05 1

\
r-.. \.. \. I\ \.
~ '~ 1'\. \ \
' 05
04hl
z
0

.-Dent temperatures will increase it, as was shown earlier

· FIQUre 15A2, Section A2. While this is difficult to evaluate
ill view of yearly and daily variations in temperature, a range
.03 11--

.02 11-,-
~

- - ,.... "~ """"\ ·,

',\ 1\. ~
\
'
03 w
!Q.
::;
i=

can be developed based on maximum and minimum yearly .016 '- · - - r- 1\1-- ·, '· \
~\ \
02

015

1\ If\ \ ·" ' r\

~ratures .
I
Preloading effects -the degree to which the flow of current
lwough a fuse link will raise the temperature and thereby
'li!!OJce melting time - are not taken into account in developing
TCC curves. Using Figure 14A2, Section A2, the effect of
~ ~ ~ § ~~~ ~
CURRENT (AMPERES)
~~ ~ J ~ ~ ~~! f1
p:eloading can be determined for tin and silver links. As with Figure 4A3.
antlient temperature variations, this is a difficult characteris- TCCs for coordinating fuse links in Figure 3A3 example.
ic to evaluate, since preloading can vary over the life cycle of

83
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Fuse-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

A link must now be found to carry 36 amperes continuous
current, interrupt 1630 amperes at point B, and coordinate
with the 15T link. The 20T link is unsatisfactory, because it
can carry only 30 amperes continuously. The next choice, the
25T link, carries 3B amperes continuously. Minimum melting
time of the 25T link at 1550 amperes is 0.016 second.
Because the 25T link melts before the 15T link clears, this
combination is undesirable for coordination. Minimum melting
time of the 30T link at 1550 amperes is 0.031 second. The
maximum clearing time/minimum melting time ratio for the
30T and 15T combination is 0.021/0.031, or 6B percent. This
is satisfactory, as the ratio for desirable coordination should
not exceed 75 percent.
An BOT link will satisfactorily interrupt 1BOO amperes at
point A, carry 105 amperes continuously, and coordinate with
the 30T link at point B. The CT/MT ratio for the BOT-30T com-
bination is 0.051/0.16, or 32 percent.
The results of this study are shown in Table 1A3.
USE OF COORDINATION TABLES
When, as in many situations, the choice of fuse-link coordination
is a repetitive process, overlaying TCCs lends itself nicely to
a tabular representation. If a suitable multiplying factor is chosen
as representative of the system and the fault current can
be determined over a range for which two fuse links will
coordinate, tables can be developed and used. For ANSI
standard links, this is relatively straightforward, since the
links do not vary from one manufacturer to another.
Examples of this are shown in Tables 2A3 through 6A3,
which employ the 75 percent ratio in indicating the maximum
fault-current values at which various types of fuse links will
coordinate. Additional coordination tables are available from
your Cooper Power Systems representative.
The example cited under "TCC Coordination Method" can
also be solved by using coordination tables. Again, select the
15T link as the protecting device at location C in Figure 3A3,
based on load-current considerations; protected links at B
and A can be chosen by referring to Table 3A3. First, locate
15T in the "Protecting Fuse Link Rating" column at the left,
and then follow horizontally to the right to the "Maximum Fault
Current" entry that is greater than the 1550 amperes available
at location C. That value, 1700 amperes, corresponds to a
protected link rating of 30T at location B, and since the 30T
link can carry 36 amperes continuously, it is an appropriate
choice.
When the procedure is repeated with 30T as a protecting
link at location B, Table 3A3 indicates that a fuse-link rating of
65T at location A will coordinate with the 30T link up to a fault
current of 3100 amperes and satisfy the fault-current range.
However, the load current at A is 105 amperes and, since the
65T link can carry only 97 amperes continuously, it will not
satisfy the continuous current rating. The next larger size link,
BOT, is therefore checked and found to be appropriate.
As can be seen, use of the coordination tables makes fuse-
fuse coordination relatively easy to accomplish while satisfying
the 75 percent criterion.

TABLE 1A3
Study Results, Coordination of 25T - 15T Fuse-Link Coordination
Protected Link Protecting Link
Location of Protected Protecting Maximum Load Maximum Minimum Percent
Protected Link* Link Link Current Fault Current Clearing Time Melting Time CTIMT
c 15T - - 21 - - -
1550 .021 .0165 128
B** 25T 15T 36 (.021/.0165)
B 30T 15T 1550 36 .021 .031 68
(.021/.031)
A SOT 30T 1630 105 .051 .160 32
(.0511/.160)
• See F1gure 1A3
•• No Coordination for 25T-15T combination.

TABLE 2A3
EEI-NEMA Type K Fuse Links
Protecting Protected Link Rating - Amperes
Fuse-Link 8K 10K 12K 15K 20K 25K 30K 40K 50K 65K 80K 100K 140K 200K
Rating-
Amperes Maximum Fault-Current Protection Provided by Protecting Link - Amperes
6K 190 350 510 650 840 1060 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
SK 210 440 650 840 1060 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
10K 300 540 840 1060 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
12K 320 710 1060 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
15K 430 870 1340 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
20K 500 1100 1700 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
25K 660 1350 2200 2800 3900 5800 9200
30K 850 1700 2800 3900 5800 9200
40K 1100 2200 3900 5800 9200
50K 1450 3500 5800 9200
65K 2400 5800 9200
SOK 4500 9200
100K 2400 9100
140K 4000
ThiS table shows max1mum values of fault currents at which EEI-NEMA Type K fuse links w1ll coordinate w1th each other. The table IS based on max1mum clear-
ing-time curves FL2B for protecting links and 75 percent of minimum melting-time curves FL 1 B for protected links.

B4

RULES OF THUMB
Simple rules of thumb have been formulated for coordinating
EEI-NEMA fuse links of the same type and category - for
example, using preferred T links with preferred T, or nonpreferred
K links with nonpreferred K.
K links can be satisfactorily coordinated between adjacent
ratings in the same series up to current values of 15 times the
rating of the protecting link. T links can be satisfactorily coor-
dinated between adjacent ratings up to a current value of 24
A3
times the rating of the protecting link. Such applications ~
vide a safety factor of 75 percent or more.
Preferred T ratings are 6, 10, 15, 25, 40, 65, 100, 140, 200;
nonpreferred T ratings are 8, 12, 20, 30, 50, 80. As in lhe
example in the preceding section, a 15T link will coordinate
with a 25T link up to 24 times 15, or 375 amperes The rules
of thumb cannot be extended further, and thus are limited in
application.

TABLE 3A3
EEI-NEMA Type T Fuse Links

Protecting Protected Link Rating - Amperes

Fuse-Link 8T 10T 12T 1ST 20T 2ST 30T 40T SOT SST SOT 100T 140T 200T
Rating-
Amperes Maximum Fault-Current Protection Provided by Protecting Link - Amperes
6T 350 680 920 1200 1500 2000 2540 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
8T 375 800 1200 1500 2000 2540 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
10T 530 1100 1500 2000 2540 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
12T 680 1280 2000 2540 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
15T 730 1700 2500 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
20T 990 2100 3200 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
25T 1400 2600 4100 5000 6100 9700 15200
30T 1500 3100 5000 6100 9700 15200
40T 1700 3800 6100 9700 15200
SOT 1750 4400 9700 15200
65T 2200 9700 15200
BOT 7200 15200
100T 4000 13800
140T 7500
"'S table shows max1mum values of fault currents at wh1ch EEI-NEMA Type T fuse links Will coordinate w1th each other. The table 1s based on maximum cleanng-
11ne curves FL4B for protecting links and 75 percent of minimum melting-time curves FL3B for protected links,

t ABLE 4A3
Type K Fuse Links
Protecting Protected Link Rating - Amperes
Fuse-Link 8K 10K 12K 15K 20K 25K 30K 40K 50K 6SK 80K 100K 140K 200K
Rating-
Amperes Maximum Fault-current Protection Provided by Protecting Link - Amperes
5K 22 150 280 400 490 640 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
8K 175 350 490 640 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
10K 200 370 640 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
15K 200 450 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
20K 175 1250 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
25K 900 1450 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
30K 1300 2000 2650 3500 4950 8900 10000
40K 1300 2500 3500 4950 8900 10000
50K 1700 3200 4950 8900 10000
60K 2000 4950 8900 10000
75K 3700 8900 10000
85K 8900 10000
100K 6000 10000
150K 3000
"11115 1atlle shows max1mum value of fault currents at which Type N fuse links Will coordinate with each other. The table is based on maximum clearing-time curves
IR..iB br protecti ng links and on 75 percent of minimum melting-time curve FL7B for protected links.

85
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Fuse-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

TABLE 5A3
Type K Fuse Link Coordination
Protecting
(D) 20 25 30 40 50 65 80 100 140 200
1 500 750 1000 1300 1700 2200 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
1.5 500 750 1000 1300 1700 2200 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
2 325 670 900 1250 1650 2200 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
3 325 670 900 1250 1650 2200 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
4 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
5 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
7 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
10 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
15 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
20 620 1050 1500 2100 2BOO 4000 6000 9500
Max1mum fault current to wh1ch protected and protecting fuse Will cooradmate

TABLE 6A3
Type T Fuse Link Coordination
Protecting
(D) 12 15 20 25 30 40 50 65 80 100 140 200
1 5BO BOO 1150 1400 2000 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
1.5 5BO BOO 1150 1400 2000 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
2 730 1050 1400 1900 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
3 730 1050 1400 1900 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
4 BOO 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
5 BOO 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
7 BOO 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
10 BOO 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
15 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
20 1200 1BOO 2500 3200 4200 5100 6400 15000 3000
Max1mum fault current to wh1ch protected and protecting fuse w111 cooradmate

TABLE 7A3
EEI-NEMA Type K Fuse Link Coordination
Protecting Protected Link rating - Amperes
Fuse Link
Rating- A 8 10 12 15 20 25 30 40 50 65 80 100 140 200
6K 190 350 510 650 840 1060 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
BK 210 440 650 B40 1060 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
10K 300 540 710 1060 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
12K 320 430 1050 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
15K B70 1340 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
20K 500 1100 1700 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
25K 660 1350 2200 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
30K B50 1700 2BOO 3900 5BOO 9200
40K 1100 2200 3900 5BOO 9200
50K 1450 3500 5BOO 9200
65K 2400 5BOO 9200
BOK 4500 9200
100K 2000 9100
140K 4000
ThiS table shows max1mum values of fault currents at which EEI-NEMA type K fuse links Will coordinate With each other. The table IS based on max1mum-cleanng
time curves FL2B for protecting links and 75 percent of minimum-melting time curves FL1B for protected links.

86
 A3

Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination

""""-ee are several varieties of coordination situations involving
current-limiting fuses. These include coordination of a source-
Side current-limiting fuse with a load-side expulsion fuse, a
lmad-side current-limiting fuse with a source-side expulsion
flEe, a current-limiting fuse with another current-limiting fuse,
and a backup current-limiting fuse with an expulsion fuse.
SOURCE-SIDE CURRENT-LIMITING FUSE AND
LOAD-SIDE EXPULSION FUSE
As with fuse links, it is essential that the protecting fuse operate
I::IEfore the protected fuse begins to melt. An expulsion fuse
nenupts at a current zero. Therefore, 0.8 cycles is considered
!he minimum interrupting time and the range of coordination
uil be limited as a result. A factor of 75 percent can again be
wsed as a nominal number to take into account the various
eilects-remembering, of course, that specific knowledge of
the system will allow modification of this factor.
Example of source-side current-limiting fuse and loa«Hiide
expulsion fuse coordination: Figure 5A3 shows the maxinun
coordination point for a 65 NX fuse and a 25K link using a
0. 75 factor. The value is 1250 amperes.
LOAD-SIDE CURRENT-LIMITING FUSE AND
SOURCE-SIDE EXPULSION FUSE
The coordination of a load-side current-limiting fuse with a
source-side expulsion fuse can be made simply by overlaying
the TCC as in expulsion-fuse coordination. Again, a factor of
75 percent should be used to assure proper coordination.
The zero-forcing properties and very inverse characteristic of
the current-limiting fuse maximum clearing-time curve allow
coordination through any level of fault current.

60 3600
50 I \
3000
40 2400
30 1800
1\
20
\ .. ,. 7.2/12.47 KV
1200

10
~t ""l\.,
65C
v
25K
~
- 600
8 480
6 360
5 300
4 240
65C
3 MINIMUM 180
\
MELT
_\ 25K 120
2
\ MAXIMUM
CLEAR

rJ)
1\\ 60~
(j)

0 .8 48 ID
z \. N
0 .6
(..)
\ 36 ~
w 30w
rJ) .5 :I:
~ .4 24 ~
w .3 18 rJ)
:::!; w
\ \
~ ..J
.2
' ~I' I\
12 >
(..)
(..)

~
~ ~I\
25K w
0.1 r-M INIMUM 6.0 ~
1-
.08 r- MELT 4.8
1'\.
.06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1\ 1.8
'\
~
.02 1.2
.75X65C ~
\1 ~
.01
MINIMUM MELT
I I I I II ~ l\
8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 5A3.
TCC for coordinating source-side current-limiting fuse and load-side expulsion fuse.

87
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination (Continued)

COORDINATING TWO CURRENT-LIMITING BACKUP CURRENT-LIMITING FUSE AND EXPUL·

FUSES SION FUSE
To coordinate two current-limiting fuses, the curve should be This protection method is often used, as it permits the majority
plotted beginning at 0.01 second. For current-limiting fuses, of faults (which tend to be low current) to be cleared by an
curves extend downward from that point to fractions of a inexpensive expulsion fuse. When major faults occur within
cycle. Because clearance will occur within these short times, the equipment being protected, the current-limiting fuse operates
two time references must be considered. to limit the available energy
Above 0.01 second, a current-limiting fuse in series with Since it is important that the expulsion fuse clears low-current
another can be coordinated by simply overlaying TCCs and faults without damage to the current-limiting fuse, the
using a 75 percent coordination factor. Below 0.01 second, crossover point is established at current levels higher than
coordination can be achieved through the use of minimum- the minimum interrupting rating of the current limiting fuse. It
melt and total-clear I2t values. A bar graph incorporating the also is important that the current-limiting fuse lets through
75 percent ratio is available for this (Figure 6A3). enough energy after it operates to cause the expulsion fuse
When coordinating two current-limiting fuses in series, the to blow, thus providing a visible indication of the fault and a
maximum let-through J2t of the protecting or load-side fuse sharing of the post-impressed fault voltage by both fuses.
must not exceed the minimum-melt I2t of the protected or Overlaying the fuse characteristics will produce a point
source-side fuse. That is, the load-side fuse will limit the where the maximum-clearing curve of the expulsion fuse
let-through energy to a magnitude that is less than would be crosses the minimum-melt curve of the current-limiting fuse.
required to melt the source-side fuse. Higher currents will result in simultaneous operation.
Example: What is the smallest source-side 8.3 kV NX fuse Table 8A3 gives typical coordination information for Cooper
that will coordinate with a 25 ampere load-side NX fuse? The Power Systems backup current-limiting fuses and fuse links.
bar graph (Figure 6A3) shows that the maximum let-through Such tables are available also from other manufacturers.
of the 25 ampere NX fuse is 2.4 x 104J2t. The smallest
source-side fuse whose minimum-melt J2t exceeds this value TABLE 8A3
is the 65 ampere fuse, with a minimum-melt I2t of 2.65 x 104. Coordination of Backup Current-Limiting Fuse and
Fuse Link
Examining coordination above 0.01 second is not required
because coordinating margins are built into the published Companion* Coordinates with Fuse Links up Through (Amperes)
numbers. Coordination is conservative and will produce a Fuse Rating NEMA NEMA Cooper Kearney
coordinated system up to any fault-current level. If the fault (Amperes) TypeK TypeT TypeD Type X
current available is limited, coordination can be undertaken 12 12 8 1.5 2.5
by the use of J2t versus I curves. 25 25 15 20 10
40 40 20 20 15
*Cooper Power Systems trade name.

88
 A3

2 I
I I I
I I I I I
FOR8.3-KV
C-RATED NX FUSES
108 X 1
8
6

4 t-
1--
1--

2 t--

105 X 1 t- t- t--
t--
8 I= I=
t- t-
r-
t--
6 t- t- t--
t- t- r-
4 t- t- t--
t- t- r-
2 t- r-

104 X 1
~ f.= I= I= f.= I=
? 8 t- t-- t- t-- t-- r-
~
~

6
t- t-- t- t- r-
u I'- t- t- t- t--
w t- t- t- t- t--
en
>< 4 t- t- t- t- t--
a.. ~
::!: t- t- t- t- t--
<
2 t-- t-- t- t- t- t-- r-

103 X 1
8
f.= f.=
t-
I= - ~-
f.= r- r- I=
~
I=
t--
6
t- -
t-- -
t-
t-
-- -- t-
t-
t-
t-
,.--
t-
t--
t--
- - t- - - t- t- t- t--
4 - - t-- - - r- t-- t- t--
- - t- - - t- t- t- t--

2 -MAX.
TOTAL
t- - ,.-- - - t- t- '- t--

- - - r=
102 X 1
8 =
- - -== f::t-
t-
=
- --=
-
I=
r-
t-
I=
t-
f::
t- t-
t-
t--
t--
6 - '- r- - ~
r- r- r- t--
f- t-- - t-- t-- t- - r- r- r-. t--
4 t- t- - t- t- - :- r-
t- - - -
t- t- t-
- . t- t-
"
t-. t--

2 f- f- - t- t- - - t- t- t- t--
MIN.
MELT

10x 1 ~.
1.5 3
.......
4.5 6
'--
8
'-
10
'--
12 18
'--
20
'-
25 30
'-
40 --
50 60 65 80
'- '--
90 100 130 160 200
'-- ....._

Figure 6A3.
Bar graph for coordination of current-limiting fuses.

89
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Transformer Fusing
A total overcurrent protection scheme for transformers must
accomplish these things:
1. Protect the system from transformer faults.
2. Protect the transformer from severe overloads.
3. Remove the transformer from the system as quickly as
possible and limit the energy available to it.
4. Withstand harmless short-time overloads.
5. Withstand inrush and cold-load pickup.
6. Resist damage from lightning surges.
The devices available for transformer overcurrent protection
include fuses, circuit switchers, reclosers, fault interrupters,
and circuit breakers. Normally, the choice is likely to be the least
expensive device or combination that will provide appropriate
protection in recognizing the type of load-and in most appli-
cations that choice will involve fusing. For a more complete
understanding of the overall subject of transformer protection,
it is recommended that the following discussion of transformer
fusing be read in conjunction with later sections on recloser-fuse
link coordination and relay-fuse link coordination.
DEVELOPING A TRANSFORMER
FUSING PHILOSOPHY
The first step in protecting transformers with fuses is to develop
a fusing philosophy. In general, a fusing ratio can be calculated
by dividing the fuse minimum-melt current by the transformer
full-load current. If a high ratio is used, it protects the system
from a damaged transformer but provides limited overload
protection. A low fusing ratio provides maximum overload
protection, but the fuse is subject to damage by inrush and
surge currents.
Tradeoffs to be considered in developing a fusing philosophy
include service continuity, transformer failures due to over-
loading, coordinating transformer fuses with sectionalizing
devices, effects of inrush and cold-load pickup, etc.
If the transformer characteristics are known, the fuse can
be coordinated simply by making sure the time characteristic
falls within the confines of the transformer inrush curve and the
transformer damage curve. A development of these curves is
defined by standards but may not always be available.
Therefore, the fuse may have to be selected by considering
the various factors.
90
Inrush currents are the transient currents that occur when
a transformer is energized. They are greatly dependent on
the residual flux in the core at the point on the voltage wave
when closing occurs. To withstand inrush currents, a fuse
should typically be able to withstand 25 times the full-load
current for 0.01 second, and 12 times the full-load current for
0.1 second.
Cold-load pickup occurs when re-energizing after an outage.
It can vary, depending on the system, and the fuse curve
selected should be slower than the inrush curve, if known.
Lightning discharge voltages can saturate the core of the
transformer, producing inrush currents. Field experience is
the best guide, as the analysis is quite complex. In general, if
lightning damage is a problem, larger fuse sizes are best
used.
TYPES OF FUSES FOR TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION
There are numerous types of fusing possibilities for distribution
transformers, beginning with an internal (inside the trans-
former) weak link.This provides low-cost installation but has
limited interrupting capacity. It is not field replaceable and
must often be used with a secondary breaker or Cooper
MagneX® Interrupter.
An external expulsion cutout, the next option, also is relatively
economical and has the advantage of being easily re-fused.
It will not, however, provide current-limiting protection against
catastrophic transformer failure.
A current-limiting fuse in the bushing or externally mounted
is the most expensive option, and the fuse must be replaced
after all faults. This fuse, however, does the whole job with no
danger of miscoordination or replacement of incorrect links,
and it provides protection against transformer catastrophic
failure.
Combining a current-limiting fuse with an expulsion fuse
has a higher initial installation cost, but since only the expulsion
fuse needs to be replaced as a result of low-current faults, it
is a more desirable option.
These options are available in various configurations for
both overhead and underground applications. Figures 7A3,
8A3 and 9A3 show typical TCC examples for a specific
transformer rating, and Tables 9A3 through 12A3 provide fusing
guides for proper transformer protection. Table 13A3 compares
the ratings and characteristics of applicable expulsion fuses
and current-limiting fuses.
 A3

60 3600
50
I l I II II I I 3000
40 2400
30 TRANSFORMER 1800
F0 DAMAGE
20
1\
i\ " .~
~ CURVE 1200

~
10 600
8 480
6
5
4
'\
360
300
240
1. .

~ 180
3 : TRANSFORMER
INRUSH CURVE ,...!!!!"
2 I-
l\ 120

en
~ 60 Ci5
<
c;;
0 .8 48 Ill
z N
0 .6 36\i:
(,)
w 30 ~
en .5
~ .4 24 ~
w .3 18 en
::E w
i= _J

.2 12 ~
z
~
w
0.1 6.0 ~
1-
.08 4.8
\ 3.6
.06
1 3.0
.05
.04 2.4
.03

.02
'\
_1
1.8

1.2

.01 0.6
C1l a> CD c.> ~
8_..
(11
0 0 0
88888§ § §§§§§§ 0
§0 8 8
88
CURRENT IN AMPERES X 10'

Figure 7A3.
TCCs showing transformer inrush current and transformer damage current for a specific transformer size.

91
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Transformer Fusing (Continued)

60 3600

-
50 3000
40 2400
l 1800
30 \ TRANSFORMER
\ \ ,.
20
tt11 ' 1\

~
DAMAGE
CURVE

Ill
1200

m
10 600
8 480
6 360
5 sop
4 240.

I
'\.
3 TRANSFORMER,...
INRUSH CURVE "' 180

2
1\l\ ~ 120
\
(/) 1
\. \ 60
Ci)
~
0
z .8 48 :e
0
0 .6 ssb:

ift 30~
w .5
(/)

~ .4 24 g
w .3
::::E
i=
.2
1\

' l\~
\
...-- 8T

tt m
18

12
;n
w
..J
l20
z
0.1
1\\ 6.0 ~
w

.08 4.8
.08 1\ MIN. 3.6
\ \
.05
.04 ' MELT

MAX.
3.0
2.4
.03 '\ 1.8
(!LEAR

.02 \ 1\ 1.2
\. '\

\ 1\
8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES X 101

Figure 8A3.
TCCs showing characteristics of appropriate expulsion fuse for transformer protection.

92
 A3

8
6
5
4
3

(/) 1
Cl
z .8
0 .6
(..)
w .5 TRANSFORMER
(/) INRUSH CURVE
~ .4
w
:::E .3
i=
.2

0.1
.08
.06
.05
.04
.03

.02

.01 ~L.I-~1..1..--l...-"'--1--L...I-l..... 0.6

~ g: ~ 8 1\)

8 ~8888§ § ~§§§§~ ~ ~~~

CURRENT IN AMPERES X 101

=-igure 9A3.
"r'CCs showing characteristics of expulsion and current-limiting fuse combinations for transformer protection.

93
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Transformer Fusing {Continued)

TABLE 9A3
Suggested Primary Fusing for Distribution nansformers
Fuse Ratings Based on Use of Type "N" Fuse Links and High-Surge Type "H" Links
(Protection Between 200% and 300% of Rated Load)

Delta-Connected Primary Wye-Connected Primary

TWMTWm
Figure A Figure B Figure C FigureD Figure E Figure F

i
2400 Delta 2400/4160Y 4800 Delta 4800/8320Y
Figures A and B FigureC Figures D, E and F Figures A and B Figure C Figures D, E and F;
Transformer
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 1.25 2H 2.16 3H 1.25 2H .625 1H* 1.08 1H .625 1H*
5 2.08 3H 3.61 5H 2.08 3H 1.042 1H 1.805 3H 1.042 1H
10 4.17 8 7.22 15 4.17 8 2.083 3H 3.61 5H 2.083 3H
15 6.25 10 10.8 20 6.25 10 3.125 5H 5.42 8 3.125 5H
25 10.42 20 18.05 30 10.42 20 5.21 8 9.01 20 5.21 8
37.5 15.63 25 27.05 40 15.63 25 7.81 15 13.5 20 7.81 15
50 20.8 30 36.1 60 20.8 30 10.42 20 18.05 30 10.42 20
75 31.25 50 54.2 85 31.25 50 15.63 25 27.05 40 15.63 25
100 41.67 60 72.2 100 41.67 60 20.83 30 36.1 60 20.83 30
167 69.4 100 119.0 150 69.4 100 34.7 50 60.1 100 34.7 50
250 104.2 150 180.5 200 104.2 150 52.1 85 90.1 150 52.1 85
333 138.8 200 238.0 138.8 200 69.4 100 120.1 150 69.4 100
500 208.3 361.0 208.3 104.2 150 180.5 200 104.2 150

7200 Delta 7200112470Y 7620113200Y 12000 Delta

Figures A and B Figure C Figures D, E and F Figures D, E and F Figure A and B Figures C
Transformer
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 .416 1H* .722 1H* .416 1H* .394 1H* .250 1H* .432 1H*
5 .694 1H* 1.201 1H* .694 1H .656 1H* .417 1H* .722 1H*
10 1.389 2H 2.4 5H 1.389 2H 1.312 2H .833 1H* 1.44 2H
15 2.083 3H 3.61 5H 2.083 3H 1.97 3H 1.25 1H 2.16 3H
25 3.47 5H 5.94 10 3.47 5H 3.28 5H 2.083 3H 3.61 5H
37.5 5.21 8 9.01 20 5.21 8 4.92 8 3.125 5H 5.42 8
50 6.94 10 12.01 20 6.94 10 6.56 10 4.17 8 7.22 15
75 10.42 20 18.05 30 10.42 20 9.84 20 6.25 10 10.8 20
100 13.89 20 24.0 40 13.89 20 13.12 20 8.3 15 14.44 20
167 23.2 40 40.1 60 23.2 40 21.8 30 13.87 20 23.8 40
250 34.73 50 59.4 100 34.73 50 32.8 50 20.83 30 36.1 60
333 46.3 60 80.2 150 46.3 60 43.7 60 27.75 40 47.5 85
500 69.4 100 120.1 150 69.4 100 65.6 100 41.67 60 72.2 100

13 14400 Delta 14400124900Y

Transformer Figures A and B Figure C Figures A and B Figures C reD, E and F

Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 .227 1H* .394 1H* .208 1H* .361 1H* .208 1H*
5 .379 1H* .656 1H* .347 1H* .594 1H* .374 1H*
10 .757 1H* 1.312 2H .694 1H* 1.20 2H .694 1H*
15 1.14 1H 1.97 3H 1.04 1H 1.80 3H 1.04 1H
25 1.89 3H 3.28 5H 1.74 2H 3.0 5H 1.74 2H
37.5 2.84 5H 4.92 8 2.61 3H 4.52 8 2.61 3H
50 3.79 8 6.56 10 3.47 5H 5.94 10 3.47 5H
75 5.68 8 9.84 20 5.21 8 9.01 20 5.21 8
100 7.57 15 13.12 20 6.94 10 12.01 20 6.94 10
167 12.62 20 21.8 30 11.6 20 20.1 30 11.6 20
250 18.94 30 32.8 50 17.4 30 30.1 50 17.4 25
333 25.23 40 43.7 60 23.1 40 40.0 60 23.1 40
500 37.88 60 65.6 100 34.7 50 60.0 100 34.7 50
*Since this is the smallest link available and it does not protect lor 300% of load, secondary protection is desirable.

94
 A3
TABLE 10A3
Suggested Primary Fusing for Distribution Transformers
Fuse Ratings Based on Use of EEI-NEMA Type "K" or "T" Fuse Links and High-Surge Type "H" Links
(Protection Between 200% and 300% of Rated Load)

Delta-Connected Primary Wye-Connected Primary

Figure A Figure C Figure D Figure E Figure F

2400 Delta 2400/4160Y 4800 Delta 4800/8320Y

I Figures A and 8 Figure C Figures D, E and F Figures A and 8 Figure C Figures D, E and F
1
Transformer
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 1.25 2H 2.16 3H 1.25 2H .625 1H* 1.08 1H .625 1H*
5 2.08 3H 3.61 5H 2.08 3H 1.042 1H 1.805 3H 1.042 1H
10 4.17 6 7.22 10 4.17 6 2.083 3H 3.61 5H 2.083 3H
15 6.25 8 10.8 12 6.25 8 3.125 5H 5.42 6 3.125 5H
25 10.42 12 18.05 25 10.42 12 5.21 6 9.01 12 5.21 6
37.5 15.63 20 27.05 30 15.63 20 7.81 10 13.5 15 7.81 10
50 20.8 25 36.1 50 20.8 25 10.42 12 18.05 25 10.42 12
75 31.25 40 54.2 65 31.25 40 15.63 20 27.05 30 15.63 20
100 41.67 50 72.2 80 41.67 50 20.83 25 36.1 50 20.83 25
167 69.4 80 119.0 140 69.4 80 34.7 40 60.1 80 34.7 40
250 104.2 140 180.5 200 104.2 140 52.1 65 90.1 100 52.1 65
333 138.8 140 238.0 138.8 140 69.4 80 120.1 140 69.4 80
500 208.3 200 361.0 208.3 200 104.2 140 180.5 200 104.2 140

7200 Delta 7200/12470Y 7620/13200Y 12000 Delta

Figures A and 8 Figure C Figures D, E and F Figures D, E and F Figure A and 8 Figures C
Transformer
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 .416 1H* .722 1H* .416 1H* .394 1H* .250 1H* .432 1H*
5 .694 1H* 1.201 1H* .694 1H* .656 1H* .417 1H* .722 1H*
10 1.389 2H 2.4 5H 1.389 2H 1.312 2H .833 1H* 1.44 2H
15 2.083 3H 3.61 5H 2.083 3H 1.97 3H 1.25 1H 2.16 3H
25 3.47 5H 5.94 8 3.47 5H 3.28 5H 2.083 3H 3.61 5H
37.5 5.21 6 9.01 12 5.21 6 4.92 6 3.125 5H 5.42 6
50 6.94 8 12.01 15 6.94 8 6.56 8 4.17 6 7.22 10
75 10.42 12 18.05 25 10.42 12 9.84 12 6.25 8 10.8 12
100 13.89 15 24.0 30 13.89 15 13.12 15 8.33 10 14.44 15
167 23.2 30 40.1 50 23.2 30 21.8 25 13.87 15 23.8 30
250 34.73 40 59.4 80 34.73 40 32.8 40 20.83 25 36.1 50
333 46.3 50 80.2 100 46.3 50 43.7 50 27.75 30 47.5 65
500 69.4 80 120.1 140 69.4 80 65.6 80 41.67 60 72.2 80

13200 Delta 14400 Delta 14400/2900Y 20000/34000Y

Transformer Figures A and 8 Figure C Figures D, E and F Figures D, E and F Figure A and 8 Figures C
Size Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link Rated Link
(kVA) Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating Amps Rating
3 .227 1H* .394 1H* .208 1H* .361 1H* .208 1H*
5 .379 1H* .656 1H* .347 1H* .594 1H* .374 1H*
10 .757 1H* 1.312 2H .694 1H* 1.20 2H .694 1H* .50 1H*
15 1.114 1H 1.97 3H 1.04 1H 1.80 3H 1.04 1H .75 1H*
25 1.89 3H 3.28 SH 1.74 2H 3.01 5H 1.74 2H 1.25 2H
37.5 2.84 5H 4.92 8 2.61 3H 4.52 6 2.61 3H 1.875 2H
50 3.79 6 6.50 10 3.47 SH 5.94 8 3.47 5 2.50 3H
75 5.68 6 9.84 20 5.21 6 9.01 12 5.21 6 3.75 5H
100 7.57 8 13.12 20 6.94 8 12.01 15 6.94 8 5.00 6
167 12.62 15 21.8 30 11.6 12 20.1 25 11.6 12 8.35 10
250 18.94 25 32.8 50 17.4 20 30.1 40 17.4 20 12.5 15
333 25.23 30 43.7 60 23.1 30 40.1 50 23.1 30 16.65 20
500 37.88 50 65.6 100 34.7 40 60.0 80 34.7 40 25.00 30
-~· ~ce th1s 1s the smallest link ava1lable and 1t does not protect for 300% of load, secondary protectiOn IS des1rable.

95
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Transformer Fusing (Continued)

TABLE 11A3
Overload Protection of Oil-insulated, Self-Cooled, and Dry-Type Transformers@
Single-Phase Application Using Current-Limiting Fusing

~
~
...Cll
...E
.e
Ul
t:
co
F

r
1.5 18 6 6 6

r
3 18 18 1.5 6 6 6
5
7.5
10
15
@
18
18
18
18
@
18
18
18
18
·(! 6
·(!
6
@ 1.5
1.5
3
3
@
6
6
6
6
@
6
6
6
6
@
6
6
6
6
25 18 18 8 6 3 3 6 6 6
37.5 25 18 18 12 10 6 6 6 6
50 25 45 18 25 20 18 12 8 6 6 6
75 75 25 18 10 10 8 6 6
100 25 40 25 12 12 10 8 6
150 40 65 40 18 25 18 20 12 10 8
167 50 20 30 25 12 18 10
200 65 25 40 30 12 20 12 12
250 80 30 50 40 18 25 15 12
333 40
500
750
1000
1250
1500
1667
2000
2500
3000
1. Recommendations are based on fuse melting characteristics at an ambient temperature of 40 C.
2. To prevent fuse blowing on transformer inrush, DO NOT USE FUSES SMALLER THAN RECOMMENDED without specific approval of the manufacturer.
3. Fuses allow in excess of 300% of load.
4. Fuses allow less than 140% of load.
5. Ratings in red area are for parallel-fuse combinations.

96
 A3
TABLE 12A3
Overload Protection of Oil-insulated, Self-Cooled, and Dry-Type TransformersQ)
Three-Phase Application Using Current-Limiting Fusing
Nominal SlngleoPIIase Voltage Across Transformer Terminals (kVj
i~ I 7.2-7.96" I ti1'"2114.4 I 3~5
.. 2A I 4.1& 4.8 8.32
Recommended Fuse Volt&Qe (M:V)
12,47 I 2D8 I 22.!1i'l4..9

..
G)
E 4,3 I .4.3 I 5 .5 I 5.5 I s.s I 15.5 I 1S.!i I 15.5
Recommended Fuse-Current Ratings (amperes) •bill
I 23 J 21 I 38
~c: Column A -140-200% of Transformer Rating
lll Column B- 200-300% of Transformer RiJling
~ A B B A B A A B B A B A B A 9
A. B A B B A A
15 1.5 1.5 ®1.5 ®1.5 6
® (~ ® (~
22.5 Q) 18
r8
("
18 3 3 1.5 1.5 6

l
18 8 4.5 4.5 ®3 6
30
45
18
18
Q)

18 10
6
10 6 6
3
3 3 ®(! 0
6
75 25 35 18 12 20 12 18 10 10 6 6 6· Q)
6
100 35 50 25 20 25 12 18 25 18 12 10 8 6 6
112.5 45 65 25 25 30 12 18 30 18 12 10 10 6 6 6
150 50 100 25 45 25 40 18 25 40 25 18 12 12 8 8 6
200 65 100 45 65 40 65 20 30 18 50 30 25 18 12 18 10 10 8
225 75 39 45 75 40 75 25 40 20 30
65 40 18 12 20 10 10 8
300 100 200 50 100 50 7.5 75 ' 30 50 25 50 20 50 25 18 25 12 12 10
500 200 100 150
.- 100 150 00 50 75 50 80 30 100 50 30 50 20 25 18 25 15
200 iao ~SQ 80 30 65 130 40 80 40 80 25 40 25 40 18 25
~=
750 2Q[JJI
1000 ,.150• 150 100 160 100 Ulll 65 100 65 lOQ 30 30 &') 25 30
1500 1!W 200 130 200 100 16'0 80 ·1160 4()0 50 80 30 50
2000
2500
:D)()
I~ ,~ 2IXt , ZOO 13o '2()()
D
: ~ocr· tell MO
;Zr;)()
faD'

~~
0 eo
Bel
00
,'fOD
II
40
.!SO
e~
60•
00
00
3500 200 16tfV 1QP ae
~: I ~ :~ ~00

t ~..,
3750 i '~
4000
5000 l ~:~iir I~~
1. Recommendations are based on fuse melting characteristics at an ambient temperature of 40 C.
2. To prevent fuse blowing on transformer inrush, DO NOT USE FUSES SMALLER THAN RECOMMENDED without specific approval of the manufacturer.
3. Fuses allow in excess of 300% of load.
4.. Fuses allow less than 140% of load.
5.. Ratings in red area are for parallel-fuse combinations.

TABLE 13A3
Comparison of Expulsion Fuses and
Current-Limiting Fuses
Fuse Type
Rating Expulsion Current-Limiting
\titage Ratings (kV): 8.3,15,23 8.3,15,23
Current Ratings (ANSI): 1 through 100 12 through 65
Fault Current
Clearing Capacity (kA): Determined by Through 50 kA
cutout rating symme~ic

Discharge Interrupting
Capacity (kilojoules): 15 50-100
• A current-limiting fuse, when operating, changes the circuit X/R radically.
lherefore, no asymmetric ratings are normally assigned, as the fuse will
+andle any current.

97
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Capacitor Fusing
GENERAL CRITERIA
The basic objectives in selecting capacitor fuses are:
1. The fuse must be capable of withstanding steady-state
and transient currents in order to avoid spurious fuse oper-
ations.
2. The fuse should effectively remove a failed or failing
capacitor unit from service without causing further dam-
age or disruption to the system.
These objectives are accomplished through two different
protection methods: group fusing and individual fusing.
In group protection, one fuse protects more than one
capacitor- usually with a single fuse on each phase protecting
all the capacitors on that phase (Figure 1OA3). Group fusing
is generally used for protecting pole-mounted distribution
capacitor racks. In such applications, the fuse links are
installed in cutouts and mounted on a crossarm above the
capacitor rack.
Figure 1OA3.
Diagram of group capacitor fusing.
In individual protection, each capacitor in a bank is protected
by its own individual fuse (Figure 11 A3). This type of protec-
tion is commonly used in outdoor-substation capacitor banks.
Fuses are the bus-mounted type.
Figure 11 A3.
Diagram of individual. capacitor fusing.
Withstanding Steady-State and
Transient Currents
Continuous-current and transient-current duties determine
the minimum acceptable fuse size that may be used without
risking spurious fuse blowing under normal conditions. The
requirements for group fusing and individual fusing are similar
for continuous-current duty but different for transient duty.
The fuse link is chosen to have a minimum rating of at least
125 to 135 percent of rated capacitor current. This overrating
is necessary because of overvoltage conditions, capacitance
tolerance, and harmonics.
Fuses can be damaged by high-magnitude, high-frequency
currents. If possible, therefore, it is desirable to minimize spu-
rious fuse operations by selecting an appropriate fuse link to
withstand such transient currents, whose principal sources
98
are capacitor-bank switching and lightning surges. Switching
is typically of concern only when capacitor banks are
switched on the same bus: i.e., back-to-back switching. This
is seldom the case for pole-mounted, group-fused capacitors.
However, the fuses in such applications are subject to high-
frequency transients due to lightning surges, which are more
likely to damage low-current-rated links.
Individually fused applications involve an additional transient
consideration. When a capacitor unit fails -that is, goes to a
short circuit - the remaining good capacitors will discharge
into the failed capacitor. Fuses on the good capacitors should
be able to withstand this high-frequency outrush current to
avoid multiple fuse operations.
Effectively Removing a Failed or
Failing Capacitor Unit
A failed or failing capacitor unit should be removed from service
without causing any further damage or disruption to the system.
It is important, therefore, that the clearing fuse and the
capacitor unit be able to withstand the available 60Hz current
and the high-frequency energy discharge from the parallel
capacitors. In addition, the fuse must clear fast enough to
limit the duration of voltage on the remaining good capacitors
and to coordinate with upline overcurrent devices or an
unbalance detection scheme.
Summary of General Criteria
A summary of the key criteria in choosing the appropriate
fusing for a shunt-capacitor application is given in Table
14A3. In comparing the need for slow-clearing and fast-clear-
ing fuses, it sometimes is not reasonably possible to meet all
criteria. In such cases, trade-offs must be made and some
risks taken in regard to the conditions when fuses and capac-
itors may not operate in a desirable manner.
GROUP CAPACITOR FUSING
The following considerations are involved in selecting a
fuse for group capacitor protection:
• Continuous current.
• Transient current.
• Fault current.
• Tank-rupture curve coordination.
• Voltage on good capacitors.
• Coordination with upline overcurrent devices.
Continuous Current
The fuse's continuous-current capability is chosen to be
equal to or greater than 135 percent of rated capacitor current
for grounded-wye connected racks, and 125 percent for
ungrounded-wye racks. This overrating takes into account the
effects of overvoltage (ten percent), capacitor tolerance (five
to 15 percent), and harmonics (five percent for ungrounded-
wye and ten percent for grounded-wye configurations). The
minimum-size fuse link for a grounded-wye application is
calculated as follows:
Iiink = 1.35 X kvar3"'
V3 kVL-L
This calculation is based on the link's being 100 percent
rated. In the case of NEMA Type T and K tin links, which are
150 percent rated, this value must be divided by 1.50.
 A3
TABLE 14A3
Summary of Shunt-Capacitor Fusing Criteria
Fusing Method Fuse Characteristic Desired
Key Criteria Group Individual Slow Fast
Protection Protection Clearing
Withstanding Steady State and Transient Currents:
Continuous Current X X X
External Transient Currents
-Lightning X X
-Switching X X
Outrush Current X X
Effectively Removing Failed or Failing Capacitor Unit:
Fault Current X X . .
Tank Rupture Curve Coordination X X X
Voltage on Good Capacitors
Energy Discharge Into Failed Unit
X X
X . .
X

Coordinate with Upline Overcurrent Devices X X

Coordinate with Unbalance Detection Scheme X X
*These cntena help to determine whether expulsion or current-limiting fuses are requ;red.

Transient Currents Fault Current

Fuses can be damaged by high-magnitude, high-frequency
currents. If possible, it is desirable to minimize spurious fuse
operations by selecting an appropriate fuse link to withstand
these transient currents, whose principal sources are capacitor-
bank switching and lightning surges. Switching is typically of
concern only when capacitor banks are switched on the
same bus: i.e., back-to-back switching. This is seldom the
case for pole-mounted capacitors, although the fuses in such
applications are subject to high-frequency transients from
ightning surges.
To minimize spurious fuse operations due to lightning
surges, the use ofT tin links is recommended in group fusing
for low-ampere ratings through 25 amperes, and K tin links
'or above 25 amperes. The T link can withstand a higher
surge current than the K link, and this general recommenda-
:ion has resulted in good performance for areas of significant
1ghtning activity. (Note that installing switched capacitor
:::anks very close together on the same pole or on adjacent
:·oles should be avoided unless precautions are taken to min-
-nize the high-magnitude, high-frequency inrush current.)
In areas of high lightning incidence and where experience
::1tetates, T tin links may be used at higher current ratings for
;;rounded-wye and delta-connected racks. For areas where
::istribution lines are shielded by trees or buildings or where
:"'.e lightning incidence is low, the user may consider the use
-:f K links over the entire range of link ratings.
Occurrences of spurious fuse blowing due to lightning can
~so be reduced by locating the fuse cutout between the
:aoacitor and its arrester rather than placing the arrester
:e.veen the capacitor and the cutout.
As stated previously, the fuse link and capacitor must be able
to handle the available fault current. When capacitors are
connected grounded-wye or delta in a pole-mounted rack, a
capacitor failure (terminal-to-terminal short) will cause system
fault current to flow. The capacitor must be able to withstand
the fault current until the fuse interrupts the circuit, and the
fuse must be able to interrupt the available fault current
For K and T links, the available symmetric fault current
should not exceed the limits shown in Table 14A3. When the
available current for a given application does exceed the values
given in the table, however, possible solutions include the fol-
lowing:
• Limit the available fault current the capacitor will see by
using current-limiting fuses.
• Unground the neutral and operate the bank as ungrounded
wye, which generally is a more cost effective solution. In
this type of connection, the available current is limited to
three times the line current because of the impedance of
the capacitors in adjacent phases. (If a major insulation
failure or simultaneous failures in two phases should occur,
then fault current could flow. These events are very rare
and normally are not considered when applying fuses in
an ungrounded-wye application.)
• Move the capacitor rack to a location with an acceptable
fault-current level.

TABLE 15A3
=autt Current Limitation (50.. to 400-kvar All-Film Capacitors)*
Maximum Link Rating
Maximum Symmetric Fault Current that Coordinates with
Cutout Rating (RMS amps) When XIR Is: Available Fault Current
(kV) 0 5 10 15 K-Tin T-Tin
Up to 25 12,000 8,500 7,400 7,100 100 80
38 8,200 5,700 5,000 4,700 100 EK 80 ET I
I
-.a::x:er Power Systems EX line of capacitors or equivalent.
3:A PROTECTIVE
Overcurrent Protection
EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Capacitor Fusing (Continued)
Tank-Rupture Curve Coordination
The maximum-clearing TCC curve for the fuse link must
coordinate with the tank-rupture curve for the capacitor
{Figure 12A3). This coordination is necessary to insure that
the fuse will clear the circuit before tank rupture can occur.
The fuse's maximum-clear TCC must fall to the left of the
tank-rupture TCC at and below the level of available fault current.
Jn the case of high fault currents, the tank-rupture curve
should be compensated for asymmetry. In general, the largest
fuse sizes that coordinate with the tank-rupture curve for
modern all-film capacitors such as McGraw-Edison's EX line
are 100K and SOT tin links. See Table 15A3 for details.
Voltage on Good Capacitors
For ungrounded-wye capacitor banks, the voltage on the
good capacitor units, when o~e is ~hort~d, is equal syste~ !o
line-to-line voltage: i.e., 1. 73 t1mes 1ts rat1ng. If the fa1led u~1! IS
not cleared from the circuit quickly, this high overvoltage condition
could lead to a second capacitor failure in another phase,
resulting in a phase-to-phase fault. For ~hi:> ~ason, it is d~~i~able
to use a fast-clearing fuse so as to mtmm1ze the poss1b1llty of
a second unit failure. Note that this criterion calls for a fast-
clearing fuse, such as a Klink, while the criterion for transient
current calls for a slow-clearing fuse, such as aT link.
Coordination with Upline Overcurrent Devices
When a capacitor unit fails, it is desirable that the capacitor
fuse clear the capacitor without any other overcurrent
devices on the feeder having operated; that is, the capacitor
fuse must coordinate with the upline overcurrent devices.
This criterion may dictate the maximum-size capacitor rack to
be used on a given feeder or adjusting the source device setting
upward. It is particularly important. to note the coordination
with source ground relays when usmg grounded-wye racks.
Summary of Group Fusing
Group fusing recommendations for the EX line of all:film
capacitors are listed in Table 16A3. These recommendatl?ns
assume a typical level of lightning incidence; therefore, t1n T
links are listed for line-current ratings of 25 amperes and
below (see earlier discussion under "Transient ~urrents"),
and tin K links for ratings above 25 amperes. Available fault-
current levels are assumed to be within the limitations listed
in Table 15A3.
It is recognized that, in specific cases, utilities r:night. elect
to use different link ratings or types than those g1ven m the
tables because of such considerations as lightning incidence
rates, fuse stocking requirements, and feeder coo~dination.
For example, when fusing ungrounded-wye racks w1th a very
low probability of lightning transients, Type K tin links might
be considered over the entire range of ratings. Or, rather than
fusing grounded-wye racks with relatively low-current-rated T
links, higher-rated T links might be considered to reduce spu-
rious fuse blowings due to lightning. With ungrounded-wye
racks the user can choose between Type T and K links but
usualiy cannot select a different rating. However, in making
any adjustments in the recommendations it is important to
take into account all of the criteria discussed above.
Generally, group-fused racks are connected in wye. At tir:nes
it may be advantageous to connect racks in delta, es~ec1ally
on 2400-volt systems or to minimize the number of d1fferent
spare units kept in stock. The group fusings reco.mme~dations
in Table 16A3 can be adjusted for delta configurations, as
explained by the note in the table, by making the capacitor
unit voltage equal to the system voltage. Larger kvar-rated
delta-connected racks are possible if the fuses are put inside
100
the delta, but in that case the system voltage must be made
equal to the capacitor unit voltage in order _to follow the
recommendations in the table. Recommendations for delta
fusing at 2400 volts are given in Table 17A3, but for all other
system voltages use Table 16A3 as directed.
INDIVIDUAL CAPACITOR FUSING
The following considerations are involved in selecting a
fuse for individual capacitor protection:
• Continuous current.
• Transient current.
• Fault current.
• Tank-rupture curve coordination.
• Voltage on good capacitors.
• Energy discharge into a failed unit.
• Outrush current.
• Coordination with unbalance detection scheme:
Continuous Current
The fuse's continuous-current capability is chosen to be
equal to or greater than 135 percent of the capacitor's rated
current. This overrating takes into account the effects of over-
voltage conditions (ten percent), capacitance t<:l~rance (15
percent), and harmonics (ten percent). The mrmmum-s1ze
fuse link is calculated as follows:
. _ 1 35 X kvarunit
1link- · kV .
un1t
This calculation is based on the link's being 100 percent
rated. In the case of NEMA type T & K tin links, which are 150
percent rated, the value must be divided by 1.50.
Transient Currents
Unlike pole-mounted capacitor racks, individ~ally fuse? s~~sta­
tion capacitor banks generally are not subJect to s1gn1f1cant
high-magnitude, high-frequency lightning surges: The reason:
good substation shielding and enough fuses 1n parallel to
share the transient current.
Transient currents due to switching also are of little concern
unless capacitor banks are switched back-to-back, and even
then, if the switchgear is applied within .the ANSI standards
for inrush-current frequency and magmtude, the fuse duty
usually is acceptable in such applications, switch-~l~sing
resistors or inrush-current-limiting reactors generally llmrt the
transient currents to acceptable levels.
Fault Current
Just as in group fusing, the fuse link and individually protected
capacitor must be able to handle the available f~ult cu.rrent.
When capacitors are connected grou.nded:wye 1n a .smgle-
series group substation bank, a capac1tor fa1lure (termmal~to­
terminal) will cause system fault current to flow. Th~ capacitor
must be able to withstand the fault current until the fuse
interrupts the circuit, and the fuse must be able to su?C~ss!ully
interrupt the available fault current. The fault-current llm1tat1ons
are the same as for group fusing (Table 15A3).
In substation banks with multiple series groups, system
fault current will not flow through a failed unit unless other
units experience simultaneous fa~lures or extern~! flashovers
occur in other parts of the capaci1or bank. For th1s reason, 1t
usually is assumed that fault current will not flow in capac~tor
banks of more than one series group. Therefore, expuls1on
fuses rather than current-limiting fuses are commonly used.
 A3

N
CURRENT (ampsl
(II _,. C.O 01 CD 0 "' 0~ 80 0g~0 0~
0 g "' 00... 00,. 00'""'
0
0
0
0 8§
IOOOOU. c, iD - "' "' _,. C.O 01 CD 0 0 000000 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0600000

8000 480000
2HR
6000 360000
!1000 300000
4000
Ill 240000
IHR I HR
3000 80000

2000 I I I'
1/z HR
I 20000
1/z HR

1000
l/4 HR
II II
1/4HR
60000
800 48000
SAFE ZONE UNSAFE ZONE
600 36000
SAFE FOR MOST APPLICATIONS; UNSAFE FOR MOST 30000
!100 USUALLY NO GREATER DAMAGE APPLICATIONS;
400 THAN SLIGHT SWELLING OF CASE. CASE MAY RUPTURE. 24000
300 I 8000

200 I 2000

100 6000
80 4800
60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 I 800

20 I 200

\ 600
480
360
300
240
I 80

\ I 20 ·:
;;
...
\ N
:1:
6
I 60 co
;;
.8 48 ~
.6 36 !
1\.
~~
.!I
.4 FOR TIMES SHORTER

.3
THAN 0.1 SECOND •
USE ASYMMETRICAL
\ I8
RMSAMPS.
.2 \ I2

0. I 6.0
.08 4.8
.06 THE MINIMUM J2T RATING FOR THE EX' LINE OF SINGLE-PHASE 3.6
.05 CAPACITORS IS 2,000,000 AMP2 SECONDS FOR FAULT 3.0
.04 CURRENTS OF 10,000 AMPS OR LESS . 2.4
.03 I .8

.02 I .2

MINIMUM CLEARING TIME (0.8 CYCLEI FOR SAFE COORDINATION WITH EXPULSION FUSES.
""'""'CD 0.6
~ ~~82:~8 ~0 0~ 0~g~ ~8
CURRENT (ampsl 00 0 0 § cs88
~ oo 88
o0
0

Figure 12A3.
Capacitor tank-rupture curve.

101
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Capacitor Fusing (Continued)

TABLE 16A3
Group Fusing Recommendations for AII·Film Capacitors, Using EEI·NEMA Tin Expulsion Links*
Three- Rated Line Recommended Three- Rated Line Recommended
System Capacitor Phase- Current Link Size System Capacitor Phase- Current Link Size
line-to-Line Unit Bank in Grounded- Ungrounded- Line-to-Line Unit Bank in Grounded- Ungrounded-
Voltage Voltage** kvar Amperes Wyet Wyet Voltage Voltage• • kvar Amperes Wyet Wyet
4160 2400 150 20.8 20T 20T 16500 9540 150 5.2 5T 5T
300 41.6 40 K 40 K 300 10.3 10T 10T
450 62.5 65 K 65 K 450 15.7 15T 15 T
600 83.3 80 K 80 K 600 21 .0 20T 20T
4800 2770 150 18.0 20T 15 T 900 31.4 30 K 30 K
300 31 .6 40 K 30 K 1200 41 .9 40 K 40 K
450 54.2 50 K 50K 1350 47.2 50 K 40 K
600 72.2 65 K 65 K 1800 62.9 65 K 65 K
900 108.3 100 K 100K 2400 83.8 80 K 80 K
2700 94.3 100 K 80 K
7200 4160 150 12.0 12T 10T
300 24.0 25T 20T 17250 9960 150 5.0 5T 5T
450 36.0 40 K 30 K 300 10.0 10T 10T
600 48.1 50 K 40 K 450 15.0 15 T 15T
900 72.1 65 K 65 K 600 20.1 20T 20T
1200 96.2 100 K 80 K 900 30.1 30 K 25T
1350 108.2 100 K 100 K 1200 40.2 40 K 40 K
1350 45.2 40 K 40 K
8320 4800 150 10.4 10T 10 T 1800 60.2 65 K 50 K
300 20.8 20T 20 T 2400 80.3 80 K 80 K
450 31 .2 30 K 30 K 90.4 80 K
2700 80 K
600 41.7 40 K 40 K
900 62.5 65 K 65 K
3600 120.5 - 100 K
1200 83.3 80 K 80 K 21600 12470 300 8.0 8T 8T
1350 93.8 80 K 80 K 450 12.0 12T 10 T
600 16.0 15 T 15 T
12470 7200 150 6.9 8T 6T 900 24.0 25T 20T
300 13.9 15T 12 T 1200 32.1 30 K 30 K
450 20.8 20T 20T 1350 36.1 40 K 30 K
600 27.8 25 T 25T 1800 48.1 50 K 40 K
900 41 .7 40K 40 K 2400 64.2 65 K 65 K
1200 55.6 50 K 50K 2700 72.2 65 K 65 K
1350 62.5 65 K 65 K 3600 96.2 100 K 80 K
1800 83.3 80 K 80 K
2400 111.1 100 K 100 K 22860 13200 300 7.6 8T 8T
450 11.4 10T 10T
13200 7620 150 6.6 6T 6T 600 15.2 15 T 15 T
300 13.1 12T 12T 900 22.7 20T 20T
450 19.7 20T 20T 1200 30.3 30 K 25T
600 26.2 25T 25T 1350 34.1 30 K 30 K
900 39.4 40K 40K 1800 45.4 40 K 40 K
1200 52.5 50 K 50 K 2400 60.6 65 K 50 K
1350 59.0 65 K 50 K 2700 68.2 65 K 65 K
1800 78.7 80 K 65 K 3600 90.9 80 K 80K
2400 105.0 100 K 100 K
2700 118.1 - 100 K 23900 13800 300 7.2 8T 6T
450 10.9 10T 10T
13800 7960 150 6.3 6T 6T 600 14.5 15 T 12T
300 12.6 12T 12T 900 21.7 20T 20T
450 18.8 20T 20T 1200 29.0 30 K 25T
600 25.1 25T 25T 1350 32.6 30 K 30 K
900 37.7 40 K 40K 1800 43.5 40 K 40 K
1200 50.2 50 K 50 K 2400 58.0 65 K 50K
1350 56.5 50 K 50 K 2700 65.2 65 K 65K
1800 75.4 80 K 65 K 3600 87.0 80 K 80K
2400 100.5 100 K 100 K
2700 113.1 - 100 K 24900 14400 300 6.9 8T 6T
450 10.4 10T 10T
14400 8320 150 6.0 6T 5T 600 13.9 15 T 12T
300 12.0 12T 10T 900 20.8 20T 20T
450 18.0 20T 15 T 1200 27.8 25 T 25T
600 24.0 25T 20 T 1350 31.2 30 K 30 K
900 36.0 40K 30 K 1800 41 .7 40 K 40 K
1200 48.1 50 K 40 K 2400 55.6 50K 50K
1350 54.1 50 K 50 K 2700 62.5 65 K 65 K
1800 72.1 65 K 65 K 3600 83.3 80 K 80 K
2400 92.2 100 K 80 K (Continued on Next Page)
2700 108.2 100 K 100 K
• General Notes:
1. See fault current limitations in Table 14A3.
2. Fusing recommendations are for the Cooper Power Systems EX line of capacitors or equ ivalent.
•• This column applies to wye-connected capacitor racks. To use these recommendations for delta-connected racks, make the capacitor unit voltage equal to the
system voltage given in the first column and use the recommendations for grounded-wye racks. (See Table 16A3 for group fusing recommendations for delta-
connected racks on 2400-volt systems.)
t If spurious fuse blowing is a problem w1th grounded-wye racks, it is possible to go to higher fu se ratings as limited by the ratings in Table 14A3 and by coordi-
nation with upline devices.

102
 A3
TABLE 16A3 (Continued)
Group Fusing Recommendations for All-Film Capacitors, Using EEI-NEMA Tin Expulsion Links*
Three- Rated Line Recommended Three- Rated Line Recommended
System Capacitor Phase- Current Link Size System Capacitor Phase- Current Link Size
LiRe-to-Line Unit Bank in Grounded- Ungrounded- Line-to-Line Unit Bank in Grounded- Ungrounded-
Voltage Voltage•• kvar Amperes Wyet Wyet Voltage Voltage•• kvar Amperes Wyet Wyet
34500 19920 300 5.0 5 ET 5 ET 37400 21600 450 6.9 8 ET 6 ET
450 7.5 8 ET 8 ET 600 9.2 10 ET 8 ET
600 10.0 10ET 10 ET 900 13.2 15 ET 12 ET
900 15.1 15 ET 15 ET 1200 18.5 20 ET 20 ET
1200 20.1 20 ET 20 ET 1350 20.8 20 ET 20 ET
1350 22.6 20 ET 20 ET 1800 27.8 25 ET 25 ET
1800 30.2 30 EK 25 ET 2400 37.0 40 EK 40 EK
2400 40.2 40 EK 40 EK 2700 41.7 40 EK 40 EK
2700 45.2 40 EK 40 EK 3600 55.6 50 EK 50 EK
3600 60.3 65 EK 50 EK
• General Notes:
1. See fault current limitations in Table 14A3.
2. Fusing recommendations are for the Cooper Power Systems EX line of capacitors or equivalent.
- This column applies to wye-connected capacitor racks. To use these recommendations for delta-connected racks, make the capacitor unit voltage equal to the
system voltage given in the first column and use the recommendations for grounded-wye racks. (See Table 17A3 for group fusing recommendations for delta-
connected racks on 2400-volt systems.)
t If spurious fuse blowing is a problem with grounded-wye racks, it is possible to go to higher fuse ratings as limited by the rating s In Table 14A3 and by coordi-
nation with upl ine devices.

TABLE 17A3
ELF Fuse Selection for Capacitor Bank Protection
Capacitor
Bank Data

Cap. Bank
Three-Phase
kVAR

• Wulti-barrel fuse design.

- Multi-barrel fuse design at higher voltage ra ted fuse only.
a A line-to-neutral rated fuse may be used if there is no chance of a three-phase fault not involving ground.
Ill For delta connected capacitor banks, use the lower voltage rated fuse where two voltage ratings are given. For this application, the fuses must be connected
nside the delta of each side of each group of capacitors (six fuses total). Consult the manufacturer for applications where the fuses will be outside of the delta.
c'- The shaded area indicates ELF fuse current ratings that are only available at the lower voltage where tow voltage ratings are specified for grounded wye appli-
cations. Therefore, footnote "a" must apply for these applications.

TABLE 18A3 Tank-Rupture Curve Coordination

Group Fusing Recommendations for Delta-Connected The maximum-clearing TCC curve for the fuse link must coor-
~Film Capacitors on 2400-volt Systems, Using dinate with the tank-rupture curve for the capacitor (Figure
EEI-NEMA Tin Expulsion Fuse Links.• 12A3). This coordination is necessary to insure that the fuse will
System Three- Rated Line clear the circuit before tank rupture can occur. The fuse's max-
l..ile-to-Line Capacitor Phase- Current Recommended imum-clear TCC must fall to the left of the tank-rupture TCC at
Voltage Unit Voltage Bank kvar in Amperes Link Size and below the level of available fault current. In the case of high
2400** 2400 150 36.1 40 K fault currents, the tank-rupture curve should be compensated
300 72.2 65 K
450 108.3 100 K for asymmetry.
2400t 2400 150 20.8 20T Voltage on Good Capacitors
300 41 .6 40 K When a capacitor unit goes to a complete short, other series
450 62.5 65 K groups within the capacitor banks are subject to a 60 Hz over-
600 83.3 80 K
voltage until the fuse clears, and the fuse should clear fast
• General Notes:
.See fault cu rrent limitations in Table 14A3. enough to prevent overvoltage damage to the good units. When
2. Fusing recommendations are for the Cooper Power Systems EX line of a capacitor unit is shorted on phase A, the 60 Hz voltage on the
capac1tors or equivalent.
3. See Table 15A3 for group fusing recommendations for all other system voltages. other series groups in the bank are as summarized in Table
~ F uses are outside !he delta, Three cutouts are used. 19A3. The capacitor fuse chosen should insure that the duration
t Fuses are Inside the delta. Six cutouts are used.
103
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Capacitor Fusing (Continued)

of these overvoltages does not exceed the limitations defined in possible solutions: reconnect the bank to reduce the amount
ANSI/IEEE Standard 18. of parallel-stored energy, or use current-limiting fuses.
TABLE 19A3 Outrush Current
Per-Unit Voltage on Unfailed Capacitors with a Series When a capacitor failure occurs, the remaining good capacitors
Group Shorted on Phase A will discharge into the failed unit, and the fuses for the good
Grounded Ungrounded Split capacitor units must be capable of withstanding this high-fre-
No. of
Series Wye Wye Ungrounded Wye quency I 2t discharge to avoid multiple fuse operations. Extensive
Groups Va Vb Vc Va Vb Vc Va Vb Vc analysis and testing have been conducted on capacitor units
1 - 1.00 1.00 - 1.73 1.73 - 1.73 1.73 and typical block arrangements to determine these duties.
2 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.50 1.15 1.15 1.71 1.08 1.08 Coordination with Unbalance Detection Scheme
3 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.29 1.08 1.08 1.30 1.04 1.04
4 1.33 1.00 1.00 1.20 1.05 1.05 1.26 1.03 1.03 When a fuse operates in a capacitor bank, an increase in the
5 1.25 1.00 1.00 1.15 1.04 1.04 1.20 1.02 1.02 fundamental frequency voltage occurs on the remaining units
in that series group. An unbalance detection scheme is
Energy Discharge into a Failed Unit employed to monitor such conditions and to take action as
The fuse and the capacitor must be capable of handling the required . Its settings should be coordinated with fuse TCCs
available parallel-stored energy, since all of the stored energy so that the fuses will be allowed to clear a failed capacitor
of the parallel-connected capacitors can discharge through the unit before the unbalance detection scheme trips the capac-
failed capacitor and its fuse (Figure 13A3). Therefore, to pre- itor bank. If the bank is tripped before the fuse operates,
vent probable fuse failure and rupture of the capacitor tank, the there will be no visible indication of the cause of the bank
total calculated parallel-stored energy should not exceed the tripping.
energy capability or joule rating of the capacitor unit and fuse. Summary of Individual Fusing
In selecting the best fuse for a given application, it sometimes
is not reasonably possible to meet all of the above criteria. In
such cases, trade-offs must be made among the criteria and
some risks taken in regard to the conditions when fuses and
capacitors may not operate in a desirable manner.
Table 20A3 lists individual fusing recommendations, using
either expulsion or current-limiting fuses, for the EX line of all-
film capacitors applied in outdoor substation banks.These
recommendations will meet most of the criteria described
Figure 13A3. above for most typical capacitor-bank configurations.
Diagram of energy discharge into failed capacitor unit.
For metal-enclosed applications, it is recommended that
current-limiting fuses be used, even if the available parallel
The calculated value of energy should not exceed 15,000 energy in some cases indicates an expulsion fuse could
joules (i.e., 4650 kvar in parallel) for conventional all-film serve. A current-limiting fuse will minimize any gassing that
capacitors and 10,000 joules (i.e., 3100 kvar in parallel) for might occur in the enclosure during fuse operation.
paper/film capacitors. When the EX line of capacitors is used Excessive gases can cause flashovers in the enclosure.
with the recommended fusing, the available energy can be The recommendation in Table 20A3 are applicable for ambient
allowed to be as high as 30,000 joules (i.e., 9300 kvar in par- temperatures up to 40° C. if higher ambient temperatures are
allel). When the calculated value of the parallel energy expected, especially in enclosures, the capacitor manufacturer
exceeds the limitation of the expulsion fuse, there are two should be consulted for appropriate fuse recommendations.
TABLE 20A3
Individual Fusing Recommendations for All-Film Capacitors,t
Using EEI-NEMA Tin Expulsion Links or Current-Limiting** Fuses
Capacitor Unit kvar
Capacitor Fuse Voltage sott 200 400
Unit Rating (kV) I 100 150 I 300 I
Voltage Recommended Expulsion Link or Current-Limiting Fuse
Rating Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L Exp. C-L
2400 8.7 8.3 20T 30 40K 65 65K 90* 80K - - - - -
2770 8.7 8.3 20T 25 40K 65 50K so· 65K - - - - -
4160 8.7 8.3 12T 18 25T 40 40T 65 50K 65 - - - -
4800 8.7 8.3 12T 18 20T 30 30T 45 40T 65 - - - -
6640 8.7 8.3 12T 18 1ST 25 25T 40 30T 45 SOT 65 65K 90*
7200 8.7 8.3 10T 18 1ST 25 20T 30 25T 40 40T 65 SOT 90*
7620 8.7 8.3 10T 18 1ST 18 20T 30 25T 40 40T 65 SOT 90*
7960 8.7 8.3 10T 18 1ST 18 20T 30 25T 40 40T 65 SOT 80*
8320 8.7 15.5 10T 10 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 35 40T 50* SOT 70*
9960 15.0 15.5 8T 10 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 30 30T so· 40T 60*
12470 15.0 15.5 - - 12T 12 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 35 30T 50*
13280
13800
15.0
15.0
15.5
15.5
-- -
-
12T
12T
12
10
1ST
1ST
18
18
20T
20T
25
25
25T
25T
35
30
30T
30T
50*
50*
14400 15.0 15.5 - - 10T 10 15T 18 20T 25 25T 30 30T 50*
19920 23.0 23.0 - - 8T 12 12T 12 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 36*
21600 23.0 23.0 - - 8T 12 10T 12 1ST 18 20T 25 25T 25
t Fus1ng recommendations are for the Cooper Power Systems EX line of capac1tors or equ1valent.
tt For 50-kvar capacitors, it is difficult to choose reasonably sized fuses that will withstand the 12t outrush. This is due to the fact that 12t withstand goes down
exponentially with fuse-link rating rather than linearly. Consequently, 50-kvar capacitor fusing recommendations cover only units with voltages up to 9960 volts.
• Indicates two fuses in parallel.
•• Current-limiting fuse ratings are for Cooper Power Systems NXC capacitor fuses.
104
 A3

Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination

Tile following comments on coordination principles and ratings will serve as references also for other
IJ8doser applications covered in this manual

~OSER COORDINATION PRINCIPLES RECLOSER RATINGS

~tic circuit reclosers are the overcurrent protective
al!aices most often used to "give every fault a chance to be
li!lllpOfary," as stated under "Coordination Basics" at the
b!ginning of Section A3. For proper application of reclosers
a distribution system, the following basic coordination
pinciples must be observed:
1. The load-side device must clear a permanent or temporary
faajt before the source-side device interrupts the circuit or
operates to lockout.
2.. Outrages caused by permanent faults must be restricted to
1he smallest section of the system.
~ principles primarily influence the selection of operating
anes and sequences of both source-side and load-side
G!lllices, and the general location of these devices on the
llistrixrtion system. The placement and number of devices to
PeStrict Outrages to "the smallest section of the system"
.e determined by individual utility practice, and the recom-
wendations and examples in this manual represent only a
aoss-section of accepted practices.
Recloser ratings include nominal voltage, impulse withstand
voltage (81), maximum continuous current, trip-coil current,
minimum trip current, and interrupting current. In Tables
21A3, 22A3, and 23A3, which list typical ratings, reclosers
are grouped for convenience into three major categories: single-
phase hydraulically controlled, three-phase hydraulically
controlled, and three-phase electronically controlled. The
interrupting medium, oil or vacuum, is indicated for each
recloser.
Please note that "Recloser Type" designations (H, 4H, V4H,
etc.) in both tables and text relate to the products of Cooper
Power Systems and are not universal industry terms. This
departure from the generic approach used throughout most
of the manual is done to facilitate references to recloser fam-
ilies and ratings in discussing applications, and the reader is
encouraged to investigate other possible sources. Units
designed specifically for pad-mounted application are so indi-
cated in the tables; all others are commonly referred to as
overhead-type but include some ratings normally installed in
substations. To assist in obtaining detailed information on
specific reclosers and related accessories and mountings,
applicable Cooper Power Systems catalog sections are listed.

TABLE 21A3
Single-Phase, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cont Trio-Coil
Nominal Current Inter- Rating Min-Trip
Aecloser Voltage BIL Rating ruptlng (cont Ratlnij Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium amps) (amps (rms sym amps) Section
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
5 10 125
10 20 250
H 2.4-14.4 95 50 Oil 15 30 375 280-10
25 50 625
35 70 975
50 100 1250
At 4.8 kV At 8.32 kV At 14.4 kV
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 460 400
15 30 600 600 600
4H 2.4-14.4 110 100 Oil 25 50 1000 1000 1000 280-10
35 70 1400 1400 1400
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2800 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 400 400
15 30 600 600 600
25 50 1000 1000 1000
V4H 2.4-14.4 110 200 Vacuum 35 70 1400 1400 1400 280-10
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2800 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
140 280 3000 2500 2000
200 400 3000 2500 2000
(contmued on next page)

105
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

TABLE 21A3 (continued)

Single-Phase, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cont Trio-Coil
Nominal Current Inter- Rating Min-Trip
Recloser Voltage BIL Rating rupting (cont Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV} (kV) (amps) Medium amps) (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 400 400
15 30 600 600 600
25 50 1000 1000 1000
PV4H* 2.4-14.4 95 200 Vacuum 35 70 1400 1400 1400 2B5-65
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2BOO 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
140 2BO 3000 2500 2000
200 400 3000 2500 2000
25 50 1500 1500 1500
35 70 2100 2100 2100
50 100 3000 3000 3000
L 2.4-14.4 110 2BO Oil 70 140 4200 4200 4000 2B0-1 0
100 200 6000 5000 4000
140 2BO 6000 5000 4000
200 400 6000 5000 4000
2BO 560 6000 5000 4000
At 14.4 kV
5 10 300
10 20 600
15 30 900
25 50 1500
35 70 2100
V4L 2.4-14.4 110 2BO Vacuum 50 100 3000 2B0-10
70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 2BO 6000
200 400 6000
2BO 560 6000
At 4.8 kV At 8.32 kV At 14.4 kV
100 200 6000 6000 6000
140 2BO B400 B400 BOOO
160 320 9600 9600 9600
1B5 370 11100 10000 10000
D 2.4-14.4 110 560 Oil 225 450 12000 10000 10000 2B0-20
2BO 560 12000 10000 10000
400 BOO 12000 10000 10000
400X 560** 12000 10000 10000
560 1120 12000 10000 10000
56 0X 750** 12000 10000 10000
At 24.9 kV
5 10 300
10 20 600
15 30 900
25 50 1500
E 24.9 150 100 Oil 35 70 2100 2B0-10
50 100 2500
70 140 2500
100 200 2500
50 100 3000
70 140 4000
4E 24.9 150 2BO Oil 100 200 4000 2B0-10
140 2BO 4000
200 400 4000
2BO 560 4000
At 24.9 thru 34.5 kV
100 200 6000
140 2BO BOOO
160 320 BOOO
1B5 370 BOOO
I
225 450 BOOO
DV 24.9-34.5 150 560 Oil 2BO 560 BOOO
400 BOO BOOO 2B0-20
400X 560** BOOO
560 1120 BOOO
i
560X 750** BOOO
!=or pad mounted installation.
--'ll rating is 140% of X coil ratings; all others are 200%.

106
 A3

TABLE 22A3
Three-Phase, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cant Trio-Coli
Nominal Current Inter- Rating Min-Trip
Recloser Voltage BIL Rating rupting (cant Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium amps) (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 4.8 kV At 8.32 kV AT 14.4 kV
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 400 400
15 30 600 600 600
6Ht 2.4-14.4 110 100 Oil 25 50 1000 1000 1000 280-10
35 70 1400 1400 1460
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2800 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
5 10 200 200 200
10 20 400 400 400
I
15 30 600 600 600
25 50 1000 1000 1000
V6Ht 2.4-14.4 110 200 Vacuum 35 70 1400 1400 1400 280-1 0
50 100 2000 2000 2000
70 140 2800 2500 2000
100 200 3000 2500 2000
I 140
200
280
1400
3000
3000
At 4.8 kV
2500
12500
At 8.32 kV
2000
2000
At 14.4 kV
100 200 6000 6000 6000
140 280 8400 8400 8400
160 320 9600 9600 9600
185 370 11 100 10000 10000
w 2.4-14.4 110 560 Oil 225 450 12000 10000 10000 280-30
280 560 12000 10000 10000
400 800 12000 10000 10000
400X 560** 12000 10000 10000
560 1120 12000 10000 10000
560X 750** 12000 10000 10000
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
50 100 3000
I 70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 280 8400
160 320 9600
185 370 11100
PWH* 2.4-14.4 95 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 285-70
280 560 12000
400 800 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
! 56 0X 750** 12000

' 50
70
100
140
At 24.4 thru 14.4 kV
3000
4200
100 200 6000
140 280 8400
160 320 9600
185 370 11100
vw 2.4-14.4 110 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 280-30
280 560 12000
400 800 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
56 0X 750** 12000
t ..
Phases tnp 1nd1v1dually on overcurrent, but trip and lockout all three phases at the final step in sequence; other three-phase reclosers operate all three phases
simultaneously under all conditions.
• For pad-mounted installation.
- Trip rating is 140% of X coil ratings; all others are 200%.

(continued on next page)

107
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

TABLE 22A3 (continued)

Three-Phase, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cent Trip-Coil
Nominal Current Inter- Rating Min-Trip
Recloser Voltage BIL Rating rupting (cent Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium amps) (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 24.9 kV
50 100 3000
70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 2BO B400
160 320 9600
1B5 370 11100
PWVH* 24.9 125 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 2B5-70
2BO 560 12000
400 BOO 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
560X 750** 12000
At 24.9 kV
50 100 3000
70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 2BO B400
160 320 9600
1B5 370 11100
VWV27 24.9 125 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 2B0-30
2BO 560 12000
400 BOO 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
560X 750** 12000
At 34.5 kV
50 100 3000
70 140 4200
100 200 6000
140 2BO B400
160 320 9600
1B5 370 11100
VWV3B 34.5 150 560 Vacuum 225 450 12000 2B0·30
2BO 560 12000
400 BOO 12000
400X 560** 12000
560 1120 12000
560X 750** 12000
At 24.9 thru 34.5 kV
100 200 6000
140 2BO BOOO
160 320 BOOO
1B5 370 BOOO
wv 24.9-34.5 150 560 Oil 225 450 BOOO 2B0·30
2BO 560 BOOO
400 BOO BOOO
400X 560** BOOO
560 1120 BOOO
56 0X 750** BOOO
* For pad-mounted mstallat1on.
•• Trip rating is 140% of X coil ratings; all others are 200%.

108
 A3

TABLE 23A3
llwee-Phase, Electronically Controlled Reclosers
I, Max
Cont
Nominal Current Inter- Min-Trip
Recfoser Voltage BIL Rating ruptlng Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 4.8 kV At 8.32 kV At 14.4 kV
200 12000 10000 10000
2BO 12000 10000 10000
WE 2.4-14.4 110 560** Oil 400 12000 10000 10000 2B0-40
560 12000 10000 10000
BOO 12000 10000 10000
1120 12000 10000 10000
I! At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
I 100
140
12000
12000
200 12000
PWE* 2.4-14.4 95 560 Vacuum 2BO 12000 2B5-71
400 12000
560 12000
BOO 12000
1120 12000
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
2BO 12000
I VWE 2.4-14.4 110 560** Vacuum 560 12000 2B0-40
400 12000
560 12000
BOO 12000
l 1120 12000
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
I 100
140
12000
12000
200 12000
VSA12 2.4-14.4 11 0 560** Vacuum 2BO 12000 2B0-45
400 12000
560 12000
BOO 12000
I 1120 12000
At 2.4 thru 14.4 kV
I 100 16000
140 16000
200 16000
VSA16 2.4-14.4 110 560** Vacuum 2BO 16000 2B0-45
400 16000
560 16000
BOO 16000
u 1120 16000
I 100
140
12000
12000
200 12000
VSAT 2.4-14.4 95 560 Vacuum 2BO 12000 2B0-46
400 12000
560 12000
BOO 12000
1120 12000
• For pad-mounted installation.
- Continuous current rating can be extended to 800 amps with an accessory.

(continued on next page)

109
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

TABLE 23A3 (continued)

Three-Phase, Electronically Controlled Reclosers
Max
Cont
Nominal Current Inter- Min-Trip
Recloser Voltage BIL Rating rupting Rating Interrupting Rating Catalog
Type (kV) (kV) (amps) Medium (amps) (rms sym amps) Section
At 24.9 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
PWVE* 24.9 125 560 Vacuum 280 12000 285-71
400 12000
560 12000
800 12000
1120 12000
At 24.9 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
VWVE27 24.9 125 560** Vacuum 280 12000 280-40
400 12000
560 12000
800 12000
1120 12000
At 34.5 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
VWVE38 34.5 150 560 Vacuum 280 12000 280-40
400 12000
560 12000
800 12000
1120 12000
200 8000
280 8000
WVE 24.9-34.5 150 560** Oil 400 8000 280-40
560 8000
800 8000
1120 8000
At34.5 kV
100 12000
140 12000
200 12000
VS012 34.5 150 560** Vacuum 280 12000 280-57
400 12000
560 12000
800 12000
1120 12000
At 34.5 kV
100 16000
140 16000
200 16000
VS016 34.5 150 560** Vacuum 280 16000 280-57
400 16000
560 16000
800 16000
1120 16000
* For pad-mounted rnstalla!IOn.
** Continuous current rating can be extended to 800 amps with an accessory.

110
 A3

USE OF TIME-CURRENT CURVES TABLE 24A3

WITH AD.JUSTMENTS "K" Factor for Source-Side and Load-Side Tin Fuse Links
Coordination between a recloser and fuse links can be achieved Source-Side Fuse Links
by using methods based on time-current curves adjusted by For source-side fuse coordination, the "K" factor, plotted to aver-
a multiplying factor. age values, is used to multiply the time values of the delayed
Source-side fuses, selected to provide protection to the curve (B, C, D, E, etc.). The intersection of this reference curve
transformer, will basically determine what recloser curve or with the fuse minimum-melting time curve determines the maxi·
mum coordinating current. Note that either the fuse or recloser
curves can be considered. When the recloser size and time- curves must be shifted so that both are plotted to the same volt-
current curves for coordination with source-side fuses have age reference.
been determined, then load-side fuses are selected to coor- Multipliers for:
dinate with the recloser. Reclosing Two-Fast, One-Fast, Four
For a more complete understanding of the subject of trans- Time in Two-Delayed Three-Delayed Delayed
former protection, it is recommended that the discussions Cycles Sequence Sequence Sequence
here be read in conjunction with the earlier section titled 25 2.7 3.2 3.7
"Transformer Fusing:' 30 2.6 3.1 3.5
60 2.1 2.5 2.7
COORDINATION WITH SOURCE-SIDE 90 1.85 2.1 2.2
120 1.7 1.8 1.9
FUSE LINKS 240 1.4 1.4 1.45
Fuse links on the source side of the transformer generally 600 1.35 1.35 1.35
protect the system from a transformer fault and protect the Load-Side Fuse Links
transformer from a fault at the secondary bus. This fusing
arrangement is shown in Figure 14A3. The automatic circuit For load-side fuse coordination, the "K" factors are used to multi-
ply the time values of the recloser fast curve. The intersection of
recloser (ACRE1) must be selected to coordinate with the this reference curve with the fuse minimum-melting time curve
source-side fuse link so that the fuse does not interrupt the determines the maximum coordinating current. These factors
circuit for any fault current on the load side of the recloser. are based on the recloser fast curve plotted at maximum time.
The cumulative heating effect of the recloser operations must Multipliers for:
be less than the damage characteristic curve of the fuse link. Recloslng Time One Fast Two Fast
This is accomplished through the use of a multiplying factor in Cycles Operation Operations
on the recloser time-current curve that identifies the damage 25-30 1.25 1.8
or fatigue point of the fuse link. The recloser's modified 60 1.25 1.35
delayed curve must be faster than the source-side fuse's min- 90 1.25 1.35
imum-melt curve. 120 1.25 1.35
Time-current curves are used to coordinate the secondary-
side recloser with the source-side fuse link, utilizing the With an unsymmetrical transformer connection (delta-wye),
following rule: the ratio of primary to secondary fault current will be different,
For the maximum available fault current at the recloser depending on the type of fault. The following factors are used
location, the minimum melting time of the fuse link on the to determine the amount to shift the fuse curve to refer it to
transformer's source-side must be greater than the average the secondary of a delta-wye transformer connection:
clearing time of the recloser's delayed curve, multiplied by a
specific factor. The multiplying factors ("K" factors) for various Fault Type Multiplying Factor
reclosing intervals and operating sequences are listed in Three-Phase N
Table 23A3. Phase-to· Phase 0.87 N
Since the fuse is located on the high-voltage side and the Phase-to-Ground 1.73 N
recloser on the low-voltage side of the transformer, a
comparison of the time-current characteristics of the fuse
and recloser will require that either the fuse or the recloser Where N is the voltage ratio, 46 = 3.7
curves be shifted horizontally on the current axis to allow for 12.47
the transformer turns ratio. Since the fuse size is determined
by the transformer size, it is usually easier to shift the fuse For theN ratio of 3.7, the multiplying factors are:
curve and compare it to the different recloser curves available.
Three-Phase: Fuse curve moved to the right by

SOURCE-SIDE LINK 46 = 3.7 factor

50 Amp TypeS 12.47

Phase-to-Phase: Fuse curve moved to the right by 0.87 X

46000VOLTS
2500KVA (3.7) = 3.2 factor
7200/12470VOLTS
RATED SECONDARY= 116AMPERES
Phase-to-Ground: Fuse curve moved to the right by 1.73 X
140-AMPERE COIL (3.7) 6.4 factor.

Since the phase-to-phase fault factor of 3.2 will result in the

Rgure 14A3. tightest coordination, that should be used as the limiting factor.
Example of recloser and source-side fuse protection Any other factor would result It in a larger shift and allow more
scheme. coordination space between the recloser and fuse curves.
111
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)
Example of Source-Side Fuse and
Recloser Selections
The example of fuse-recloser coordination in Figure 14A3
shows a 2500 kVA transformer with 46/12.47 kV transformation.
A primary fuse size of 50 Amp Type S has been selected to pro-
vide proper transformer protection. The rated secondary current
is 116 amperes, so a 140 ampere coil size has been selected.
For the recloser type (ACRE1 ), either three single-phase
reclosers or a three-phase recloser can be used, depending
on requirements. If the loads are predominantly single phase,
three single-phase reclosers would provide individual clearing
for single-phase faults. Selection of a three-phase recloser
would permit use of ground-fault sensing, thereby providing
more sensitive tripping for ground faults and increasing the
recloser "reach." With three-phase operation, however, all
three phases would be interrupted for any single-phase fault.
For this example, three single-phase reclosers will be
selected. Although either Type V4H or Type L reclosers would
satisfy the requirements of a 140 ampere coil and the 1650
ampere maximum fault current, the Type L will be used since
the 4000 ampere interrupting capability and 280 ampere
maximum continuous current rating will allow for future up rating
of the substation.
The 2A2C sequence has been selected: two A operations
for transient fault clearing, while the C curve will provide the
maximum time delay to allow for downline recloser and fuse
coordination.
Curves selected for this application are shown in Figure 15A3.
As indicated in Table 24A3, the delayed curve is raised by a fac-
tor of 1.7 because a 2A2C sequence with 120 cycle reclosing
intervals is used. The minimum-melt curve for the 50 Amp S fuse
link on the primary of the transformer, must be transposed to the
right by a factor of 3.2 because coordination is based on
secondary fault current.
Since the adjusted delayed C curve intersects the transformed
50 Amp S curve at 2300 amperes, the maximum coordination
point is above the maximum 1650 amperes of available fault
current and is therefore satisfactory. If the fuse and recloser
curves had intersected below 1650 amperes, the fuse might
operate unnecessarily during the second time-delay operation
for a phase-to-phase fault. For this situation, coordination could
be improved by changing the recloser to either a 2A2E or
2A28 sequence.
COORDINATION WITH LOAD-SIDE FUSE LINKS
Maximum coordination between reclosers and load-side fuse
links is generally obtained by setting the recloser for two fast
operations followed by two delayed operations. What this
accomplishes can best be explained by citing percentages
that are largely hypothetical, since what actually occurs can
vary greatly, depending on types of faults, system characteristics,
etc. For illustration, therefore, let us assume the first recloser
opening allows approximately 70 percent of temporary faults
to clear, and the second opening, about 10 percent more. If
faults are persistent or permanent, the fuse link melts to clear
them before the recloser operates a third or fourth time.
Coordination is achieved to a lesser degree with one fast
followed by three delayed operations. This sequence also
should clear about the same percentage of faults during the
first recloser opening, but is most likely to be used when
automatic sectionalizers are installed at intermediate points
between recloser and fuse.
112
Selective fuse sectionalizing of a faulted section of line
beyond a recloser is not possible with all-fast or all-delayed
recloser sequences. An all-fast sequence does not allow time
for the fuse to clear, and an all-delayed sequence results in
fuse operation on the first overcurrent.
Two selection rules govern the use of fuse links as protecting
devices on the load side of reclosers:
1. For all values of fault current possible at the fuse link, the
minimum melting time of the link must be greater than the
clearing time of the reclosers fast operation, times a multi-
plying factor. Multiplying factors provide a safety margin
between the clearing time of the recloser's fast curve and
the melting time of the fuse link to prevent damage or
fatigue of the fuse link. The magnitude of the multiplying
factor varies with the number of fast operations and the
reclosing-time intervals between fast operations. These
load-side multiplying factors are tabulated in Table 24A3
for reclosing intervals of 30, 60, 90, and 120 cycles and
sequences with one fast and two fast operations. As can
be seen in the table, the shorter the reclosing interval, the
higher multiplying factor, since the fuse link has less time
in which to cool.
2. For all values of fault current possible on the section
protected by the fuse link, the maximum clearing time of
the fuse should be no greater than the delayed clearing
time of the recloser, provided the recloser sequence is set
for two or more delayed operations. If the curves are very
close the recloser may trip when the fuse operates, but it
will reclose, returning service to the remaining system.
Coordination range between the recloser and fuse link is
fixed by the above two selection rules. Rule 1 establishes the
maximum coordinating current, while Rule 2 establishes the
minimum coordinating current. The maximum current is the
current shown where the fuse-link minimum melting curve
intersects the reference curve obtained from the product of
the recloser's fast clearing-time curve and the multiplying factor.
The minimum current is at the intersection of the fuse-link
maximum clearing curve and the delayed curve of the recloser.
If the link maximum clearing does not intersect and lies below
the recloser's delayed curve, the minimum coordination point
is the minimum-trip current of the recloser.
Example of Load-Side Fuse and
Recloser Selections
Figure 16A3 shows a system requiring selection of fuse links
at location ABC/29. Available fault currents at the fuse locations
and at the end of each three-phase feeder are indicated on the
diagram. The load currents shown are present peak-load cur-
rents. Three single-phase Type L reclosers, with 140 ampere
series coils and 2A2C sequence, are located in the substation.
Fuse-link groups F1 and F2 are to be located in each three-
phase feeder at point ABC/29. The fuse links and reclosers
must be coordinated so that, for any faults between points
ABC/29 and ABC/30, the circuit is first interrupted by the
recloser on its fast curve, after which, if the fault persists, it is
cleared by the fuse in group F2. Similarly, the recloser must
clear any fault between ABC/29 and ABC/31 on its fast curve,
and permit the fuse in group F1 to clear the fault if it persists.
The recloser must be capable of interrupting any faults occurring
between points ABC/27 and ABC/29.
 A3

60 3600
50 3000
40 50 Amp Type S *3.2 2400
50 Amp TypeS
30 1800

20 1200
1\ \
\
10 \ 600
8 480
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180
\. 1\
2 \ .\ 120
\\
(Jl
1 1\ ~ 60
UJ
en
<(
0 .8 Max Current 2300 Amps 48 []J
z \. 1
,
N
0 .6 "\ 36 I-
u 1\. ~
a:
w .5 30 w
(Jl I
~
.4 I'\. 24 0
w .3 18 £
(Jl
~ w
i= \ _J
.2 12 u
c >-
\ I' t.f:.1(J u
~
0.1
[\ 1\ \ 6.0 ~
.08 4.8 i=
.06 3.6
.05
.04 ' 3.0
2.4
.03 1.8
r-. ILA \ 1.2
.02
\
.01 0.6
~ W-1>- CJlQ) CD~ N W -1>-CJlQ)CD
0 88 8 8 8 08 08 08 80000
8 8 8 80
0
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Rgure 15A3.
TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 14A3.

ABC/31 ©
l~~crs 7200/12470 VOLTS
20AMPERES

ABC/27
l
~
~
-
35AMPERES

Ftgure 16A3.
Typical system requiring coordination between recloser and load-side fuse links.

113
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

The recloser selected immediately fulfills the first three minimum melting curve must be compared with the recloser
requirements for proper recloser application. Its interrupting fast ("A") curve, multiplied by a factor to prevent fatiguing of
rating of 4000 amperes at 14.4 kV is sufficient to interrupt the fuse. For a Type L recloser with the 2A2C sequence and
1660 amperes at the substation secondary. Continuous load 120-cycle reclosing time, this "K" factor is 1.35, selected from
current is 90 amperes, less than the 140 ampere rating of the Table 24A3.
recloser coil. A minimum-trip value of 280 amperes permits For best fuse-recloser coordination, Type T links will be
the recloser to sense the lowest level of fault current in the used.
desired protected zone of 340 amperes at point ABC/31. Figure 17A3 compares the adjusted A curve (A x 1.35) to
Selection of a three-phase recloser at ABC/27 would allow the minimum melting-time characteristics of various T links.
use of ground-fault sensing, providing more sensitive trip values The 30T link is found to be too small for coordination, since
for faults involving ground. A possible ground-trip setting the current at the A-curve intersection is not satisfactory for
could be 100 amperes. If this were selected, the following the 1190 ampere maximum fault indicated. The 40T link, on
fuse selection procedures would be compared against the the other hand, will coordinate to a fault of 1430 amperes,
combined ground/phase characteristics of the recloser. and the 50T and 65T links have even higher coordination
To insure that the reclosers at ABC/27 can clear a transient points of 1950 and 2680 amperes.
fault without damaging or fatiguing the fuse link, the fuse-link

60 3600
50 \ 40 T Min Melt 3000
40 2400
1-1 50 T Min Melt
30 1800
\ \
20 \ \<" 1 65 T Min Melt 1200
\ \\
10
\ \ 600
8 c 480
6 360
\
5 300
4 '\ 240
3 i\ 1\
180

2 120
\I\
1\
\\ (j)
(f)
60 U5
<(
0 .8 48 fil
z '\.
N
0 .6 36 I-
0 ~·u~ \ r\. a:
w .5 30 w
(f) I
~
.4 24 6
w
~
.3 " 18 8
(f)
w
i= 1\ \ _J
.2 ...... 12 0
>-
\ 0
\ ~
0.1 1\ \\ 1\ 6.0 ~
.08 4.8 i=
\
.06
.05 .\ \
1430Amos~ K
" 2680 Amps
3.6
3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1950 Amps 1.8
I'
.02 \ \ \ 1.2
,I\
~\ \
.01 0.6
c.n en oo ....... 1\) W"" 01 0> CO~ 1\) W ""010>CO 1\) (,.)..,.01
000 0
0
0
0
00
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
g
0
g g gggg
0 0 0 0 0
§
0 0
0
0
000
000
0 0 0
0 000
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 17A3.
For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with T-link minimum melt curves.

114
 A3

The next step is to check coordination for permanent faults current. For example, the 40T link could be used for group
~ comparing fuse maximum clearing-time curves with the F1, and for any other taps where the peak-load current was
~er "C" curve. Figure 18A3 shows that complete coordi- less than 40 amperes; and the 50T link could be used for
l'lation is achieved with any of the three links (40T, 50T and group F2, and for any other taps with peak-load currents
65T) that passed the minimum-melt check, since none of the between 40 and 50 amperes. However, this approach would
lhree fuse maximum clearing curves intersect with the make it necessary for service crews to carry different size
fU:Ioser "C" curve. Any of these fuses will melt and clear for links and to take special precautions to make certain the correct-
lhe given fault-current range without resulting in a recloser size links are used for replacement. Use of a smaller link than
1Jip operation on the time-delay curve. the particular installation requires could result in loss ot
Fuse selections can now be made. One approach would coordination, fuse fatigue, and unnecessary fuse operation
be to select fuse sizes for each tap based on the load and outrages.

60 3600
50 I I I Ill I 3000
40 T Max Clear
40 I 2400
30 50 T Max Clear 1800
\I I
20 il \ 65 T Max Clear 1200
1\
10 \ 1\' 600
8 c 480
6 360
\ \I\
5 300
4 240
3 180
\ \.
2 \ 120
\ \
\ [\
\
en
U5
(J)
1 60 <(
0 .8 48 al
z "\.
0 .6 36 ~
0 A*1.35 a:
w .5 30 w
(J) I
z .4 24 6
w
::;;:
.3 \
\
' 18 :e.
(J)
w
i= 1\ \\ _J
.2 12 0
\ \ \ r-- >-
0
1\
0.1 ,\ \ \\ 6.0 ~
~

.08 '\.
4.8 i=
'\. '\.
.06
.05 " 3.6
3.0
.04 2.4
2400 Amps 4780Am ps
.03 1.8
3430 Amps"' ~
.02 1.2
r-...

.01 0.6
(T1 0'> OJ .....l. 1\) w .!>- (]1 cr> CXl ~ 1\) w .,(::::. (T1 0'> OJ .....l. 1\) W.!>-(]1
0 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 000
0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0
0
000
000
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 18A3.
Fer application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with T-link maximum clearing curves.

115
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination (Continued)

A simpler approach would be to select a single link size for If substantial load growth were anticipated, with possible
all fuse locations. In this example, the SOT link would satisfy increase in the size of the substation transformers, another
the requirements for both groups F1 and F2, and for any option would be to select and standardize on a 65T link,
other taps where the load current did not exceed 50 thereby providing capacity for taps up to 65 amperes and a
amperes. The maximum coordination current of 1900 higher maximum coordination current.
amperes would also allow use on any tap up to the substa- Coordination tables based on time-current curves simplify
tion itself. Thus, the SOT would probably be the only fuse link the task of thoroughly studying operating characteristics as
required for any tap off the main feeder between ABC/27 and required for any recloser and fuse-link coordination scheme.
ABC/29. Tables covering coordination ranges for reclosers and fuse
Figure 19A3 shows that the SOT link will coordinate with links, which are available from manufacturers, include all
the substation recloser from the minimum trip of the recloser standard ratings of single- and three-phase units set for two
to 1900 amperes, which is well beyond the 1650 ampere fast/two delayed sequences. Values in these tables can be
maximum fault available at the substation. modified for one fast/three delayed sequences.

60 y; i1 3600
50 3000
40 /}!--
50 TMax Melt 2400
~
30 1800
50 TMin Melt t/,%\
20 ~ 1200
I~

10 ~ ~I 600
8
c 480
~
6 1/j:.\
360
5 300
4 240
v.;
3 180
1\:0 r\
2 '%~ 120
i~v: r\
1\ r\ (j)
(j)
1 60 U5
<(
0 .8 48 rn
z '\
N
0 .6 IV:: '\. 36 I-
0
w .5 riA· ~ '<I? a:
30 w
(j) I
z .4 1'\. 24 6
w .3 ~
18 (j)
:::2: w
i=
.2
1\ _j

12 0
~ I' >-
'I\ I~ 1\
0
~
0.1 6.0 ~
.08 4.8 i=
IV ~
.06
.05 " .\: ij
3.6
3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1900 Amperes r/. 1.8
1:/: I'
.02 I' 1.2
['(~ ~~

.01
~ ~~ 1%
~ ~ ~ ~~ti 0.6
01ffiCO [\) c.u .~>- 01 m co ~ N c.u .~>- 01 m co [\) C.U.!>-01
0 00 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 8 00 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0000000
0
0
0
0
000
000
0 0 000
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 19A3.
For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with curves forT-link selected as standard.

116

Relay-Fuse Coordination
Relay-fuse coordination involves two distinct applications:
relay and source-side fuse, and relay and load-side fuse. In
both cases the relay is serving as a circuit breaker time-and-trip
control, but the coordination objectives of the two applications
are entirely different.
The objective of relay and source-side fuse coordination is
that the relayed breaker should go through its entire operating
sequence without causing fuse melting or damage, so that
the smallest segment of the circuit will be sectionalized. The
objective of relay and load-side fuse coordination, on the
other hand, is generally accepted to be a relay curve that is
slower than the fuse curve, so that fusing operation and iso-
lation of the fault take place before the breaker completes its
sequence. In the latter case, the addition of instantaneous
relay elements that function faster than the load-side fuse on
the first breaker operation provides a measure of transient
fault protection.
These two applications are discussed in detail below.
RELAY AND SOURCE-SIDE FUSE COORDINATION
The principal application would be a primary fuse protecting
a substation transformer, with a relayed breaker serving as the
secondary protection. Coordination can be undertaken by
either of two methods: total accumulated time or cooling factors.
For a comparison of relay and fuse time-current characteristics
to be made, both curves must be expressed on the same
voltage base by shifting one of the curves, as discussed in
the preceding section on recloser and fuse-link coordination,
beginning with the fourth paragraph under "Coordination with
Source-Side Fuse Links."
Total Accumulated Time Method
The simplest and most conservative method of achieving
coordination is to add up the relay fault timings that are
separated by less than ten seconds, the time typically
required for fuses to cool completely, and compare this total to
the fuse curve. A time margin of 50 percent of the source-side
fuse's minimum-melt curve is recommended to allow for
iJ•reloading, ambient, predamage, and non-repeatability of
relay characteristics. Some utilities use 0.3 seconds as a
'1largin rather than a percentage.
As a basis for discussion, an installation involving a relayed
tl•reaker and source-side fuse is diagrammed in Figure 20A3
The transformer and breaker ratings are indicated. The fuse is
a 125E power fuse. The overcurrent relay is a type IAC53, with
a CT ratio of 1000:5. It can be set at tap 2 or 4, and has an
nstantaneous tap setting of 10. The reclosing relay has a
reclosing sequence of instantaneous, 15 seconds, and 45
seconds. For more details regarding relay settings, refer to
'Circuit Breakers and Relays" in Section A2.
In Figure 21A3, the fuse and breaker relay curves are
:ompared. The fuse minimum-melt curve has been referred
:o the secondary by the voltage ratio 69/12.47 because the
7atlSformer connection is symmetrical - i.e., wye-grounded/
wye-grounded. For proper coordination up to 5 kA, it appears
1lat both relay time-lever settings (2 and 4) will coordinate for
A3
69-12.47/7.2 VOLTS
~CE ___3 t~ot----
-S&~ t
_
119-5 y• y•
10MVA
3-CYCLE
BREAKER =
@
Figure 20A3.
Diagram of installation with relayed breaker and
source-side fuse.
only one fault timing. But since the reclosing relay has an
instantaneous (INST) setting, the first two fault timings of the
relay must be added together and plotted for true comparison
with the fuse curve. With that in mind, it is obvious lever 4 will
not coordinate, since its curve crosses the fuse curve at the
5000 ampere level. Although the fuse will not necessarily
function on the first operation of the breaker, it could see
enough current for heat damage to occur.
Let us take a closer look, then, at the total accumulated
time for lever 2, with its instantaneous time as indicated
(Figure 22A3}. (The total accumulated curve consists of the
first two fault timings of the relay; the instantaneous element
was operative on the first shot only.) As can be seen, compar-
ing the adjusted lever 2 relay curve with the fuse curve shows
a margin greater than 50 percent for any fault level up to 5000
amps. Therefore, the coordination is acceptable with lever 2
and the settings shown.
Cooling-Factor Method
When coordination requirements are tighter, there is another
method that will result in more precise coordination. This
involves the use of cooling factors for the fuse link (explained
in Table 25A3) and an evaluation of the actual reclosing intervals
of the relay. The formula used is:
Teff = TF(N) + CN x TF(N-1) + CN-1 x CN x
TF(N-2) + ...
Where Teff = the effective fault timing of the relay
incorporating successive reclosing heating
effects.
CN =the cooling factor for the fuse during the tenth
reclosing (open) interval. This varies from 1.0
at very short reclosing times to 0.0 at long
reclosing times.
TF(N) = Nth fault duration of the reclosing device.
Use of the above formula also requires a knowledge of the
reset characteristics of the reset relay The relay's reset time
is 10 seconds (at 0 percent remaining load) for time-lever 2,
and the fuse's cooling factors are as shown in Table 25A3.
(Note that fuse-link cooling factors may not be generally
available from manufacturers.)
117
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Relay-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

60 3600
II Ill I I II II II I I II
50 3000
2400

~
40 125E
30 REFERRED ~~ 1800
TOSECONDAR y~ 000
MINIMUM
125E
~ .LJH
11. L
,..
BKR
20 MELT 1200

~
I \ ll~2.47/7.2
10 ~ \ 600
lAC 53 480
8
1000:5
6 1\ TL20R4 360
_l_l\. l CT 1000:5
5 300
2 TAP4
4 240
3 '" '" IT10
180

1\
2
' \ "' 120

en
0
z
1
.8
' ~
~

60
48
en
~
co
0 1::!
a:
u .6 36
w .5
en
~ .4
' \ loo..
30 ~
24 ~
w 18 en
:::!; .3
w
i=
.2
\_
-- ........
12
...J

~
~

0.1
INST \ 6.0 ~
w
1-
.08 4.8
.06 3.6
I\"
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8

.02 1.2

.01
'
8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 21A3.
Preliminary attempt to coordinate protection in Figure 20A3 example.

TABLE 25A3
Fuse-Link Cooling Factors*
Cooling Interval Cooling Factor
(Seconds) (Multiplier)
0.5 1.0
1 .93
2 .8
3 .68
4 .57
5 .46
6 .36
7 .26
8 .17
9 .09
10 .02
• Fuse-link cooling factors are used to determine the percentage of residual
higher-than-normal heat in the link at the indicated elapsed times following
exposure to melting current.

118
 A3
60 3600
50
Ill! I
3000
40 2400
30 69 12.47/7.2 1800
,_ ~®,
125E
125E II 1200
20
I \ I I 1ooo
I

' II
TOTAL

~
ACCUMULATED

cum
10 \

00
TIME 1-- 600
8 1-- lAC 53 480
1-- 1000:5
6 \ 360
\ i\ TAP4
5 Tl2 300
4 IT 10 240
T
INST-15-45
3 180
!\
2 1\ 120
I'
'
'
'iii
en 1 60~
0 .8 48fl)
z N
0 .6 36 li:
u
w .5 30w
en .J:
~ .4 24 ~
w .3
~
18 en
w
i= ._J

.2 \ 12 u
\ G
~

':fij
w
0.1 ~-+++ 6.0 ~
1-
.08 4.8
.06 3.6
\.
.05 3.0

•
.04 IT 2.4
.03 1.8

.02 =t=t=M 1.2

8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Ftgure 22A3.
Curve comparison with Lever 2 showing total accumulated time.

The reclosing relay timing would produce the operating

sequence shown in figure 23A3. The first step in the cooling-
factor method is to determine if the INST reclosure caused
fuse damage. This is essentially the operation performed in

r
the previous example, since the cooling factor is 1.0 for the
30-cycle (0.5 second} reclosing interval. The curves are
15
directly added.
45

Figure 23A3.
Relayed breaker operating sequence.
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Relay-Fuse Coordination (Continued)
If the first reclosing interval is one second, we would use
the following relation for a fault-current magnitude of 5000
amperes:
Teff= TN+ CN x TN-1 =TN+ .93 TN-1
Where TN = .40 (Nth or last fault timing occurs on
T.L.2).
TN-1 = .075 (next-to-last or first fault timing occurs on
INST curve.
We must then evaluate whether the total reclosing cycle
would cause a cumulative heating effect sufficient to blow the
fuse. Since the actual open time varies with the fault timing,
this must be done on a point-by-point basis, as in the following
examples.
Example 1
{INST- 15- 45 Reclosing Sequence)
At 1200 Amperes
1st fault timing = 6 seconds forT. L. 2.
1st reclosing interval .5 seconds.
%reset during interval= .5 (100) = 5%.
lO
2nd fault timing = (.05) (6) = .3 second forT. L. 2.
2nd reclosing interval = 15 - .5 - .3 seconds = 14.2
seconds; 10.
Total fuse cooling occurs after 2nd reclosing interval.
Teff = .3 + 1.0 (6) - 6.3 seconds.
At 2000 Amperes
1st fault timing = 1.5 seconds forT. L. 2.
1st reclosing interval = .5 seconds
% reset during interval = 5%
2nd fault timing = (.05) (1.5) = .075 seconds forT. L. 2.
2nd reclosing interval = 15- .5 - .075 seconds = 14.425
seconds; 10.
Total fuse cooling occurs after 2nd reclosing interval.
Teff = .075 + 1.0 (1.5) = 1.575 seconds.
At 3000 Amperes
1st fault timing = .09 seconds for I. T. setting of 10.
%disk travel= .09 (100} = 12.86%. (Although reclosing
7 relay tripped on instantaneous,
disk travels until reclosing occurs.)
1st reclosing interval = .5 seconds.
% reset during interval = ~ (1 00) = 5%.
10
Net travel= 12.86- 5 = 7.86%.
2nd fault timing= (.7) (1- .0786} = .645 seconds forT. L. 2.
2nd reclosing interval = 15 - .645- .7 seconds = 13.655
seconds; 10.
Total fuse cooling occurs after 2nd reclosing interval.
Teff = .645 + 1.0 (.09) = .735 seconds.
At 5000 Amperes
1st fault timing = .075 seconds for I. T. setting of 10.
Disk travel= (.075) (100} = 18.75%.
-:4
1st reclosing interval = .5 seconds.
% reset during interval = (.5) (1 00) = 5%.
10
120
Net travel= 18.75-5 = 13.75%.
2nd fault timing= (.4) (1 - .1375) = .345 seconds forT. L. 2.
2nd reclosing interval = 15 - .345 - .5 = 14.155 seconds:
10.
Total fuse cooling occurs after 2nd reclosing interval.
Teff = .345 + 1.0 (.075) = .42 seconds.
As can be seen, coordination is assured up to the maximum
5000 amperes. in this case, in fact, the more precise analysis
was somewhat academic. However, as shown in the following,
if reclosing settings are changed from instantaneous, 15, and
45 seconds to 5, 15, and 30 seconds, the analysis takes on
an entirely different meaning.
Example 2
5 - 10 - 30 Reclosing Sequence
At 1200 Amperes
1st fault timing = 6 seconds forT. L. 2.
1st reclosing interval = 5 seconds.
% reset during interval = 5/10 = 50%
2nd fault timing = (.5) {6) = 3.0 seconds forT. L. 2.
2nd reclosing interval = 15 - 5 - 3 = 7 seconds.
% reset during interval = 7/1 0 = 70%.
3rd fault timing = .7 (6) = 4.2 seconds forT. L. 2.
3rd reclosing interval = 30 - 4.2 - 7 - 3 - 5 = 10.8
seconds; 10.
Total fuse cooling occurs after 3rd reclosing interval.
Teff = 4.2 + .26 (3.0) + (.26) (.46) (6) = 5.7 seconds.
At 2000 Amperes
1st fault timing = 1.5 seconds forT. L. 2.
1st reclosing interval = 5 seconds.
% reset during interval = 50%.
2nd fault timing= (.5) (1.5) = .75 forT. L. 2.
2nd reclosing interval= 15-5- .75 = 9.25 seconds.
% reset during interval = 9.25/10 = 92.5%.
3rd fault timing= .925 (1.5) = 1.3875 seconds forT. L. 2.
3rd reclosing interval= 30- 1.39-9.25- .75-5 = 13.61
seconds; 10
Total fuse cooling occurs after 3rd reclosing interval.
Teff = 1.39 + .09 (.75} + (.09) (.46) (1.5) = 1.52 seconds.
At 5000 Amperes
1st fault timing = .075 seconds for I. T. setting of 10.
Disk travel= (.075) (100) = 18.75%.
.4
1st reclosing interval = 5 seconds.
% reset during interval = 100%.
2nd fault timing = .4 seconds.
2nd reclosing interval = 15 - 5 - .4 = 9.6 seconds.
% reset during interval = 9.6/1 0 = 96%.
3rd fault timing = .96 (.4) = .384 seconds.
3rd reclosing interval= 30- .38-9.6- .4-5 = 14.62
seconds; 10
Total fuse cooling occurs after 3rd reclosing interval.
Teff = .38 + .09 (.4) + (.09) (.46) (.075) = .42 seconds.
In general, the effects of the reset time of the electro-
mechanical relay and the timing characteristics of the reclosing
relay tend to offset each other. Therefore, the more precise
cooling-factor method of coordination is not often required.

RELAY AND LOAD-SIDE FUSE COORDINATION
1n, its simplest form, an overcurrent relay has a single curve,
and the objective of relay and load-side fuse coordination is
jO assure that the relay curve is slower than the fuse curve.
3y thus allowing the fuse to operate in the event of a fault
:cwnline from it, the breaker is protected from a permanent
".autt and only the smallest portion of the line is removed from
service.
Figure .24A3 illustrates a typical installation for study. The
""?lay settings are the same as those in the previous example
~nder "Relay and Source-Side Fuse Coordination."
3-CYCLE Q of the instantaneous element is, therefore, 1600 amperes
BREAKER
KLINK
\51
Figure 24A3.
Diagram of installation with overcurrent relay and load-
side fuse.
For coordination up to 5 kA, what is the maximum K fuse that
'Hill assure a maximum fuse clearing time that does not exceed
the relay time? A margin of 0.2 to 0.3 seconds between the
fuse's maximum-clear curve and the relay's time-lever curve
should generally be observed to allow for CT error, setting
errors, tolerances, overtravel, etc. For currents below three
tim~s pickup, a 10-percent time margin has proved workable.
Typically, the complete family of K-fuse maximum-clear
curves would be overlayed on the relay curve, and the fuse
whose curve is closest to the relay curve while satisfying
appropriate time margins is the maximum-size fuse that can
be used. With these considerations in mind it can be seen in
Figure 25A3 that a 200K link is the largest' that can be used
in this application.
A3
Approaches to Temporary Fault Protection
Of course, the single relay curve, as stated above, allows
only one of the objectives of distribution-system protection to be
achieved: removal from service of the smallest portion of the
system in the event of a fault. It also may be desirable to have
tem~orary fault protection, which, in the case of reclosers, is
obtamed as a result of a dual timing characteristic {discussed
in Section A2). In the relay-fuse installation under consideration
here, however, it may be necessary to attempt to achieve
coordination for temporary protection within the range of the
minimum fault current the recloser can sense up to the
maximum fault current available at the fuse location.
For example, protection against temporary faults will be
~btained by adding an instantaneous element with a tap set-
tmg of 8 to the relay in the study case. The minimum pick-up
(8x(1000/5)), which is roughly twice the pick-up of the time
curve. Figure 26A3 shows that temporary fault protection is
achieved from 1600 to 2700 amperes, but the 75 percent rule
observed for the fuse link produces a maximum of 2250
amperes. (Remember that the fuse minimum-melt curve is
shifted by 75 percent to account for ambient temperature dif-
ference, load current, and predamage.)
In general, this range of protection can be expanded by
lowering the instantaneous setting. The lower limit, however,
is often dictated by inrush and downline device coordination,
and the upper limit is fixed by the speed of the breaker.
Three-cycle interruption (0.05 seconds) is generally accepted
as the fastest fault clearing obtainable with a circuit breaker.
The range can also be expanded by the use of a ground over-
current relay with an instantaneous element. This addition
permits the instantaneous element to be set at lower levels.
The upper limit, however, is fixed by the relay and breaker
operating times.
If temporary fault protection (and the resultant fuse saving)
i~ desired in protection applications involving relays and load-
Side fusing, the process is maximized by using the largest
fuses practical on lateral taps and setting the instantaneous
element as low as possible. Maximum fuse size is governed
by conductor burndown and coordination with the relay time
curve.
121
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Relay-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

CURRENT IN AMPERES
1\)

1000
010> CDC
1\)
0 8 88888§ §
Boo 48000
140K 200K
600 36000
500 I 30000
400 I 24000
100K

@
300 18000
BKR.
200 000 12000
141"1
~~~5~ FUSE
100 1000:5 6000
80 DOWN LINE FUSE TAP4 4800
MAXIMUM CLEAR TL2
60 CURVES INST-15-45 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800

20 1200

10 1\ 600
8 480
6 RELAY 360
5
\ \ 300
4 \ 240
3 1\ 180

2
\ \ 1\ 120
~ \
1\ \
'
Cii'
Cll
1 soCii
<(
0
z .8 48~
0
u .6 \
\ 36 li:
w .5 30 ~
Cll
\
~ .4 24 ~
w .3
~
\ \ .... 18 Cll
w
;:::
.2
1\ 1\ i\ i""-.... ........ 12 ~
...J

'1\' \ ~ u
""' z
~ w
0.1 6.0 ~
1-
.08 4.8
.06 3.6
.05
.04 ' 3.0
2.4
.03 1.8
~
.02 1.2
1\
.01 0.6
~

8 88888§
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 25A3.
Comparison of fuse and relay curves for application in Figure 24A3 example.

122
 A3

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800
BKR
20
14Ji
lAC 53 140K
®).
000
1200

10 1000:5 600
TAP4
8 TL2 480
6 ITS 360
5
\ 300
4 240
140K
3 \ 180
1\
2 120
\
CJ) 1 \ ~ 1-- RELAY
60~
(j)

0 .8 481D
z N
0 .~
36li:
(.) .6
w \ 30w
CJ) .5 J:
~ .4
w .3
24
~
::!:
i=
' ..... 18 CJ)
w
..J
.2 1\. 12 >-
(.)

....' \
(.)
INST____., \ ~
w
0.1
.08
.06
' \. -
6.0 ~
4.8
3.6
1-

.05 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8

.02
' ~
1.2

.01
g g: ~ 8 8 88888§
CURRENT IN AMPERES
§ §§§§§~ '"
Figure 26A3.
Curves showing temporary fault protection with instantaneous element.

123
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Relay-Fuse Coordination (Continued)

Figure 27A3 shows a Southeastern utility's approach to

relay and load-side fuse coordination. The scheme allows
temporary fault protection by using low-set ground and a low-set
instantaneous element. These are both locked out by the
reclosing relay after the first shot, leaving only the phase time
delay for an interval of 10 to 15 seconds, after which all relays
are reestablished.

1~~~~~~~~fl~~~~~§§~§§!jjjfj§Et§~§E~~jjj§§~
~OO.AMPFUSE
60 MIN. MELT -1-M-+ 60
~ ~
40~~HH--~-.~~~+- 40
30 1--+~1-H-~--!++1--++-+++- 30

~
z
8 .6
~ .5
~ .4

~ .3
i=

.02

.Q1 ~......I...I.J.......--I---l..--l-...l...-'...L..I.L.LJ...U...I....--L.-J.-L.-:':-JU-I~~J.J...L.....--I---L--1-...L.I.-.I-I-J .Q1

iJ>ma,- 1\J "'~(]l(l) 000 ~ ~ ~~ 8 g:8 8 8 88
SCALE X 100 =MULTIPLES OF MINIMUM ACTUATED CURRENT

Figure 27A3.
Southeastern utility's approach to relay and load-side fuse coordination.

124
 A3

Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination
'USING TIME-CURRENT CURVES reclosers that are similar to the shape of hydraulic recloser
llecloser-to-recloser coordination is achieved primarily by the curves, many other fast and delayed curve shapes are avail-
selection of different series trip-coil ratings in hydraulic able to fit various coordination requirements.
oedosers, or different minimum-trip current values in electronic An important consideration when coordinating reclosers
"edosers. The proper selections are determined after a study with reclosers is the time (cycles) between the curves of the
of the reclosers' time-current characteristics. two reclosers. Different recloser types require different minimum
Tme-current curves of different hydraulic reclosers generally times between curves to prevent simultaneous operation , as
are of similar inverse shapes. If the reclosers involved have described in the following sections.
smilar timing mechanisms, their time-current characteristics
=-e not only similar, but also essentially parallel. This tends to HYDRAULICALLY CONTROLLED RECLOSERS:
snplify coordination. COORDINATION BASICS
Microprocessor controlled reclosers, on the other hand, Smaller Reclosers (Series Coil Operated)
offer a variety of time-current curves. With the number of time- When coordinating hydraulically controlled reclosers in series,
anent curves and minimum trip values available, the charac- the minimum time required between time-current curves differs
Eristics of a microprocessor controlled recloser generally can depending on the recloser types involved. On smaller single-
be tailored to fit any coordination requirement. and three-phase reclosers, movement of the series trip-coil
Tme-current curves can be selected to make best use of dual plunger (when accelerated by overcurrent flowing through the
tnling- a feature on all reclosers that can be programmed so series coil) opens the recloser contacts and loads the closing
lhat the first operation(s) in the recloser sequence are on a springs. Cooper Power Systems reclosers of this construc-
fast time-current curve and are followed by delayed-curve tion are Types H, 3H, 4H, V4H , L, V4L, 6H , V6H, E, 4E and
operations. Figure 28A3 illustrates a typical set of time-current V4E. When two such reclosers are in series, time-current
curves for a hydraulic recloser, with A being the fast curve, B curve separation of less than two cycles will always result in
delayed, and C extra delayed. Some hydraulic reclosers offer simultaneous operation, and separation of two to twelve cycles may
ttvee or four delayed curves in addition to the one fast curve. do so. When curves are more than twelve cycles apart, how-
While there are curves for microprocessor controlled ever, simultaneous operation will not occur. (Table 26A3.)
TABLE 26A3
20 1200 Time-Current Curve-Separation Guidelines for Series
Operation of Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
10 600 Reclosers* Definite Possible Never
480 (Cooper Slmul- Slmul- Simul-
7
\ Types) taneous tan eo us taneous
\
360 Operation Operation Operation
5 300
\ 240 Series Coil Operated Less Than 2 to 12 More Than
J ~ 180
(e.g.: H, 3H, 4H, V4H, L, V4L, 2 Cycles Cycles 12 Cycles
6H,V6H, E, 4E, V4Ej
2 \ \ 120 (i) High-Voltage Solenoid
Closing (e. ~, r:N, R, Less than 2 to 8 More than

~ \. som
~ RX, RV, W, 27, WV38X,
VW, VVVV27, VWV38X)
2 cycles cycles 8 cycles
1

7
48 ~ •source-s1de recloser diCtates the necessary curve separat1on.
a:
36 w An example of the application of such reclosers to be coor-
os I'
JOr
\ dinated in series by selecting coil ratings is shown in Figure 29A3.
z
8.3 \ '" 24 ~
18 (i)
Three reclosers with adjacent coil sizes are programmed for

'
a 2A2C operating sequence. Branch lines tap off at intermediate
-.2
~
;:::
1\. " ' ~ 12
w
d
~
points between reclosers. The time-current characteristics of
these reclosers, Figure 30A3, indicate that, at a fault current
I
i\ ~ ""c
6.0 ~
w of 1000 amperes, the fast characteristics (A curves) are clos-
er than two cycles, which means that this fault current on the
B. 4.8 1-
load side of the 50 ampere recloser can cause simultaneous
3.6
3.0 fast operations by all reclosers. Also, simultaneous operations
2.4 may occur at this current even on delayed timing, since the
A separation between delayed curves at 1000 amperes is
1.8
approximately three cycles for the 50 and 70 ampere units
1.2 and eight cycles for the 70 and 100 ampere units.
At 500 amperes, separation between the delayed curves of
the 50 and 70 ampere units is 13.7 cycles, and between the
~ 00
M
0
0 0
0
'1:1' ~
00
,......
8
-
0.6
70 and 100 ampere units. 28.8 cycles. At this level of fault
current, coordination would exist between the reclosers even
CURRENT (AMPERES) though limited simultaneous operation would result, based
on characteristics of the fast curves. For a 500 ampere fault
Rgure 28A3.
Yypical ABC time-current curves for 50 ampere, single- on the load side of the 50 ampere recloser, all three units may
phase hydraulic recloser.

125
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination (Continued)

perform their two fast operations simultaneously, but during

the delayed operation only the 50 ampere recloser would 100 AMPERE
clear the fault by opening before the 70 and 100 ampere 2A2B
units. The 50 ampere unit would lock out for a permanent
fault on its load side, and the other two units would reset.
On special occasions where hydraulically controlled
reclosers in series must have the same series-coil rating,
coordination can be achieved by setting the reclosers to
operate on different sequences and different delayed time-
current curves. However, the requirement on time between
curves at the fault-current levels involved still applies and
should be confirmed. 100 AMPERE
Figure 31A3 shows an example in which all reclosers have 2A2B
100 ampere coils, but ACRE1 is set for a 1A3C sequence
while ACRE2 and ACRE3 are set for 2A2B sequence. Should
Figure 31 A3.
a fault occur at point F, ACRE1 and ACRE2 will simultane- Diagram of reclosers coordinated in series by means of
ously perform one fast operation. operating sequence selection.
This response is expected because both reclosers are
operating on the same time-current curve. The ACRE2 on the
2A2B sequence then completes its second fast operation
50-AMPERE before ACRE1 can operate on its delayed C curve. If the fault
is permanent, ACRE2 operates to lockout because ACRE2
operates on the B curve faster than ACRE1 operates on the
ALL2A2C C curve. This assumes sufficient time between the B and C
SEQUENCE
curve to prevent simultaneous operation at the fault-current
level involved.
With this method, the branch-line fault causes one brief
interruption of loads along the primary feeder. For a permanent
fault at F, only ACRE2 will lock out. ACRE1 will lock out only
for a permanent fault on the primary feeder such as K.

Larger Reclosers
100-AMPERE (High-Voltage Solenoid Closing)
On larger single- and three-phase hydraulically controlled
Figure 29A3. reclosers (such as Cooper Types D, DV, W, VW, WV and VWV),
Diagram of reclosers coordinated in series by selection movement of the series trip-coil plunger merely releases the
of coil ratings.
preloaded opening springs. A separate closing solenoid loads
the opening springs and closes the contacts. Consequently, as
shown in Table 26A3, the minimum time allowable between
10 time-current curves without incurring simultaneous operation is
8
6 different than for the smaller reclosers discussed earlier. When
5 the larger of two reclosers in series is of this type (separate
\ \
4
\ 3
closing solenoid), time-current curve separation of less than
en \ \1\ 2
two cycles will result in simultaneous operation, but when the
curves are separated by more than eight cycles, the possibility
~ ~r\
1i)
~ 69.0!-
of simultaneous operation is remote.
1 Except for this difference in curve separation required to avoid
N
t- .8 en
ffi 40.2 70A simultaneous operation, coordination of the larger hydraulically

., .,
.6 0
J:
0 26.5!-· 1\- .;. . .\- ·- .55 controlled reclosers is the same as for smaller units.
.4 ()
CD 50A'.. 100A ~ .3 w
~ 16.5t- ~-
~ MICROPROCESSOR CONTROLLED RECLOSERS:

' ""
w 100C
.2 w COORDINATION BASICS
...J
()
>-
g 6.0
\ \ 1\ ~ soc 70C
.1
:::i!
i= Microprocessor controlled reclosers offer a wide range of operat-
w 4.8 .08 ing characteristics to closely meet individual system require-
:::i! .07 ments. For all reclosers to be coordinated, consideration
i= 3.6
.05 must be given to minimum trip levels for ground faults and
-~ .04
1.8
----= .OJ phase faults, choice of time-current curves, operating
sequence, reclosing intervals, and application of acces-
1.2 .!)2
sories.
Adjacent electronically controlled reclosers can be coordinated
0.6lil cog oco~o 8N og ego co 0 g gog g 8 closely together since there is no override or follow-through
-.::1"\ll
~"'g ~g 0
o8o o o
~
Q
M . . t.n(OCO~ of electronic circuits. If the load-side recloser clears faster
CURRENT (AMPERES) than the response time of the sourceside recloser, coordination
is assured. Load-side clearing time with its plus tolerance
Figure 30A3.
Time-current curves demonstrating recloser coordination must be less than the sourceside control response time with
by means of adjacent coil selection. its negative tolerance.

126

A general guideline for coordinating electronically controlled
oeclosers - after voltage ratings, interrupting capacities, and
continuous current capacities for the reclosers to be used in
1he system have been established - is to do so by means of
mW'Iimum trip levels and time-current curves.
With microprocessor controlled reclosers, the minimum trip
level chosen does not alter the maximum continuous
CUTent capacity of the recloser - unlike hydraulically controlled
&:losers, in which the minimum trip and continuous current
l3lings are related in that both are properties of the series
coi. In microprocessor controlled reclosers, the minimum trip
CUTent programmed in the control circuits is independent of
lhe recloser's maximum continuous current rating. However,
lhe minimum trip current chosen should account for anticipat-
ed peak system-load current. Also, it should be chosen so that
1he recloser operates for any fault current in its protection zone.
Because protection against temporary faults is needed for
lhe line between the substation recloser and load-side
lledoser, the substation recloser should have at least one fast
aperation. The load-side recloser will coordinate with the
souce-side recloser if it has the same or greater number of
fast operations. Delayed curves should be chosen so that the
'Dad-side recloser can operate to lockout on a permanent
tot without the backup unit tripping after it performs its fast
aperations. Simultaneous trippings can be eliminated by the
selection of proper curves and use of the Cooper sequence
coordination accessory, which is discussed later in this sec-
1i1Jn under "Features and Accessories for Microprocessor
Controlled Reclosers:·
bample of Microprocessor Recloser Coordination
Mhough coordination of microprocessor controlled reclosers
is done via time-current curve studies, the coordination of
curves to each other is different than it is with hydraulically
cmlrolled reclosers. Please refer to Figure 32A3 and the follow-
llg example.
A3
consideration of anticipated peak load currents on the system
and the lowest fault-current level in each recloser's zone of
protection. For the Type WE, ratings from which the trip current
can be selected range from 50 to 1120 amperes. Minimum
trip values of 1120 amperes for the substation recloser
(ACRE1) and 400 amperes for the line recloser (ACRE2)
were selected to facilitate cold-load pickup after an outage
and to allow for future load growth.
The time-current curves shown in Figure 33A3 are typical
and are used for clarity of illustration. On an actual system,
many influences not apparent from this isolated example may
necessitate consideration of different curve shapes.
Since the purpose of this example is to show the relationship
of one recloser to the other, time-current curves A (fast) and
B (delayed) will be reviewed first. For clarity, tolerances have
been ignored here but should be considered in actual practice.
Faults down line of ACRE2 should be cleared by the line
recloser before the ACRE1 control responds. On fast opera-
tions, the curves show that, at fault-current levels of 1900
amperes and higher, the two reclosers will operate simulta-
neously. On delayed operations, since the 117 response
curve for ACRE1 is slower throughout than 117 clearing for
ACRE2, the line recloser (ACRE2) will clear without the sub-
station recloser opening on its delayed curve. Assuming a 2-
101 , 2-117 sequence on both reclosers, a 3000 ampere per-
manent fault downline of ACRE2 would cause two simultane-
ous fast trips of both reclosers, followed by two delayed trips to
lockout of ACRE2, after which ACRE1 would reset. The entire
feeder would have experienced two short fast interruptions. By
setting the substation recloser (ACRE1) to 1-101, 3-117, one
of the unnecessary feeder interruptions can be avoided.
10 600
8 117 CLEAR . 480
ACR2(400)
G~~~HM+r-\+-+-~++H-++~--+-+-~++~360

The maximum substation three-phase fault current is 5 \ D

4 ~0
~.(X)()() ampers and maximum load current is 450 amperes. At a
sectionalizing point down the line, maximum three-phase
3f-+H+~~-++t--\-+-++-t-t-++t-++++t-+-+-!-+-++H180
f;;Ut current is 3600 amperes where maximum load current is 2f-+H+-H-++t---+-\'H-,+-t-t-++t-++++t-+-+-!-+-++H120
"60 amperes. With these ratings factored into the recloser en
1~~~~~~~~~~~tf~~~~~~60 ~
aiiJI)ication criteria discussed earlier, the Cooper Type WE
I'IE!doser would fit both the substation application and the line
a~~JP~ication. Unquestionably, other recloser types have a range .8~ ~ a:~
Dl ratings that would satisfy these requirements, and the WE enG \ 36w
~ .5 30 :I:
lii'E are used here merely as typical. User selection depends
illllso upon operating experience, system construction, and 8.4 \ 24~
ax:epted practices. w .3 I\. I\. 117 RESPONSE 18 en
!!?. I' I' ACR1 (1120) w
Selection of the specific minimum trip currents must include w .2 101 CLEAR 12 ..J

~ ACR2 (400) ~
w

· 1m~~~~§lftm~~~g§!EmB.O:::!
1
~ u~
.06 1....... " " 3.6
~5 ~ 10
~ ~

m 1B
HHH++++H-~~I~\101RESPONSE~~,+++H
.02 ACR1 (1120) 1.2
l l l l i I II II

1\ II II II
~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~
CURRENT (AMPERES)

Rgure 32A3. Figure 33A3.

Qcuit diagram for coordination of electronically TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 32A3.
controlled three-phase controllers.
127
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination (Continued)

Alternate Coordination Scheme Sequence Coordination

Improved coordination would be achieved by employing a
slower fast curve on the substation recloser, such as illustrat-
ed in Figure 34A3. With ACRE1 programmed for 2-104, 2-
117 simultaneous tripping is avoided for fault currents below
3700 amperes, which is above the level expected in ACRE2s
zone of protection. This method is advantageous where faults
are predominantly temporary in nature and clear after one or
two fast-trip operations, but it has disadvantages when a per-
manent fault is encountered. In response to a permanent
fault, ACRE2 operates twice on its fast curve and sequences
to its delayed curve, but since ACRE1 is still on its 104
response curve, it operates twice by beating ACRE2's 117
curve. Again, there are two unnecessary feeder interruptions.
The ideal is to have ACRE1 avoid those unnecessary inter-
ruptions yet still maintain its dual-timing capability for proper
protection in its own zone. This is easily accomplished by
activating the sequence coordination feature in the substation
recloser control. This feature and others are described in the
next section.
10 600
8 117 CLEAR 480
ACR2(400)
s~~~hn~r-~+-~r+rH~HH;+--~r+~HHH~
5 300
4 \ m sensed by the backup recloser, no operation occurs, and
3 1\. ' 180
2HH~~I\.~r-~'~~++~++H-~;-rr~1W
\ (i)
The sequence coordination feature is used to improve service
continuity on lines protected by reclosers in series. It prevents
unnecessary fast-trip operations of the back-up recloser on
faults that can be cleared by the down line unit.
The two typical recloser operations without sequence coor-
dination in Figure 35A3 are similar to the examples in the
preceding section. In example A, two reclosers with similar
fast curves are in series. A permanent fault beyond the downline
recloser is sensed by both reclosers, which then trip simulta-
neously on their fast curves.
Even if the two reclosers had not tripped simultaneously,
because the fast curve of ACRE2 is faster than ACRE1 (illus-
trated in example B, Figure 35A3), the backup ACRE1 will trip
twice on its fast curve when the downline ACRE2 sequences
to its delayed curve. In either case, service to the area
between reclosers has experienced two short, but unnecessary
interruptions. Both of these situations are discussed in the
preceding example of microprocessor recloser coordination
and the alternate coordination scheme.
In sequence-coordinated operation, diagrammed in the
Figure 36A3, the backup recloser merely counts the fast
operations of the down line reclosers but does not trip. Its pro-
gram sequence is advanced twice toward its delayed opera-
tions, but no trip signal is issued. Therefore, while the fault is
when the downline recloser reaches its time-delay opera-
tions, it alone trips because of the difference in time-current
characteristics. Consequently, the needless service interrup-
tions to the area between reclosers are prevented.

1~~~~~§f~~~~~~~~~~~~: ~II:
Sequence coordination functions on fast operations only,
.8~ N so the number of operations that will be coordinated is deter-
jg .s104 CLEAR -"~--+-+-+'k-+++-+lf+++--+--+-+-i-+11-H36 mined by the number of fast operations programmed for the
Z _5 ACR2(1120).\" 30 w source-side recloser. The fast TCC for the source-side
8 .4 \\ \ 24 l: recloser must have a response curve slower than the clear-
~ .3 \ \ ~ 117 RESPONSE 18 ~ ing TCC for the load-side fast curve.
~ .2
~
~

,,
.'\ \
" ACR1 (1120)
12 ~
(i)

u
~
When ground tripping is employed on reclosers that use
sequence coordination, the same requirements must be met
by the ground-trip TCCs as described above for phase trip.
Figure 37 A3 shows typical ground-trip curves for source-side
· r~~~~~Em~m~m~~~~~~G.O
1
.08 101 4.8 ~ (ACRE1) and load-side (ACRE2) reclosers. As in the compar-
CLEAR '\. ~
J.s w
ison of TCC's in the phase TCC analysis, the response curve
: :~"'~c~R~2~(400~~)t~~a~~~~~~~~~~J.O
~

.OJ
...... ~

1.8
for ACRE1 must be slower than the clearing curve for ACRE2.
Of course, the requirements specified under "Electronically
HHK+-+++++-+-+-t-++-N104 RESPONS '\ Controlled Reclosers: Coordination Basics" also must be
.o21-+H+-H++t---+-t-++t-tt ~q~\W20> met.
1 1 -+-~-++H 1.2

1\ II II Instantaneous Trip
At higher fault-current levels, the instantaneous trip feature
~ ~~§~~~ extends the range of recloser coordination with source-side
CURRENT (AMPERES) devices. Above a predetermined level of fault current, it allows
the control to bypass the programmed time-current characteristic
Figure 34A3. and immediately trip the recloser without intentional time
Alternate TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure delay.
32A3.
Instantaneous tripping can be programmed to occur when
fault current exceeds a selected multiple of minimum trip current.
A range of multiples is provided to allow operation of this feature
FEATURES AND ACCESSORIES FOR at the desired level for the particular application, and the
MICROPROCESSOR CONTROLLED RECLOSERS accessory can be set to operate on any one or more trip
Improved flexibility and coordination are made possible by the operations in the sequence. The multiple for ground trip need
use of various features and accessories available with not be the same as the multiple for phase. For fault currents
microprocessor controlled reclosers. Coordination studies may below the selected minimum trip multiple, the control will time
be more complicated, of course, but the accessories can provide and trip according to its normally programmed characteristics.
many benefits in the form of improved system performance.

128
 A3

OPEN
LOCKOUT

117 117
CLOSED -

~TIME------ ...

FAULT
START

OPERATION WITH SIMULTANEOUS TRIPPING

BvL
OPEN ------~.;nn~
CLOSED - - • ....- - - - - - - - - - - -
1
OPEN--- ------1---
1 LOCKOUT

CLOSED---
-
0
I
I 111 117

I
FAULT
START
TIME - - - - - - •

OPERATION WITHOUT SIMULTANEOUS TRIPPING

Figure 35A3.
Diagrams of two examples of microprocessor recloser operation without sequence coordination on backup recloser.

c
I
:1-------"-~__;:=-
~ PAOGAAMSEOUENCESTEPS
ACR •
I I
BUT RECLOSER CONTACTS
DO NOT OPEN
I I
SEQUENCE COORDINATED I I
2-104, 2-117 CLOSED--~~-----~-------------------------
OPEN --,..---- --· ----- ------ LOCKOUT

CLOSED ~ J.Q! 117 117

TIME-

SEQUENCE-COORDINATED OPERATION

'9ft36A3.
lllgrams of microprocessor recloser operation with sequence coordination on backup recloser.

129
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination (Continued)

CURRENT (AMPERES) 100

0

lll co~ ~ g~g ~~ ~ ~~~ ~~ 70

FUSE MIN. MELT -
50 SHIFTED FOR TRANSFER RATIO-

30
I II
-~e
,.,
20 r-

360
·--6000
E 2400 ~
1BOO en
1200 ~
10

6
5
I\
F' > 400A

(jj 4
CII 0
600 1-N z 3 RECLOSER DELAYED\
a: 0 PHASE-TRIP CURVE
360 UJ
u \
UJ 2 MULTIPLIED PER
J:

~
240 0 ~ TABLE22A3
UJ RECLOSER
180 !e. ::; TCC
120 en
UJ
i= 1
EXTENDED 1-
...J .Bt----·
60
~ .6
36 8 .5
24
18
UJ
::!!
i=
.4r--- j-RECLOSERTCC
t- AS ALTERED BY--:"
.3r--- FEATURE
'"~
3.6
12
N0.113_1. I_! ··I".

-~ ~ ~t~ ~ ~ i~ ~ ~ ~ C~L~E~AR~I~N~G~TI~M~E
.2
r~
6.0 \
.1 r\
.OJ
.02
N0.113CONTROLRESPONSETIME ~
18
'
12
.08
.06
.05
.o 1 Ll111 111111111111 llllliiiUII o.6 .04
288 gg 8 8 § R 0 0
8 §
e ~ 8
ln co~ o ooo og g o ooo og 0
~ M~U")
00
M~l!'l ~ g~§ ~~ l'l 51
.- N 000
'"' 0
R e
CURRENT (AMPERES) CURRENT (AMPERES) '"'

Figure 38A3.
Figure 37 A3. . . . . TCCs illustrating coordination of recloser, equipped with
Typical ground-tnp curves show1ng safe coordmat1on instantaneous trip feature, and source-side primary
zone when sequence coordination accessory is used.
fuse.

To keep pace with changing system requirements, the

minimum trip multiple can easily be changed to any other
value within the range or to different operations of the sequence.
Coordination of a recloser with the instantaneous trip fea-
ture active with a source-side primary fuse is illustrated in
Figure 38A3. The recloser has a minimum trip setting of 400
amperes and, with the delayed time-current curve shown but
without instantaneous trip, coordination with the primary fuse
would be lost with fault currents of approximately 1600
amperes and higher.
With an instantaneous trip multiple of four, however, the
recloser will trip instantaneously at any fault current level
above 1600 amperes, so that, in this case, coordination with
the primary fuse is extended to about 7000 amperes.
Adequate margin must be provided between the recloser
TCC and the fuse minimum melting curve to prevent fuse
damage or fatigue.
Instantaneous tripping allows coordination to be tailored to Figure 39A3.
the requirements of the system. For example, again using a Diagram of coordination scheme utilizing reclosers with
multiple of four, a fault at F1 in the system diagrammed in instantaneous trip feature active.
Figure 39A3 would initiate instantaneous tripping for any fault
greater that 1600 amperes. The fault would be isolated by the Instantaneous Lockout
sectionalizer (83), which requires only momentary current Additional flexibility is provided by the instantaneous lockout
durations to activate its counting mechanism. feature, which permits the control automatically to shorten its
A fault at F2, however, would not activate instantaneous sequence when fault current above a preset level is encoun-
tripping because of the lower fault-current level. The recloser tered. This feature is valuable for minimizing the effect of
will operate on its normal 2-1 04, 2-133 sequence, and the high-magnitude, close-in faults where there is a high probability
delayed 133 curve will allow the fuse to clear the fault. the fault is permanent and coordination with downline devices
is not required. By reducing the shots to lockout on faults
above a preset level, the likelihood of equipment or conductor
damage is considerably reduced.
130

The instantaneous lockout operates in the same manner
as instantaneous trip. Minimum-trip multiples are specified
from a range of values. The feature can be set to lock out the
control after the first, second, or third operation.
Instantaneous Trip/Instantaneous Lockout
'C ombination
Combining instantaneous trip and instantaneous lockout
giYes the control yet another step of application flexibility:
1t1e ability to provide three "zones" of protection. For example,
equipping the recloser applied in Figure 39A3 with instanta-
'1eOUS lockout as well as instantaneous trip enables use of a
zoned protection scheme as illustrated In Figure 40A3.
Control operation on faults in Zone 3 would be the
programmed 2-1 04, 2-133 sequence, providing normal
'ledoser fuse coordination for a fault at F2.
With the instantaneous trip set at a minimum-trip multiple
of tour, faults in Zone 2, which would exceed the 1600 ampere
level, could cause four instantaneous trip operations.
t-lowever, for faults beyond the sectionalizers, coordination with
!he sectionalizers (covered in a later section) would limit them
m three, as the fault at F1 would be cleared by the sectionaliz-
er on the third operation.
For close-in faults (Zone 1), where high-magnitude fault
anent could cause conductor burndown or possible substation
ecJ.ipment damage, the instantaneous lockout can automatically
shorten the control sequence. Setting the feature at a mini-
ftJfll trip multiple of 16 would activate it at 6400 amperes.
Above that fault level, the instantaneous lockout, set for one
operation to lockout, minimizes the number of high fault cur-
Blls seen, thereby reducing the possibility of line and eq~ip­
'!Delll: damage. Where the probability is high that trans1ent
BJts might occur in Zone 1, the instantaneous lockout could
be set to allow two Zone 1 operations.
A3
RECLOSING INTERVAL
The time between a recloser's overcurrent opening operation
and the next closing operation (lockout not considered) is
known as the reclosing interval. Recloser contacts are open
during the reclosing interval, which may range from 0.~ seconds
for instantaneous reclosing to 1000 seconds, depending on the
type of recloser and the application. Somet.hin~ in be.tween
these two extremes will be used for most apphcat1ons, w1th two
seconds being the most common. Of course, microprocessor
controlled reclosers offer the greatest flexibility.
Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Reclosing intervals for Cooper hydraulically controlled
reclosers are shown in Table 27 A3.
On all single-phase and the smaller three-phase units
(Types 6H and V6H), the indicated reclosing interval is fixed,
with no adjustment or selection available. On the larger three-
phase hydraulically controlled reclosers (Type W series), the
standard reclosing interval is two seconds, but an accessory
can be included to provide a 30 cycle reclosing interval on
the first reclosing operation. This would enable a 30 cycle,
two-second sequence of reclosing intervals to be employed
on a four-shot recloser program.
TABLE 27A3
Reclosing Interval Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
'
Cooper Reclosing Interval
Recloser Type (seconds)
H, 3H, 1.0
4H , 6H 1.5
V4H , V6H 1.5
L,V4L,D, D~E,4E,V4E 2.0
W, WV27, WV38X, R, RX, RV,
VW, VWV27, VWV38X, 2.0*
• Accessory available for 30-cycle reclos1ng on first operation.

4DO-AMPERE
2-104 2-133

~-----ZONE1------~----------ZONE2----------~----------ZONE3-----------

figure 40A3. k b" t"

llilgram of zoned protection possible with instantaneous trip/instantaneous loc out com 1na Jon.

131
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination (Continued)

Microprocessor Controlled Reclosers such as Multipliers, Minimum Response Time Adders, High
A wide range of reclosing intervals can be programmed on Current Trip, etc through a series of dialog boxes within the
microprocessor controlled reclosers: from the shortest possi- configuration software. While this is effective, the actual time
ble time, called instantaneous (0.3 seconds) reclosing, to current curve is not displayed in the software. The second
intervals as long as 1000 seconds. The choice of reclosing method offered by Cooper Power Systems is a graphical TCC
interval is influenced by a number of factors. Editor that is a separate application integrated with the config-
Instantaneous reclosing, being the shortest contact-open
uration software. The TCC Editor allows visual indication of all
time, provides the best chance of maintaining motor loads
such as industrial supply, irrigation systems, or other loads the base TCC and all the modifiers to immediately verify that the
that drop oH with an extended open period. Instantaneous TCC is correct per the desired system coordination. The TCC
reclosing is frequently desirable for the first reclosing in the Editor's capabilities also include creating a completely unique
sequence. TCC by entering time/current data coordinates which the
There are, however, disadvantages. Instantaneous reclosing Editor software converts to a data set in the format required by
may not allow sufficient time to clear transient faults, such as the control into which it is to be loaded. The Cooper Power
a tree limb in contact with a line, or lines blown together in the Systems controls use an Import and Export feature to share
wind. Also, ionized gases from the fault arc may not have the TCC between both applications.
dissipated. The graphical TCC Editor also includes the ability to create
The two-second reclosing interval is quite common. It curves based on both ANSI and IEC standard formulas.
provides more time for transient faults to clear and ionized gases
to dissipate, but an interval longer than two seconds further TABLE 28A3
increases the possibility of motor loads dropping off. When TCC Curve Cross Reference
used between fast trip operations, a two-second reclosing F6 Curve F3 Cross
interval allows more cooling time for load-side fuses. Name Reference Index
A five-second reclosing interval often is used between the Kyle 101 A 0
delayed trip operations of a substation recloser to allow more Kyle 102 1 1
cooling of the high-side fuse. This permits the recloser timing Kyle 103 17 2
to be closer to fuse minimum-melt timing. Kyle 104 N 3
Longer reclosing intervals (1 0, 15 seconds, etc.) generally Kyle 105 R 4
Kyle 106 4 5
are used if the back-up protection is a mechanical relay-con-
Kyle 107 L 6
trolled breaker. This allows the timing disk on the overcurrent Kyle 111 8*, 8+ 7
relay more time to fully reset. Kyle 112 15 8
Kyle 113 8 9
Examples of Reclosing Intervals Kyle 114 5 10
Kyle 115 p 11
Typical sequence on a line recloser where back-up protection
Kyle 116 D 12
is another recloser: Kyle 117 B 13
Kyle 118 M 14
INST, 2-sec, 2-sec Kyle 119 14 15
or Kyle 120 y 16
2-sec, 2-sec, 2-sec Kyle 121 G 17
Kyle 122 H 18
Kyle 131 9 19
Typical sequence on a station recloser with a high-side Kyle 132 E 20
fuse involved (recloser trip sequence set for two fast, two Kyle 133 c 21
delayed operations): Kyle 134 z 22
Kyle 135 2 23
INST, 2-sec, 5-sec Kyle 136 6 24
or Kyle 137 v 25
2-sec, 2-sec, 5-sec
Kyle 138 w 26
Kyle 139 16 27
Kyle 140 3 28
Typical sequence on a recloser where back-up protection Kyle 141 11 29
is a relayed breaker (recloser trip sequence set for two fast, Kyle 142 13 30
two delayed operations): Kyle 151 18 31
Kyle 152 7 32
Kyle 161 T 33
INST, 2-sec, 15-sec Kyle 162 K-Phase 34
or Kyle 163 F 35
2-sec, 2-sec, 15-sec Kyle 164 J 36
Kyle 165 K-G round 37
Reclosing intervals of longer than two seconds generally are IEC lnv n/a 38
IEC VI n/a 39
used only after delayed trip operations. Instantaneous or two- IEC El n/a 40
second intervals generally are used after fast trip operations. Constant n/a 41
ANSIInv n/a 42
ANSI VI n/a 43
TCC EDITOR™ ANSI El n/a 44
Many microprocessor recloser controls have the capability of USER1 n/a 45
modifying time current curves by various methods. As an USER2 n/a 46
USER3 n/a 47
example, Cooper Power Systems has developed two methods
USER4 n/a 48
for modifying TCC's. The first method is through setting modifiers USERS n/a 49

132
 A3

Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination

To achieve proper coordination of a downline device with a
relay-controlled breaker or recloser, the characteristics of the
overcurrent relay must be understood. As discussed in
Section A2, the two types of overcurrent relays involved are
microprocessor and electro-mechanical. Each is described
below as it relates to recloser coordination.
MICROPROCESSOR OVERCURRENT RELAY
The typical microprocessor relay has fast reset of timing. Thus,
coordination is relatively simple, since there is essentially no
·overshoot" or "coasting" of the timing function to be consid-
ered. The response or relay time may be used without adjust-
ment to determine if tripping will occur, with the goal of assur-
ing that the down line clearing time is faster than the minimum
retay time. Because of the microprocessor relay's fast reset,
::umulative timing of a downline recloser is not a factor.
ELECTRO-MECHANICAL OVERCURRENT RELAY
Unlike microprocessor relays, electro-mechanical relays (e. g.,
Westinghouse Type CO and General Electric Type lAC) have
several characteristics that must be considered for coordina-
tion with a downline device.
Impulse Margin Time
When timing on a fault current, the relay disk moves toward
the closed position, and it will "coasf' for a short time after
being deenergized when the fault is interrupted by a down line
device. This additional movement is called coasting time or
impulse margin time. The times involved are as follows for a
CO relay:

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800

20 1200

"C" ~C0-81lHL.
10 600
8 480
6 \ 360
~
5 300
4
3
,, 240
180

2
'_\ '\ 120

en 1
~ .8
\ ' 60~
48 CD
Ul

N
8 .6 36 ::t
~ .5 30~
~ .4 24 ~
~ .3 .......... 18 en
>= .... w
....1
.2

"A" [\
' ~
12 ~
u
z
w
~ 6.0 ~
0.1
1-
.08 4.8

.06 ...... 3.6

.05
1".. 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 1.8

.02 1.2

.0 1

8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

~re 41A3.
CGmparison of relay impulse margin time and breaker curves.

133
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination (Continued)

TIM: Impulse Margin Thus, when operating with a downline recloser, the relay time
Relay Type Time-Seconds tends to accumulate.
C0-2 0.05 Reset times of typical electro-mechanical overcurrent relays
C0-6 0.06 are shown in Figure 42A3.
C0-7 0.05
CO-B 0.03
C0-9 0.03
C0-11 0.03

The formula for determining impulse margin time is

TIM =TOP-TI

in which TIM is impulse margin time, TOP is relay operating

time, and Tl is minimum fault time (impulse time), during
which sufficient inertia is supplied to the disk to cause it to
coast closed following deenergization.
Figure 41 A3 shows the effect of impulse margin time for an
application involving a C0-8 relay with the time lever set at
1 112. "A" and "C" are the fast and delayed recloser curves.
At 1600 amps: TOP = 3.0 seconds, TIM = 0.03 seconds,
and Tl = 2.97 seconds.
At 10,000 amps: TOP= 0.3 seconds, TIM= 0.03 seconds,
and Tl = 0.27 seconds.
Impulse margin time (TIM) is significant at the higher
currents and lower time-dial settings.

Reset Time 2 4 6 8 10
TIME DIAL POSITION
The typical electro-mechanical relay does not reset immediately
after deenergization, but rather requires significant time for Figure 42A3.
the disk to return to its original position. Reset times of typical electro-mechanical relays.

134

Methods for Checking Relay and Downline
Recloser Coordination
1. For a single-shot (nonreclosing) downline device, compare
the curves and add 0.3 seconds to the downline device's
clearing time. This conservative approach is illustrated in
Figure 43A3.
A3
A more accurate approach is to add impulse margin time
to the clearing time of the downline device. The relay time
must be greater than this. Either allow for tolerances, or use
actual timing data and allow for variations due to temperature
plus any other variations.

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800

20 1200

~
10 1\ 1\ 600
8 480
\
6 \ 360
__\
5 300
4 240
3 l\. 180
1\
2 '
~ _1
~
120

(/)
1
\ ~' 60
(jj
~
48 ~
Q
z .8
0
u .6 36 lr
UJ .5 30 ~
g
(/)
C+0.3
~ .4 24
UJ 18
::!: .3
(/)
_::-...... UJ
;::: ~
C0-8
~

.2
"I' f""'o u
12 >
u
~
I' !'I UJ
0.1
.08 " c 6 .0 ~
4.8
1-

.06
.05
' ~
3.6
3.0
A
.04 2.4
.03 1.8

.02 1.2

.01

§§§§§~
~
0'1 O'J CXJ -.
0 0 0 8 8 88888§ §
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figln43A3.
llllllly-recloser coordination check with 0.3 seconds added to recloser clearing time.

135
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination (Continued}

2. For a reclosing sequence of a downline recloser, add all
times of the sequence and compare to the relay curve, as
in Figure 44A3. This does not account for resetting of the
relay disk between operations. It is an extremely conserva-
tive method and may not be realistic for many applications.
A more accurate approach is to calculate actual relay disk
travel for each trip operation of the downline recloser, add
recloser timing plus relay impulse time for each trip, and subtract
the relay reset time for each reclosing interval. Following is a
demonstration of this method.

60 3600
50 3000
40 2400

30 1800
1\
20 1200

10
8
'\ l 600
480
6 "\\ ~ 360
5 300
4 _, 240
3 \. ' 180
\ \
\ \
2
' 120

en
Cl
z
1
.8
\ ' '1\ 60 ~
48 ID
en
N
0
(.) .6 36 tr
w 30 ~
en .5
~ .4 3C 24 ~
w .3 18 en
:::!: ~ w
i= --~- C0-8 -'
.2
r\ 12 >
(.)

"
(.)

"~
w
0.1
~ 60 ~
.08 c 4.8
1-

.06
.05
" ....... 3.6
3.0
.04 A 2.4
03 1.8

.02 1.2

CD ~

§ §§§§§§
~ r\J
0 8 8 88888§
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 44A3.
Comparison of total reclosing sequence time with relay curve.

136
 A3
RECLOSER AND RELAY/CIRCUIT BREAKER Relay reset during 2 sec. reclosing interval . . .- 6.7 percent
COORDINATION ANALYSIS Net relay travel ... . . . ...... .. . . . ... .... .4.1 percent
Let us examine the coordination possibilities for a recloser Relay travel during second A operation ...... + 5.8 percent
that has a 2A/2C sequence with two-second reclosing intervals, Relay impulse travel .... . .. .. ... . . . ......~ percent
and an inverse relay curve set for 300 amperes minimum Net relay travel . . ..... . ... . ....... . .... 14.9 percent
pickup and no. 5 time lever. (See Figure 45A3.) The relay Relay reset during 2 sec. reclosing interval ... - 6.7 percent
requires approximately 0.6 seconds to close contacts on Net relay travel .... . .... . . . .... . .... . ... 8.2 percent
1000 amperes, and 30 seconds to reset fully. It has an
impulse margin time of .03 seconds. Relay travel during first C operation
(.3/.6 x 100) ............. . ......... .+ 50.0 percent
Recloser clearing time on A curve at 1000 Relay impulse travel .... ... ......... . ....±...M percent
amperes . ...... . .... . .... . ........ . .0.035 second Net relay travel . . ........... . ... . .... . .63.2 percent
Recloser clearing time on C curve at 1000 Relay reset during 2 sec. reclosing interval . .. - 6. 7 percent
amperes . ... .. ...... . .... . ......... .0.030 second Net relay travel . ... .. . .... . .... . . . .. .. .56.5 percent
Relay reset during 2-second open time of recloser Relay travel during second C operation .....±.QQ,.Q percent
(2/30 X 100) ................... . ....... 6. 7 percent Total relay travel ... . .. . . .. ... . ... .. ... 106.5 percent
Impulse margin time (.03/.60) .. . ... .. . . ..... 5.0 percent Since the total calculated relay travel is greater than 100
percent, the circuit breaker will trip during the last "C" curve
timing operation of the recloser. This can be corrected by
50 changing the last reclosing time of the recloser sequence to
40
30 a longer time - for example, to 10 seconds. This adjustment
20 is used as the basis for the following recalculation, starting at
the time before the first C operation in the preceding analysis.
10 1-- RECLOSER CURVES
8 c
6 Operation Relay Travel
5
4 \
! I\ OCBRELAY Net relay travel . . .... ..... . . . .... .. ..... . .8.2 percent
3
2 I~ CURVE
Relay travel during first C operation
~ 1 \ (.3/.6 X 100) . . . . ...... . ....... . ..... + 50.0 percent
~ .8 Relay impulse travel . . .... . .. . ......... . .±..Q..Q percent
u .6
w .5 ~ Net relay travel . . ... . ... . .. ... ... .... . .63.2 percent
!2 .4
\
w .3
........ Relay reset during 10 sec. reclosing interval
:IE
;:: .2 \ (10/30X 100) .. . ... .. .... . . . . . . . ... . .- 33.3 percent
Net relay travel ...... . .... .. ..... . .....29.9 percent
1
.08 Relay travel during second C operation . . . . .+ 50.0 percent
.06
.05 Relay impulse travel ... . . . .. . . . ....... . .. + 5.0 percent
.04 Total relay travel .......................84.9 percent
.03 r--.
.02
Since the total relay travel is less than 100 percent, the
o ogoooo breaker does not trip and coordination is therefore attained.
~ ~ .. §~~~ The current at which this analysis is performed should be
CURRENT (AMPERES) selected at the point where the recloser and relay curves
have minimum separation. If the calculated coordination is
Agure45A3. "tight," a second point should be used to verify coordination
Tine-current curves for recloser and relay/circuit breaker throughout the entire current range. The entire process is
coordination. repeated for the second point.

c.lculation of Relay Travel During Recloser

Operation

Operation Relay Travel

Relay travel during first A operation
(.035/0.60 X 100) .. . ....... . ..... . ...... 5.8 percent
Relay impulse travel ........ .. .... . ......±...M percent
Initial total relay travel .... . ... . ... . .. . .. 10.8 percent
A Overcurrent Protection
3." PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Sectionalizer Applications
A review of the basic sectionalizer application factors covered
in Section A2 may be desirable before considering the coor-
dination principles and specific applications discussed here.
SECTIONALIZER COORDINATION PRINCIPLES
The following basic coordination principles should be
observed in the application of sectionalizers.
1. The minimum actuating current of a sectionalizer should
be 80 percent of the minimum trip of the source-side
device (recloser or breaker). For electronically controlled
sectionalizers, the actuating current is set directly. For
hydraulically controlled sectionalizers, the minimum actuat-
ing current is 160 percent of the series coil rating. When
coordinating a hydraulically controlled sectionalizer with a
backup recloser that is series coil operated, the sectionalizer
coil should have the same current rating as the backup
recloser. The 160 percent factor for actuating current will
assure positive coordination with the recloser's 200 percent
factor of minimum trip to coil size.
2. Sectionalizers not equipped with ground-fault sensing
should have their phase actuating current selected to coor-
dinate with the ground minimum-trip setting of the backup
device. This will assure that the sectionalizer will sense and
count all load-side faults cleared by the backup device.
With this more sensitive setting, however, the possibility of
erroneous counts due to inrush currents must be considered.
For electronically controlled sectionalizers, several restraint
features are available to prevent false counts. For hydrauli-
cally controlled sectionalizers, the actuating current level
should be at least ten times the peak load current at the
sectionalizer location. A more sensitive actuating current
setting may result in false counts and lockout because of
inrush currents produced by backup-device trip operations
in other parts of the circuit.
3. The sectionalizer should be set to lock out in one less
operation than the backup device. This general rule need
not apply in the case of several sectionalizers in series,
where successive units may be set for one, two, or three
operations less than the backup recloser.
4. The opening and reclosing times of the backup device
must be coordinated with the sectionalizer's count memory
time. The combined tripping (except for the first trip) and
reclosing times of the backup must be shorter than the
sectionalizer's memory time, as shown in Figure 46A3. If
the backup operating time is longer than the sectionalizer's
memory time, the sectionalizer will partially ''forget" the
number of backup tripping operations. This may require an
extra backup trip operation and result in the backup lock-
ing out for a fault beyond the sectionalizer, in which case
both the backup device and the sectionalizer would be
locked out.
5. Three-phase sectionalizers are limited to coordination with
three-phase simultaneous-opening backup devices.
Nonsimultaneous phase tripping of backup devices could
result in an attempted fault interruption by the sectionalizer,
which is not designed for such operation.
138
FIRST SECTIONALIZER COUNT rTHIRD COUNT
SECTIONALIZER
OPENS
I-SECOND
I COUNT
SECTIONALIZER MEMORY TIME
FAULT
1 - - - - - BACKUP TIME 3 'I
-
URRENT R2
TIME
R1 & R 2 =1ST AND 2ND RECLOSING TIMES
Figure 46A3.
Sectionalizer memory time, three counts to lockout.
RECLOSER AND HYDRAULICALLY CONTROLLED
SECTIONALIZER COORDINATION
Because sectionalizers do not have time-current curves as do
fuse links, their coordination does not require a study of curves.
In the typical application shown in Figure 47A3, th~ backup
recloser is set for four shots to lockout. These operations may
be any combination of fast followed by delayed timing.
The sectionalizer must be set for fewer counts than the
backup recloser, and in this case, three counts are selected.
If a permanent fault occurs beyond the sectionaliz~r, t~e
sectionalizer opens and isolates the fault after the th1rd tnp
operation of the recloser. The recloser then re-energizes the
unfaulted sections to restore them to service.
SUBSTATION
50-AMPERE COIL
50-AMPERE COIL SO-AMPERE
100-AMPERE MINIMUM TRIP ACTUATING
Figure 47A3. . . . .
Basic sectionallzer-recloser coordmat1on, w1th recloser
set four shots to lockout.
If additional sectionalizers are added in series, they can be
set for fewer counts to lockout, as shown in Figure 48A3. A
fault beyond the last sectionalizer actuates the ~ecloser, ~nd
all three sectionalizers count the current mterrupt1on.
Sectionalizer C, however, locks out to isolate the faulted
branch. The recloser restores the unfaulted lines to service,
and sectionalizers A and 8 then reset. Note that there is no
protection for temporary faults beyond sectionalizer C. Also,
setting hydraulically controlled sectionalizers for fewer than
three counts prevents the use of fuses down line from the
sectionalizers.
 A3

OIL TEMPERATURE (F)

1 COUNT
·22 ·4 14 32 50 68 86 104 122 140 158
-.f.---{ c l - - - ~ 200
SECTIONALIZERS >
w
l
50-AMPERE COIL 0
SO-AMPERE Q.
::I
ACTUATING :.l:
~ 150
Ill
w~
ACR ll
~~
50-AMPERE COIL
100-AMPERE MINIMUM TRIP
u.Z
oo
wU 100
::!!~
1\
Figure 48A3.
i=u:J
frl~
\
Sectionalizers added to branch lines; recloser set four
shots to lockout.
~~-
~ 50
COORDINATION
IN THIS AREA. \
'
::I
(.)

~
r--...... .... ~
Coil Sizes ...J
Hydraulically controlled sectionalizers are rated similarly to ~
hydraulically controlled reclosers, since both have coils that Q -30 - 20 ·10 0 10 20 . 3() 40 50 60 70
establish the continuous-current and minimum actuating-current OIL TEMPERATURE (C)
ratings. For hydraulically controlled sectionalizers, matching
the series coil with the series coil of the backup will assure Figure 49A3.
coordination. For example, a recloser rated 50 amperes con- Coordination curve for hydraulically controlled
tinuous will coordinate with a sectionalizer rated 50 amperes sectionalizers.
continuous. The sectionalizer can carry the same load current
as the recloser, but to provide positive coordination, its minimum
actuating current is 80 amperes compared to the recloser's TABLE 29A3
minimum trip current of 100 amperes (that is, the SO-percent Oil Temperature Rise
relationship discussed above).
Load Current Approximate Temperature Rise
(% of coil rating) ("C) ("F)
llemory Time
Hydraulically controlled sectionalizers were originally designed 25 2 4
br use with hydraulically controlled reclosers. Since hydraulically 50 7 13
controlled reclosers generally have a maximum two-second 75 15 27
rectosing time, hydraulically controlled sectionalizers have a
memory time that is fixed (there is no choice), but which will proper coordination. These appropriate fault times and
M>rk with any hydraulically controlled recloser. The memory reclosing times during which the sectionalizer must retain the
lime depends on the resetting of the sectionalizer's hydraulic proper count constitute what is called "total accumulated
counting circuit; thus, the memory time is a function of the time": the total time in seconds from the instant of interruption
viscosity of the oil in the hydraulic mechanism, which in turn on the first fault operation to the instant of interruption on the
is dependent upon the temperature of the oil. last fault operation the sectionalizer counts before locking
Figures 49A3 and 50A3, and Table 28A3 provide information out.
b accurately determining whether or not the hydraulically When a hydraulically controlled sectionalizer is set to lock
controlled sectionalizer will coordinate with a backup device. out after counting three fault currents, the total accumulated
Figure 49A3 shows the memory time of hydraulically time (TAT) of the backup device is the sum R1 + F2 + R2 + F3
c:ontrolled sectionalizers as a function of maximum oil in seconds. If the sectionalizer is set to lock out after two
left1lerature and the operating sequence of the backup counts, the TAT is R1 + F2 . Should the sectionalizer be set for
device. Maximum oil temperature is the ambient temperature one count to lockout, there is no need to be concerned about
pbs the temperature rise of the oil due to current flow through memory time.
lie sectionalizer. Two requirements involving memory time must be met to
Table 26A3 indicates the approximate oil temperature rise assure that a hydraulically controlled sectionalizer will coordi-
llill occurs in a hydraulically controlled sectionalizer at various nate with backup devices:
~rrent levels. Assuming a period of load-current flow
1. Accumulated fault current on time cannot exceed 70 percent
l[llliol'to sectionalizer operation, the temperature rise is added of the allowable TAT. In a two-count sequence, F2 cannot
-.e sectionalizer ambient temperature to determine an exceed 70 percent of TAT = R 1 + F2. In a three-count
lfiiP'OXimate maximum oil temperature. sequence, F2 + F3 cannot exceed 70 percent of R 1 + F2 +
f9,1re 50A3 indicates the portions of the backup operating R2 + F3.
...,.ence that must be considered to determine 2. At the established oil temperature (ambient plus rise), the
total accumulated time must not exceed the value indicated
by the sectionalizer coordination curve, Figure 49A3.
Following are two coordination examples for which FIIQiftS
49A3 and 51A3 will serve as references.
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Sectionalizer Applications (Continued)

TOTAL ACCUMULATED TIME

OPERATION OF BACK-UP DEVICE

L =LOAD CURRENT
F, = 1STTRIPTIME
R, = 1ST RECLOSING TIME
STARTI-+------TOTALACCUMULATEDTIME-------+1
F2 =2NDTRIPTIME
R2 =2ND RECLOSING TIME
F, =3RDTRIPTIME SECTIONALIZER
R, = 3RD RECLOSING TIME OPENS

MAX. POSITION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

2ND POSITION

START
SECTIONALIZER TRIP PISTON POSITIONS
- - - - ACTUAL COUNT RETENTION
I I / ;' I THEORETICAL WITH NO RESETIING

Figure 50A3.
Sectionalizer count retention as related to backup operating sequence.

Example 1
Conditions:
Maximum ambient temperature .................. a5o F
Sectionalizer coil size .................... 100 amperes
Normal load current ...................... 50 amperes
Backup OCR .........set for 1 fast, 3 delayed operations
Sectionalizer ..................set for 3 counts to open
Maximum oil temperature ........... a5o + 13° = gao F
From the coordination curve in Figure 4gA3, allowable TAT
at gao F is 2a seconds. Figure 51A3 illustrates this example,
and explanation follows:
To meet memory-time requirement no. 2, the maximum
current on-time (F2 + F3 ) for a TAT of 2a seconds is 2a x 0.70
= 1g.6 seconds (round off to 20 seconds).
Therefore, F2 plus F3 cannot exceed 20 seconds.
To meet memory-time requirement no. 1, the TAT must not
exceed 2a seconds. With F2 and F3 each at ten seconds, a
maximum limit can be calculated for R1 and R2 as shown
below:
TAT = (R1 + R2) + (F2 + F3)
R1 + R2 =TAT - (F2 + F3)
= 2a- (1 0 + 10)
=a seconds
Therefore, the sum of the two reclosing times cannot exceed,
but can be less than, eight seconds.
Example2
Conditions:
Maximum ambient temperature .................. a5o F
Sectionalizer coil size .................... 100 amperes
Normal load current ...................... 50 amperes
Backup OCR ......... set for 1 fast, 3 delayed operations
Sectionalizer ..................set for 2 counts to open
Maximum oil temperature ........... a5o + 13° = gao F
The allowable TAT is again 2a seconds; with the sectionalizer
set for two counts to open, there is only one fault current
on-time (F 2) and only one reclosing time (R 1). Therefore, the
fault current on-time (F 2) cannot exceed 20 seconds, and the
reclosing time (R 1) must be a seconds or less.
Voltage Restraint
This feature, which enables the sectionalizer to discriminate
between source-side and load-side interrupting devices, is
available on three-phase hydraulically controlled units. It is
discussed in the following section, under"Sectionalizer Features."

140

R, - - M - - F, = 10 ~~~-----<---++-- R 2 ---+l~-
f - - - - - - - - - - ALLOWABLE TAT= 28 SEC.--------~
Figure 51A3.
lotal accumulated time of hydraulically controlled sectionalizer.
RECLOSER AND ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED
SECTIONALIZER COORDINATION
Selection of Actuating Levels
=·:x coordination of electronically controlled sectionalizers
'111'ii:h reclosers, the sectionalizer's continuous current rating
rluSt be equal to or greater than the maximum load current
3i: the point of application, and the minimum actuating level
T"'IUSt be selected in relation to the minimum trip of the back-
..c recloser.
For example, on the system shown in Figure 52A3, the
:leak load current is 130 amperes, and the minimum trip cur-
'IEfll of the three-phase recloser at the substation is 280
inrperes. The three-phase electronically controlled sectional-
.2er has a maximum continuous current rating of 400
il""llp9res, and its minimum actuating current is 80 percent of
re minimum trip value of the recloser, or 224 amperes.
~ ~
-
130
~
AMPERES ~ (for electronic control) or a lockout operation (for hydraulic
SECTIONALIZER
280-AMPERE MINIMUM TRIP 224-AMPERE
2A2D MINIMUM ACTUATING
Agure 52A3.
EJanple of recloser-electronically controlled sectionalizer
CICOI'Ciination.
Sectionalizer Features
-'"le mtures described below apply to sectionalizers manufac-
"ured by Cooper Power Systems; similar or additional features
11ra1 be offered by other manufacturers. Except for voltage
IIF.STaint, the features discussed are available only on electron-
llii:all"f controlled sectionalizers.
A3
COUNT RESET
This feature resets to zero any accumulated counts whenever
the current through the electronically controlled sectionalizer
flows without interruption for longer than the time programmed
(after a successful reclose of the backup device). Count reset
will operate with any current flow from a minimum load of five
amperes to the minimum actuating current. To coordinate
properly with the backup device, the count reset time selected
for the sectionalizer must be greater than the reset time of the
backup. Reset times of 15, 30, 60, and 120 seconds are
available with the selector switch. (The count will also reset to
zero whenever the sectionalizer is opened, either manually or
automatically.)
VOLTAGE RESTRAINT
Proper _and complete application of sectionalizers frequently
necessitates use of a voltage restraint feature (available only
on three-phase units), which enables the sectionalizer to
discriminate between the operation of source-side and load-side
devices. It accomplishes this by blocking a count operation
control) when source voltage is present at the sectionalizer
after current interruption-a condition indicating that a down line
device (recloser or fuse) interrupted the current. This feature
allows use of the more effective two-fast, two-delayed sequence
on the backup device.
In a typical electronically controlled sectionalizer application,
the sectionalizer is located between two reclosers as shown
in Figure 53A3. For a fault (F1) beyond the load-side recloser
(ACRE2), only the load-side recloser operates, and the
sectionalizer does not count because source voltage is not
interrupted. For a load-side fault (F2) interrupted by the
source-side recloser (ACRE1 ), the sectionalizer counts the
!a~lt interruption and operates normally, since source voltage
1s mterrupted.
141
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Sectionalizer Applications (Continued)
Figure 53A3.
Typical application of sectionallzer located between two
reclosers.
For hydraulically controlled sectionalizers, voltage restraint
will not insure proper coordination if there is a possibility of
cascading trip operations of the reclosers on fast-trip curves
when the down-line recloser is set for a two-fast, two-delayed
operating sequence. For a fault at F1, assume ACRE2 per-
forms its two fast-trip operations, but ACRE1 does not trip on its
fast-trip curve. The sectionalizer will count the two operations
of ACRE2 (voltage restraint on a hydraulically controlled sec-
tionalizer blocks lockout only, not counts), ACRE2 will
sequence to its time-delay curve, and ACRE1 will then trip on
its fast curve. The sectionalizer will count this voltage inter-
ruption (the source-side recloser tripped) as a third operation
and trip open, since the voltage restraint does not prevent the
opening operation.
COUNT RESTRAINT
The count restraint feature performs essentially the same
function as voltage restraint in that it permits the sectionalizer
to discriminate between the operation of source-side and
load-side interrupting devices. It does this by blocking the
count operation as long as a load current of five amperes or
more flows through the sectionalizer, thus indicating the
source-side device is closed and that fault interruption has
been performed by the load-side device. The advantage of
this feature over voltage restraint is that no voltage sensing is
required; the disadvantage is that a minimum of five amperes
of load current must be present.
Again, refer to Figure 53A3 for a typical application. For a
fault (F1) beyond the load-side recloser (ACRE2), only the
load-side recloser operates, and the sectionalizer does not
count because load current through it is not interrupted. For
a load-side fault {F2) interrupted by the source-side recloser
(ACRE2), the sectionalizer counts the interruption and oper-
ates normally, since load current through it is interrupted.
CURRENT INRUSH RESTRAINT
The current inrush restraint feature makes the sectionalizer
insensitive to inrush currents resulting from subsequent
operations of a source-side recloser or breaker after interruption
of a permanent fault on another part of the circuit. The inrush
currents otherwise would appear as faults, thus causing the
sectionalizer to count in error.
Whenever loss of source voltage is not preceded by current
above the original actuating current level, the current inrush
restraint increases the actuating current level of the sectionalizer
to a predetermined multiple of the original setting (2, 4, 6, or
8 times, or block) and holds it there for a selected time (5, 10,
15, or 20 cycles). At the same time, ground overcurrent is
blocked entirely for a period of 0.3, 0.7, 1.5, 3, or 5 seconds.
The time through which the actuating current is held at the
raised level is measured from restoration of system voltage.
The settings at which this feature is applied must be deter-
mined based on system inrush current characteristics.
GROUND-FAULT SENSING
Complete coordination of electronically controlled sectional-
izers with backup reclosers or circuit breakers is made possi-
ble with the ground-fault sensing feature, which insures
counting of all ground-fault currents interrupted by backup
fault-protection apparatus.
With this feature, the sectionalizer incorporates separate
sensing and actuating characteristics for both phase and
ground faults. Minimum ground-fault actuating current set-
tings normally should be approximately 80 percent of the
minimum ground-fault current setting of the backup device.
However, on grounded-wye systems, the minimum ground-
fault actuating current should be set no lower than the load
current through the sectionalizer; if lower, the sectionalizer
may count and open for faults on its source side.
RECLOSER, SECTIONALIZER, AND FUSE·LINK
COORDINATION
Application rules and coordination practices for each of these
devices must be considered in order to attain proper coordi-
nation. Both the sectionalizer and the fuse link are selected
to coordinate with the recloser, but the sequence of the
recloser may have to be modified to obtain proper operation
for a fault beyond the fuse when using a hydraulically con-
trolled sectionalizer without the voltage restraint feature.
If, for example, a recloser is set for a typical two-fast, two-
delayed sequence (Figure 54A3), the sectionalizer will count
twice on the first two operations of the recloser, and will count
the third time when the fuse blows, on the first delayed oper-
ation. The sectionalizer counts the fuse clearing as the third
current interruption and erroneously isolates the section
between it and the fuse link for the system. This is not prop-
er coordination.
SUBSTATION ACR FUSE LINK
---1 5Q-AMPERE 5Q-AMPERE
2A2C 3 COUNTS
Figure 54A3.
A two-fast, two-delayed reclosing sequence is not rec-
ommended for hydraulically controlled sectlonallizers
without a voltage restraint feature.

A recloser sequence of one fast followed by three delayed
operations will permit proper coordination of a recloser, a
hydraulically controlled sectionalizer, and fuse link (Figure
55A3). The sectionalizer counts once on the recloser's first
fast operation, and the fuse blows while the recloser is timing
on its first delayed operation, which is actually the second
operation in the recloser's sequence. The sectionalizer regis-
ters its second count when the fuse clears and remains
closed. Since the fault has been removed by the fuse, the
sectionalizer and recloser both reset.
SUBSTATION SECTIONALIZER FUSE LINK
50-AMPERE 50-AMPERE
1A3C 3COUNTS
Figure 55A3.
Example of recommended coordination scheme with
recloser set for a one-fast, three-delayed sequence.
Note, however, that voltage restraint (standard on electron-
ically controlled sectionalizers and an accessory on
hydraulically controlled units) does permit the more typical
two-fast, two-delayed recloser sequence when used with a
three-count sectionalizer in series with a fuse, since it prevents
the sectionalizer from tripping on the third backup operation,
when the fuse blows. The count restraint feature on electron-
ically controlled sectionalizers will also prevent count of the
fuse operation if the remaining load current through the
sectionalizer is a minimum of five amperes.
A3
SUBSTATION ELECTRONIC
SECTIONALIZER
Figure 56A3.
Coordination of recloser, electronically controlled sec-
tionalizer, and recloser.
RECLOSER, SECTIONALIZER, AND RECLOSER
COORDINATION
Figure 56A3 illustrates a coordination scheme with a recloser,
an electronically controlled sectionalizer, and a recloser. An
electronically controlled sectionalizer is equipped with voltage
restraint and count restraint, thus permitting a recloser to be
used successfully on the load side of the sectionalizer by
preventing the sectionalizer from counting tripping operations
of the downline recloser.
CIRCUIT BREAKER AND SECTIONALIZER
COORDINATION
The principles involved in the application of reclosers with
sectionalizers must be followed in applying circuit breakers with
sectionalizers. Generally, hydraulically controlled sectionalizers
are not used with breakers because of their typically long
reclosing times. Electronically controlled sectionalizers can
be used by following the procedures outlined under "Recloser
and Electronically Controlled Sectionalizer Coordination."
143
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

Automatic Load Transfer

The preceding sections have dealt primarily with. overl.oad
protection on radial distribution systems, where the Ideal IS to
limit Outrages to the lowest possible number, and to limit
those that do occur to the shortest possible duration and
the lowest possible number of customers. All of this to
be achieved, of course, within the guidelines of the individual
utility's protection philosophy, which must be based in large
part on establishing a proper balance between cost to the
customer and occasional inconvenience.
There are many critical loads, however, that cannot tolerate
interruptions of any length. Among these are airports, shopping
centers, hospitals, sports arenas, water systems, prisons,
continuous-process mills, and other loads of such a nature
that additional steps and costs to avoid power Outrages can
easily be justified. For such applications, or wherever the
need for a very high degree of distribution system reliability is
established, automatic load transfer and loop sectionalizing
(to be covered in the next section) can be used to keep outage
times to a practical minimum, or to maintain service to the
greatest portion of the load or its most critical areas.
LOAD TRANSFER SCHEMES UTILIZING
RECLOSERS
In the schemes discussed below, load transfer is accomplished
with specially equipped electronically controlled reclosers
located in both the preferred-source and alternate-source
lines. Setups for manual return and automatic return are
described. In the schematics used for illustration, the red
lines represent energized portions of the circuit.
Load Transfer with Manual Return
In this example (Figure 58A3), the electronically controlled
reclosers are equipped with Cooper Power Systems Type LS
controls. Load is normally fed from the preferred source- S1.
Recloser ACRE1 normally is closed and senses voltage
(one or three phases) on its source side. It opens after a time
delay upon loss of S1 voltage.
ACR1

SWITCHED LOAD TRANSFER SCHEMES

A line schematic of a simple load transfer scheme using a
Cooper Power Systems Type S transfer control and electrically LOAD
operated switches is shown in Figure 57 A3.
ACR2
In this scheme, power normally is supplied from a preferred
source and automatically switched to an alternate source if
the preferred source is lost. Upon restoration of the preferred-
source voltage, the load then is switched back automatically
or manually. Return switching can be either in a closed transition
(parallel return) mode, in which preferred source closes before
alternate source opens, or in an open transition mode (non- Figure 58A3.
parallel return), in which alternate source opens before Diagram of manual-return load transfer scheme utilizing
reclosers. Energized portions of circuit are gray.
preferred source closes.

TO
IMPORTANT
LOAD

PREFERRED ALTERNATE
SOURCE SOURCE
SWITCH .....__ _ ___._ __
SWITCH ....._--+---~

SENSING SENSING
TRANSFORMER(S) TRANSFORMER(S)
SINGLE OR THREE SINGLE OR THREE
PHASE PHASE
TYPE
s
CONTROL

Figure 57A3.
Diagram of switched load transfer scheme.

144
 A3

Recloser ACRE2 normally is open and senses voltage

(one or three phases) on its load side. It closes after a time ACR1
delay (longer than ACRE1) upon loss of load voltage. In addi- S1
tion, ACRE2 will prevent any attempt to close ACRE2 if S2 is
not energized.
When preferred-source voltage (S 1) is lost, the controls of
LOAD
both reclosers sense the loss of voltage. If voltage is not
restored within the time delay selected, ACRE1 opens. After ACR2
a longer time delay, ACRE2 closes to restore service to the
load (Figure 59A3). (A momentary cold-load pickup setting
can be used for ACRE2 to prevent tripping on inrush.) When
preferred-source voltage (S1) is restored, transfer back to the
preferred source is done manually. (NOTE: If the sources can
be paralleled during transfer, an automatic-reset setting can Figure 61A3.
be used to close ACRE1 when voltage on S1 is restored. Figure 58A3 scheme with both reclosers locked out as
However, ACRE2 must be opened manually.) result of load-side fault.

ACR1 Load Transfer with Automatic Retum

S1 In this set-up (Figure 62A3), electronically controlled
reclosers again are used in both the preferred-source and
alternate-source lines. Both reclosers are equipped with Type LS
controls, or one recloser control is equipped with a Cooper
LOAD Power Systems Type S control. A requirement of this scheme is
ACR2 that the reclosers must be near enough to each other to
establish a communication link between them. Load is normally
fed from the preferred source, 81 .

ACR1
Agure 59A3. S1
Agure 58A3 scheme with load transferred to alternate
source.
LOAD
If a permanent fault occurs on the load side of the system,
as shown in Figure 60A3, the preferred-source recloser
ICRE1) operates to lockout. The alternate-source recloser
IACRE2) senses the loss of load voltage and, after a time
detay, ACRE2 closes into the fault and also operates to lockout
(f9Jre 61A3). (A momentary nonreclose setting can be used
b' one-shot lockout of ACRE2 to minimize load distur- Figure 62A3.
bances.) After the fault is cleared, service from the preferred Diagram of automatic-return load transfer scheme
source is restored manually. utilizing reclosers.

ACR1
ACR1
S1

LOAD
LOAD

Rgure 60A3.
Figure 58A3 scheme with load-side fault. Figure 63A3.
Figure 62A3 scheme with load transferred to alternate
source.

145
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Automatic Load Transfer (Continued)

Recloser ACRE1 normally is closed and senses voltage If a permanent fault occurs on the load side (Figure 66A3),
(one or three phases) on its source side. It opens after a time the preferred-source recloser (ACRE1) operates to lockout
delay upon loss of 81 voltage. The control of the normally (not shown). However, the alternate-source recloser
open alternate-source recloser (ACRE2) is connected (dot- (ACRE2) is blocked from closing due to the presence of pre-
ted line in the schematics) to the control of ACRE1. In addi- ferred-source voltage (81) and/or the lockout state of
tion, ACRE2 will prevent any attempt to close ACRE2 if 82 is ACRE1. After the fault is cleared, the transfer scheme is reset
not energized. by reclosing ACRE1.
When preferred-source voltage (81) is lost, the control of
ACRE1 senses the loss of voltage. If voltage is not restored ACR1
within the time delay selected, ACRE1 opens and signals
ACRE2 to close to restore service to the load, provided the
alternate source (82) is energized, as shown in Figure 63A3.
(A momentary cold-load pickup setting can be used for the
LOAD
alternate-source recloser to prevent tripping on inrush.)
Because of the communications link, transfer from St to S2 ACR2
is much faster than when two independently operating controls
are used, since the latter must be coordinated by adjusting
individual time delay relays.
When preferred-source voltage (8~) is restored, return to
the preferred source is automatic through either parallel
return (ACRE1 closes before ACRE2 opens), as shown in Figure 65A3.
Figure 64A3, or nonparallel return (ACRE2 opens before Figure 62A3 scheme showing automatic nonparallel
ACRE1 closes), as shown in Figure 65A3. The system is return to service.
restored to normal.

ACR1 ACR1

LOAD
ACR2 ACR2

Figure 64A3. Figure 66A3.

Figure 62A3 scheme showing automatic parallel return Figure 62A3 scheme with load-side fault.
to service.

146
 A3

Loop Sectionalizing
The purpose of loop sectionalizing is to improve reliability
ACR1
and maintain service continuity to the greatest possible number
of customers. Because its principal feature is an automatically
provided alternate source of power to portions of a circuit out·
side the fault zone, applications often include critical load
areas such as those listed in the preceding section, "Automatic
ACR3
Load Transfer."
In a loop scheme, two distribution circuits are tied together ACR2
by a normally open recloser so that, in case of an outage on
one circuit, load can be transferred temporarily to the other.
Also, to limit even further the number of customers who may
be affected by an outage, one or two normally closed
reclosers equipped with a sectionalizing control accessory, or
a recloser and sectionalizer, are located up the line on each Figure 6BA3.
circuit. Figure 67A3 scheme with entire loop fed from source S2.
In the following examples, all reclosers are electronically
controlled and Cooper Power Systems Type LS controls are
used. The operating descriptions cover what happens when If a permanent fault occurs on the load side of ACRE1
loss of voltage or a fault occurs on one circuit; it should be (Figure 69A3), ACRE1 operates to lockout. Tie recloser
noted that similar conditions on the other circuit will produce ACRE3 senses the loss of voltage and, after a time delay,
the same sequence of events, utilizing corresponding closes into the fault and also operates to lockout. The faulted
devices, in the opposite direction. As in the preceding section, section is thereby isolated and service is maintained to the
the gray lines in schematics represent energized portions of balance of the loop from source S2, as shown in Figure
the circuit. 70A3. (A momentary nonreclosing setting can be used for
ACRE3 to provide one shot to lockout in the event of closing
LOOP SECTIONALIZING SCHEME WITH THREE into a fault.)
RECLOSERS
In the simplest loop scheme, three electronically controlled
ACR1
reclosers are used as shown in Figure 67A3.

ACR1

ACR2

ACR3
ACR2

Figure 69A3.
Figure 67 A3 scheme with load-side fault on source S1.

F!Qure 67 A3.
Diagram of loop sectionallzing scheme utilizing three
reclosers.
ACR1

ACRE 1 and ACRE2, which are normally closed reclosers

equipped with Type LS sectionalizing controls, will open, after
a lime delay, upon loss of their respective source voltage.
ACRE3, a normally open recloser with Type LS tie control,
closes upon loss of voltage on either side after a time ACR2
delay longer than than that of ACRE1 or ACRE2.
For example, upon loss of S1 voltage, both ACRE1 and
ACRE3 sense the loss of voltage. If voltage is not restored
wihin the time delay selected, recloser ACRE1 opens and,
after a longer time delay, recloser ACRE3 closes. The entire Figure 70A3.
loop (up to ACRE1) is then fed from source S2, as shown in Figure 67 A3 scheme with fault Isolated and balance of
f9Jre 68A3. The return to normal is manual. loop fed from source S2.
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Loop Sectionalizing (Continued)

LOOP SECTIONALIZING SCHEME WITH FIVE
RECLOSERS
In this scheme (Figure 71 A3), each distribution circuit is divided
into two sections of equal load through normally closed feeder
reclosers. Each circuit is connected at the tie point with a
normally open tie recloser. The reclosers are set to isolate a
section under permanent fault and to transfer unfaulted
sections to the adjacent circuit.
After a longer time delay than for ACRE3, recloser ACRE5
closes and the entire loop up to ACRE1 is fed from source
82, as shown in Figure 73A3. Return to normal is accom-
plished manually.
ACR1 ACR3

ACR1 ACR3
ACR5
OAMPERE

Figure 73A3.
Figure 71 A3 scheme with loop fed from source S2.

Figure 71A3. If a permanent fault occurs at F1 (Figure 74A3), recloser

Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing five
reclosers. ACRE1 operates to lockout. Reclosers ACRE3 and ACRE5
sense the loss of voltage, and ACRE3 then times out,
changes its minimum trip from 560 to 280 amperes, and
ACRE1 and ACRE2 are normally closed reclosers changes to one shot to lockout. After its time delay (longer
equipped with Cooper Power Systems Type LS sectionalizing than ACRE3's), ACRE5 closes into the fault, and ACRE3
control accessories. They open, after a time delay, upon loss locks out (Figure 75A3). This isolates the fault while maintain-
of source voltage. ing service to three-fourths of the loop.
ACRE3 and ACRE4 also are normally closed reclosers
equipped with Type LS sectionalizing controls. However,
upon loss of source voltage and a time delay longer than that
of ACRE1 or ACRE2, they change their minimum trip value
and optional number of shots to lockout.
ACRE5, a normally open recloser with Type LS tie control,
closes upon loss of voltage on either side after a time delay
longer than that of ACRE3 or ACRE4.
For example, upon loss of 81 voltage, reclosers ACRE1,
ACRE3, and ACRE5 all sense the loss and, if voltage is not
restored within the time delay selected, ACRE1 opens. After
an additional time delay, ACRE3 changes its minimum trip
value from 560 to 280 amperes and changes to one shot to
lockout to coordinate with tie recloser ACRE5, as shown in
Figure 72A3. Figure 74A3.
Figure 71 A3 scheme with faults indicated tor discussion.
ACR1 ACR3

ACR1 ACR3

ACR5
OAMPERE

Figure 72A3.
Figure 71A3 scheme showing intermediate condition fol-
lowing loss of S1 voltage. Figure 75A3.
Figure 71A3 scheme with fault F1 isolated and service
restored to three-fourths of loop.

148

If a permanent fault occurs at F2 (Figure 74A3), recloser
ACRE3 operates to lockout. Recloser ACRES then senses
the loss of voltage and, after its time delay, closes into the
fault and operates to lockout (Figure 76A3). This isolates the
fault while maintaining service to three-fourths of the loop.
ACR1 ACR3
Figure 76A3.
Figure 71 A3 scheme with fault F2 isolated and service
restored to three-fourths of loop.
LOOP SECTIONALIZING SCHEME WITH THREE
RECLOSERS AND TWO SECTIONALIZERS
By substituting electronically controlled sectionalizers for the
upline reclosers closest to the tie recloser, the loop scheme
shown in Figure 77 A3 is developed. This arrangement would
probably be limited to those cases where another step in
coordination is not possible.
Figure 77 A3.
Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing three
reclosers and two sectionalizers, with faults indicated for
discussion.
ACRE1 and ACRE2 are normally closed, electronically con-
trolled reclosers equipped with Type LS sectionalizing con-
trols. They open, after a time delay, upon loss of voltage.
SEC1 and SEC2 are normally closed, electronically
controlled sectionalizers operating as normal sectionalizers.
That is, they are equipped with voltage restraint and count
restraint, and have no Type LS control accessories. In the
example in Figure 77A3, they are set for one count. The
minimum actuating current is selected to coordinate with the
tie recloser (ACRE3).
A3
Tie recloser ACRE3 is normally open and is equipped wilh
a Type LS tie control. It will close upon loss of volage on
either side after a time delay longer than that of ACRE1 and
ACRE2.
Upon loss of S1 voltage, both ACRE1 and ACRE3 sense
the loss and, if voltage is not restored within the time delay
selected, ACRE1 opens. After an additional time delay, tie
recloser ACRE3 closes and the loop is fed from source S2.
If a permanent fault occurs at F1 (Figure 77A3), ACRE1
operates twice and locks out. Tie recloser ACRE3 senses the
loss of voltage and, after a time delay, ACRE3 closes into the
fault. During the first trip operation of recloser ACRE3, the
down line sectionalizer SEC1 counts and opens. This isolates
the fault, ACRE3 then recloses into an unfaulted line (Figure
78A3), and service remains to three-fourths of the loop.
Sectionalizer SEC2 senses the fault current during the oper-
ation of ACRE3 but is blocked from operating by its voltage
Figure 78A3.
Figure 77 A3 scheme with fault F1 isolated and service
restored to three-fourths of loop.
restraint and count restraint features.
If a permanent fault occurs at F2 (Figure 77 A3), both SEC1
and ACRE1 sense the overcurrent. Recloser ACRE1 oper-
ates and, during its first trip operation, sectionalizer SEC1
counts and opens, and ACRE1 closes into an unfaulted line.
Tie recloser ACRE3 senses the loss of voltage on its S1 side
and, after a time delay, closes into the fault. Recloser ACRE3
then operates to lockout to isolate the fault and maintain
service to three-fourths of the loop (Figure 79A3).
Sectionalizer SEC2 senses the fault current during the oper-
ation of ACRE3, but is blocked from counting by its restraint
ACR1 SECi
ACR3
560 AMPERE
TIE
Figure 79A3.
Figure 77A3 scheme with fault F2 isolated and service
restored to three-fourths of loop.
149
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Principles of Overcurrent Coordination Page
1A3 Conventional definition of protective devices based on location .........................................82
2A3 Typical example of system coordination ............................................................82
Fuse-Fuse Coordination
3A3 Diagram for study of TCC fuse coordination method ..................................................83
4A3 TCCs for coordinating fuse links in Figure 3A3 example ...............................................83
Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination
5A3 TCC for coordinating source-side current-limiting fuse and load-side expulsion fuse .........................87
6A3 Bar graph for coordination of current-limiting fuses ...................................................89
Transformer Fusing
7A3 TCCs showing transformer inrush current and transformer damage current for a specific
transformer size .............................................................................91
8A3 TCCs showing characteristics of appropriate expulsion fuse for transformer protection .......................92
9A3 TCCs showing characteristics of expulsion and current-limiting fuse combinations
for transformer protection .....................................................................93
Capacitor Fusing
10A3 Diagram of group capacitor fusing ................................................................98
11A3 Diagram of individual capacitor fusing .............................................................98
12A3 Capacitor tank-rupture curve ...................................................................101
13A3 Diagram of energy discharge into failed capacitor unit ...............................................103
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination
14A3 Example of recloser and source-side fuse protection scheme ..........................................111
15A3 TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 14A3 ...................................................113
16A3 Typical system requiring coordination between recloser and load-side fuse links ........................... 113
17A3 For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with T-link
minimum melt curves .......................................................................114
18A3 For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with T-link
maximum clearing curves ....................................................................115
19A3 For application diagrammed in Figure 16A3: comparison of recloser curves with curves forT-link
selected as standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................116
Relay-Fuse Coordination
20A3 Diagram of installation with relayed breaker and source-side fuse ...................................... 117
21A3 Preliminary attempt to coordinate protection in Figure 20A3 example ................................... 118
22A3 Curve comparison with Lever 2 showing total accumulated time ....................................... 119
23A3 Relayed breaker operating sequence .............................................................119
24A3 Diagram of installation with overcurrent relay and load-side fuse ....................................... 121
25A3 Comparison of fuse and relay curves for application in Figure 24A3 example ............................. 122
26A3 Curves showing temporary fault protection with instantaneous element ..................................123
27A3 Southeastern utility's approach to relay and load-side fuse coordination ................................. 124
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination
28A3 Typical ABC time-current curves for 50 ampere, single-phase recloser .................................. 125
29A3 Diagram of reclosers coordinated in series by selection of coil ratings ................................... 126
30A3 Time-current curves demonstrating recloser coordination by means of adjacent coil selection ................ 126
31A3 Diagram of reclosers coordinated in series by means of operating sequence selection ...................... 126
32A3 Circuit diagram for coordination of electronically controlled three-phase controllers ......................... 127
33A3 TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 32A3 ...................................................127
34A3 Alternate TCCs for application diagrammed in Figure 32A3 ...........................................128
35A3 Diagrams of two examples of recloser operation without sequence coordination on backup recloser ........... 129
36A3 Diagram of recloser operation with sequence coordination on backup recloser ............................ 129
37A3 Typical ground-trip curves showing safe coordination zones when sequence coordination
accessory is used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 130
38A3 TCCs illustrating coordination of recloser, equipped with instantaneous trip feature,
and source-side primary fuse .................................................................130
39A3 Diagram of coordination scheme utilizing reclosers equipped with instantaneous trip feature ................. 130
40A3 Diagram of zoned protection possible with instantaneous trip/instantaneous lockout combination .............. 131
Recloser and Relay/Circuit-Breaker Coordination
41A3 Comparison of relay impulse margin time and breaker curves .........................................133
42A3 Reset times of typical electro-mechanical relays ....................................................134
43A3 Relay-recloser coordination check with 0.3 seconds added to recloser clearing time ........................ 135
44A3 Comparison of total reclosing sequence time with relay curve .........................................136
45A3 Time-current curves for recloser and relay/circuit-breaker coordination ..................................137

150
 A3

FIGURE Sectionalizer Applications Page

46A3 Sectionalizer memory time, three counts to lockout ..................................................138
47 A3 Basic sectionalizer-recloser coordination, with recloser set four shots to lockout ........................... 138
48A3 Sectionalizers added to branch lines; recloser set four shots to lockout .................................. 139
49A3 Coordination curve for hydraulically controlled sectionalizers .......................................... 139
50A3 Sectionalizer count retention as related to backup operating sequence .................................. 140
51 A3 Total accumulated time of hydraulically controlled sectionalizer ........................................141
52A3 Example of recloser-electronically controlled sectionalizer coordination .................................. 141
53A3 Typical application of sectionalizer located between two reclosers ...................................... 142
54A3 A two-fast, two-delayed reclosing sequence is not recommended for hydraulically controlled
sectionalizers without a voltage restraint feature ..................................................142
55A3 Example of recommended coordination scheme with recloser set for a one-fast, three-delayed sequence ...... 143
56A3 Coordination of recloser, electronically controlled sectionalizer and recloser .............................. 143
Automatic Load Transfer
57A3 Diagram of switched load transfer scheme ........................................................144
58A3 Diagram of manual-return load transfer scheme utilizing reclosers ......................................144
59A3 Figure 58A3 scheme with load transferred to alternate source .........................................145
60A3 Figures 8A3 scheme with load-side fault ..........................................................145
61A3 Figure 58A3 scheme with both reclosers locked out as result of load-side fault ............................ 145
62A3 Diagram of automatic-return load transfer scheme utilizing reclosers ....................................145
63A3 Figure 62A3 scheme with load transferred to alternate source .........................................145
64A3 Figure 62A3 scheme showing automatic parallel return to service ......................................146
65A3 Figure 62A3 scheme showing automatic nonparallel return to service ...................................146
66A3 Figure 62A3 scheme with load-side fault ..........................................................146
Loop Sectionalizing
67A3 Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing three reclosers ........................................147
68A3 Figure 67A3 scheme with entire loop fed from source S2 .............................................147
69A3 Figure 67A3 scheme with load-side fault on source S1 ...............................................147
70A3 Figure 67A3 scheme with fault isolated and balance of loop fed from source S2 ........................... 147
71A3 Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing five reclosers .........................................148
72A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme showing intermediate condition following loss of S1 voltage .......................... 148
73A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme with loop fed from source S2 ..................................................148
74A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme with faults indicated for discussion ..............................................148
75A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme with fault F1 isolated and service restored to three-fourths of loop ..................... 148
76A3 Figure 71 A3 scheme with fault F2 isolated and service restored to three-fourths of loop ..................... 149
77A3 Diagram of loop sectionalizing scheme utilizing three reclosers and two sectionalizers,
with faults indicated for discussion .............................................................149
78A3 Figure 77A3 scheme with fault F1 isolated and service restored to three-fourths of loop ..................... 149
79A3 Figure 77A3 scheme with fault F2 isolated and service restored to three-fourths of loop ..................... 149
TABLE Fuse-Fuse Coordination Page
1A3 Results of fuse coordination study based on Figures 3A3 and 4A3 ......................................84
2A3 EEI-NEMA Type K fuse links ....................................................................84
3A3 EEI-NEMA Type T fuse links .....................................................................85
4A3 Type K fuse links ..............................................................................85
5A3 Type K fuse link coordination ....................................................................85
6A3 Type T fuse link coordination ....................................................................86
7A3 EEI-NEMA Type K fuse link coordination ...........................................................86
Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination
8A3 Coordination of back-up current-limiting fuse and fuse link .............................................88
Transformer Fusing
9A3 Suggested primary fusing for distribution transformers based on use of Type N and high-surge Type H links ...... 94
10A3 Suggested primary fusing for distribution transformers based on use of Type K or T links and high-surge
Type H links ................................................................................95
11A3 Overload protection of single-phase oil-insulated and dry-type distribution transformers using
current-limiting fuses .........................................................................96
12A3 Overload protection of three-phase oil-insulated and dry-type distribution transformers using
current-limiting fuses .........................................................................97
13A3 Comparison of expulsion fuses and current-limiting fuses ..............................................97
Capacitor Fusing .
14A3 Summary of shunt capacitor fusing criteria .........................................................99
15A3 All-film capacitor fault-current limitations ...........................................................99
16A3 Group fusing recommendations for all-film capacitors ................................................102
17A3 ELF fuse selection for capacitor bank protection ....................................................103
18A3 Group fusing recommendations for delta-connected all-film capacitors on 2400-volt systems ................. 103

151
A. Overcurrent Protection
3. PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS AND COORDINATION
Index of Figures and Tables (Continued)

TABLE Capacitor Fusing (Continued) Page

19A3 Per-unit voltage on unfailed capacitors .... .. ... . . ... . .... .... ..... .... . . ... .... . . .. .... . . . . . ..... .104
20A3 Individual fusing recommendations for all-film capacitors .. . .... .... .. .. ... .... . . .. ... ... . ..... . ...... 104
Recloser and Fuse-Link Coordination
21A3 Ratings of single-phase, hydraulically controlled reclosers .. .... ... . . ... ... . ... . ...... .. .... .. ....... . 105
22A3 Ratings of three-phase, hydraulically controlled reclosers ..... . ....... . .... .. . . ..... .. .. ... ..... ... ... 107
23A3 Ratings of three-phase, electronically controlled reclosers . ..... . ... . ........ ..... ... ....... . .. . ... . .. 109
24A3 K factors for source-side and load-side tin fuse links . . ... ... ... . ... .. .. .. .. ... ...... .. .. .. ... . .. . .... 11 1
Relay-Fuse Coordination
25A3 Fuse-link cooling factors . .. . .. . . .... . .. ... . . ........... . .... . . . . .. .. . . . ... . .. . . ... . ... . .... ... .118
Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination
26A3 Time-current curve-separation guidelines for series operation of hydraulically controlled reclosers . . . . ......... 125
27A3 Reclosing intervals for hydraulically controlled reclosers .. . . .. .............. . .. .... . .. . ...... .. . .. .... 131
28A3 TCC Curve Cross Reference . .... .. . . ..... .. .. ... ... .. .. ... .... ....... . ..... .... ..... . ........ .132
Sectionalizer Applications
29A3 Oil temperature rise, hydraulically controlled sectionalizers . . ....... .. . . .... .. . . ...... . ....... . . ...... .139

152

4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A
COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
An Introduction
mllis section, the reader is taken through the procedure of
gmv;ding overcurrent protection for a complete distribution
s,stem, from substation to secondary feeders and branches.
Railer than including detailed analysis of hypothetical situations
lEt would duplicate other sections of the manual, the procedure
tx:uses on the principal considerations and steps involved in
dellermining over-current protection requirements at critical
1111Jin1s on a system for which basic facts are "given," and in
selecting equipment to satisfy those requirements.
The basis for discussion is a relatively simple radial system,
the principles with which the engineer works in designing
~C~~~~BCUrrent protection are essentially the same regardless of
cunplexity. Our primary intention here is to demonstrate, in
~ understood terms, how the various overcurrent protective
devices work together throughout a distribution system. By
Table of Contents, Page 3
Section A
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
covering the entire range of overcurrent concerns, from
protection of the substation transformer to isolation of the
most remote segment of line in the event of a permanent
fault, the section presents a complete picture of the coordinated
use of all of the equipment previously discussed: circuit
breakers and relays, automatic circuit reclosers, sectionalizers,
and fuses.
The specific equipment selections for the demonstration
system obviously do not include all available varieties, but
each device chosen will provide a safe margin of protection
within the indicated parameters. As an additional exercise,
the reader may want to try varying the parameters and
designing an overcurrent protection scheme based on the
earlier detailed discussions of equipment and its coordination.
153
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Preliminary Considerations
REVIEW OF PRINCIPLES
Any overcurrent protection scheme, whether for a complete
distribution system or a segment of line, must be based
primarily on the principles cited in previous sections:
• All faults should be given a chance to be temporary,
because most of them are.
• Lockout (interruption of power of more than momentary
duration) should occur only for permanent faults.
• The smallest possible portion of the line should be removed
from service as a result of lockout.
Even while abiding by these principles, however, each utility
or distribution protection engineer employs procedures tailored
to the particular utility's protection and service criteria, including
economic constraints. The result can be a significant differ-
ence in the speed of reaction to the first indication of a fault,
with some utilities choosing to give the fault a relatively
longer opportunity to clear itself before a protective device
opens, while others employ a highly sensitive system with
near-instantaneous response. In the first case, customers
may be spared some resetting of electronic equipment and
other annoyances, but the utility's equipment is subjected to
longer fault durations with subsequent loss of equipment life.
In the second case, the life of utility equipment is prolonged,
but at the expense of numerous service outages while crews
are engaged in replacing fuses or resetting other devices.
Past experience-the degree of success achieved in minimiz-
ing the effects of outages, customer relations, etc.
- will contribute to finding the right balance.
The example that follows demonstrates the coordinated
application of overcurrent protection devices throughout a
distribution system, from substation to remote feeders.
Detailed data on the types of load, line length, minimum fault
sensing, and reach rules (which establish the limitations of
protection zones for specific devices) are not included in the
discussions of equipment selection and placement, as such
application specifics are beyond the scope of this manual.
Rather, equipment selections and placement reflect the general
principles involved in fitting the devices to the types of
applications for which they are best suited.
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND DATA
Although some of the factors are not treated in detail here,
the following data and system characteristics must generally
be known for effective overcurrent protection planning,
regardless of the procedure or philosophy:
154
1. One-line diagram of system: line length, important loads,
system configuration .
2. Source information: maximum available fault currents,
positive- and zero-sequence impedances.
3. Transformer information : impedance, rating, ratio, X/R,
damage characteristic.
4. System information: minimum and maximum fault currents,
X/R, peak load currents, fixed protective devices, inrush
characteristics.
It must be pointed out that "minimum" fault current in the
context of overcurrent protection is based on a calculation
whereby a fault impedance is assumed. Thus, the term
does not refer to the minimum fault current possible, but
rather to the minimum fault current at which devices are set to
trip, based on the particular utility's protection philosophy.
The data needed to perform the equipment selection
and coordination study are shown on the system diagram
(Figure 1A4) or will be introduced at appropriate points in
the discussion. Note that the only protective device
indicated at this point is an oil circuit breaker on the source
side of the 10-MVA substation transformer. Maximum load
currents are shown alongside each line segment, some of
which have three-phase loads, and the maximum and
minimum short-circuit currents for each segment appear
inside circles. Node identifications are printed in gray for
easy reference.
Other established elements are:
1. Substation (OCB) relay: Westinghouse Type COS time-currert
relay, tap 3, CT ratio 200:5, TL 3; at Node 0.
2. Distribution transformer fuse links: 20T; at Nodes 5 and 7_
3. Capacitor bank on one feeder: specifics included with dis-
cussion of capacitor fusing.
We will begin our analysis of overcurrent protection
requirements at the substation, i.e., at the transformer, and
proceed to select and coordinate series devices for each ~
ment of the system, to the ends of all feeders. Beginning at the
substation permits choosing the minimum pick-up based on
ultimate substation or feeder capacity and maximizing the
size of feeder sectionalizing fuses. The resu lt is maximum
continuity of service.
 A4

VJJJ
rrrro
® II
I
I
1Q-MVA TRANSFORMER I
110 kV 14.4/24.9 kV
y y
I

~~ 1 -
220A

71A~
12
-
105A
/8
40A t I
I /4

29A ~~
/6

®0
I
I
LEGEND
3 PHASE
@
50
I
I
I
----- 2 PHASE - ' - 1800-KVAR I
----- 1 PHASE ~ POLE-MOUNTED I
/1

-
220A
NODE NUMBER
MAX. LOAD CURRENT ® 3 ;~
,.;)
I
Y CAPACITOR BANK
®I
~
® 0
NAX. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
MIN. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT fY"fY''

0 GENERATOR

OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

locBI

lBJ RECLOSER

@ SECTIONALIZER

.-rv- FUSE

f9,1re 1A4.
Dlmonstratlon system for study of overcurrent protection.

155
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Protective Equipment Selections and

Applications
SUBSTATION TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Figure 2A4 shows the substation relay time-current curve as
plotted based on the transformer primary current. The trans-
former inrush-current and damage curves are also plotted to
illustrate the degree of protection afforded by the relay-con-
trolled breaker and the ability of the relay to override inrush
currents. The relay time-current curve, as shown, should lie
between the inrush and damage curves. These curves are
plotted by multiplying the transformer full-load current by spe-
cific factors for specific time-current coordinates. (Analytical
calculations have determined the magnitudes and duration
for inrush current. ANSI and NEMA standards require that a
transformer should withstand the thermal and mechanical
stresses imposed by specific fault magnitudes and dura-
tions.)

60 3600
50 l. 1\. 3000
40 2400
30 ''\ 1800

20
u TRANSFORMER 1200
1\ DAMAGE CURVE

10
\' ~ 600
8 480
\
6 \ \ 360
I~
5 300
4 240
1\ 180
3
\ ~

TRANSFORMER'
1\ " ~~ ' 120

Ci)
(/)
....
f-
INRUSH
CURVE
ooCi5
<
0 .8 48 co
z
0
u .6 1\
"" ..... RELAY CURVE
fo.,..(PRIMARY) 36
N
lr
w .5 30 ~
(/)

~ .4 24 ~
w 18 (/)
:::!' .3 w
i= ..J
.2 12 ~
1\ u
z
w
0 .1 6.0 ~
f-.
.08 4.8
06 3.6
.05 3.0
.04 2.4
03 1.8

.02
~ 1
\
.0 1 \
8 88888§ § §§§§§~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 2A4.
Plots of substation relay time-current curve, based on the transformer primary current, and transformer inrush-
current and damage curves.

156
 A4
'aBLE 1A4 coordination accessory can be used. Remember that
a.Hiplying Factors for Constructing Transformer Inrush sequence coordination will eliminate the momentary "blinks"
Curves (Applied to Transformer Full-Load Current.) on the upline feeder for faults beyond the downllne recloser.
Momentary outages are receiving a high degree of attention at
Time (Seconds) Inrush Factor utilities because of the increasing number of complaints about
100-300 2 how these blinks turn off digital timers, disrupt computer
10 3 programs, etc.
I~ 1 6
0.1 12
0.01 25 10-MVATRANSFORMER

TABLE 2A4
llultiplying Factors for Constructing Transformer
Damage Factors (Applied to Transformer Full-Load
f:\
~t /1
c;t: 3 E
110 kV 14.4/24.9 kV TYPE WVE

Current)
Time (Seconds) Damage Factor
60 4.75
30 6.7
10 11.3
5 14.3
4 16.6
3 20
2 25.
Tables 1A4 and 2A4 list the full-load-current multiplying
tactors for use in constructing transformer inrush and dam-
age curves. For the present example, and for plotting the
a.Jrves in Figure 2A4, transformer full-load current is arrived
at by the following calculation:
Transformer Full-Load Current= :.J%VA30
3 kVL-L
10 000
= • = 52.49 Amperes
'>/3 (110)
Transformer damage curves will vary, depending on the
transformer rating.
MAIN CIRCUIT PROTECTION
The segment of line between Nodes 1 and 2, immediately
down line from the substation, will be designated "main circuit,"
since any functioning of the protective device located there
will affect the entire distribution system.
Also, as discussed below, the device (an automatic circuit
recloser is the logical choice; see Figure 3A4) must be
coordinated with the breaker/relay.
Recloser and Relay/Circuit Breaker Coordination
For main circuit protection we will apply an electronically
controlled recloser with a ground-fault trip and a sequence
coordination device. The ground-fault trip can be set as low
as one-half of the phase minimum trip, and will help protect
against high impedance currents. A downed conductor is an
example of a typical and very hazardous condition that might
produce high impedance currents.
The use of three single-phase reclosers down line (let us
assume this decision, which will be discussed under "Feeder
Protection," is already known through analysis of overall system
requirements) makes the choice of an electronically con-
trolled recloser a natural application, since the sequence
y 56:AI-
22-:::0:::.A_ _!2.,__1.;;;;.£.;:;..5A_
71A~
@V
~
~ i3
Figure 3A4.
Main circuit protection.
The recloser choice for the main circuit is a three-phase
unit, consistent with three-phase loads, set for a two-fasV
two-delay reclosing sequence-a typical sequence that pro-
tects against temporary faults. As indicated in Figure 3A4, the
load current at the recloser location is 220 amperes. For an
electronic recloser, the minimum trip current is based on
2.5 x maximum load current; thus, 2.5 x 220 = 550 amperes.
A Type WVE recloser with a 560-ampere minimum trip (Table
21A3 in Section A3) will satisfy both the current rating and
voltage (24.9 kV) requirements. Tentatively, pending a coor-
dination check, we will choose a B curve as the recloser
delayed curve and an A curve as the fast curve.
Figure 4A4 compares the COB relay curve (referred to the
secondary of the substation transformer) and the recloser B
curve with a 560 ampere minimum trip. To coordinate properly,
the recloser should operate twice with the delayed curves
and lock out fora permanent fault before the breaker relay
disk rotates to the trip position. This is insured by adding the
recloser B-curve times at discrete current values for two
operations and comparing this cumulative curve to the relay
curve. The point of intersection, if any, defines the range of
coordination. In this case, as Figure 4A4 shows, coordination
is achieved throughout the range of the cumulative B curve.
Closer coordination can be accomplished by considering
relay reset time.
A ground minimum trip of 280 amperes (one-half the
phase minimum trip) would be capable of protecting for all
calculated minimum fault currents at the ends of the feeders.
Ground-fault coordination will be discussed in detail later in
this section.

157
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications (Continued)

1000 FEEDER PROTECTION

At Node 2 the circuit forks to form two feeders (Figures 5A4
and 6A4), one of which has three branches. Each feeder will
require protection plus a means of being isolated from the rest
100
of the system in the event of a permanent fault. The branches
must of course be considered in setting up protection for their
feeder, and also will be discussed separately below.
CO&-TAP 3, 200.5 CT. Tl 3 Since the maximum/minimum fault currents at Node 3 are
REFERRED TO SECONDARY
1680/793 amperes, the Type WVE recloser in the main circuit

§en -i"o:\~'"" \ ~
:g 10 at Node 2, with 560 ampere minimum trip, is capable of pro-
tecting the segment of line between Nodes 2 and 3 (Figure
5A4). Because no additional fault interrupting capability is
~
needed, but rather just a means of isolating that segment in
w the event of a permanent fault, a sectionalizer will be used at
~ 1 the head of the line. The load at Node 3 is a large three-

~·~·~ -......._
BCURVE
phase customer, so a three-phase sectionalizer will provide
the best protection, particularly since it will not allow single-
phasing to the three-phase loads. (One point to note, however,
.1 '-.. in choosing a sectionalizer, is that the upline recloser will be
required to provide fast trip protection for transient faults,
1'--- thereby increasing the number of blinks on the main feeder.
If this presents a problem, a recloser may be needed instead
of the sectionalizer.)
.01 I I I I I I I I I The minimum fault currents at the ends of the branches at
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 Node 5 and Node 7 (Figure 6A4) are 500 amperes and
CURRENT IN AMPERES
475 amperes, respectively. Because the recloser in the main
Figure 4A4. circuit at Node 2, with its 560 ampere minimum trip, will not
Comparison of substation relay curve, referred to the respond to fault levels below 560 amperes in these branches,
transformer secondary, and recloser B curves. a reclosing device is required at the head of the feeder
supplying the branches. The minimum trip should be less
than 4 75 amperes, so that all possible fault currents will be
sensed and the appropriate circuits isolated.

UJJJ
rrr;;
~~
\§7 .
I I

I I

I
105A /8 40A t'l /4
~--~----~---------------.~---.------~----------------_, 16
71A~
29A ~I
I
I
I
I
I
~ I
\:§7 I
I
1800-KVAR
I
~ I
~ i9 I POLE-MOUNTED
y CAPACITOR BANK
@: [7
~ /3
UJJJ
rYYY\

Figure 5A4.
Protection of feeder by adding sectionalizing device only.

158
 A4

UJJJ

®i
~
I

I
I

I
I
TYPEWVE TYPE4E
I
-
560A 140A
220A 105A
- !8 40A t I /4
t - _ . . : ; - - - - , - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - 1 1 /6
/1 71A~ 29A ~I
~ I
\:§7 TYPEGW
448A I
I
I
I
~ I
\§7 I
I
1800-KVAR
I
POLE-MOUNTED I
~
\!!§} !3
I
Y CAPACITOR BANK
@: rl
WJJ
rYYY\

Rgure 6A4.
~io n of feeder with branches.

Because of special considerations relating to capacitor
pomction, the branch between Nodes 8 and 9 will not be
D2Jded in the discussions of feeder and branch protection,
bd will be covered in a separate section, "Capacitor Fusing."
-.closer-Sectionallzer Coordination
For this case, where the feeder is short and is not expected
b experience a significant number of faults, a three-phase
SI!!Ciionalizer is a good choice for an isolating device at the
llread of the feeder (between Nodes 2 and 3, Figure 5A4):
~lly, an electronically controlled Type GW sectionalizer,
IIIIIch meets the requirements of 24.9 kV and 7100 amperes.
(Representative sectionalizer ratings will be found in Table
7A2. in Section A2.)
To properly apply the sectionalizer, its activating level
should be set to 80 percent of the upline device's minimum
- . which in this case calculates as .8 x 560 amperes
= 44a amperes. This margin accounts for a plus or minus ten
J!E!~Cef~t tolerance of the sectionalizer and recloser.
The GW sectionalizer also should be equipped with
paund-fault sensing to properly coordinate with the ground-
IIIJI sensing of the upline WVE recloser. Set it to 80 percent
=
fllllhe WVE ground trip, or .8 x 280 amperes 224 amperes.
llecloser-Recloser Coordination
As stated, a recloser is needed at the head of the feeder
dt'lown in Figure 6A4, because the recloser in the main circuit
llllill not respond to the phase minimum-trip requirements in
lie branches. The WVE recloser will trip for ground faults of
~itudes as low as 280 amperes.
For purposes of our exercise, assume there are no large
three-phase loads served by this 105 ampere feeder.
Therefore, single-phase devices at the head of the feeder,
located just down line from Node 2, will provide a higher level
of reliability than would a three-phase device. Multiplying the
maximum load current, 105 amperes, by 1.25 yields 131
amperes; therefore, choose a 140 ampere-rated coil. A
single-phase recloser that satisfies these requirements is the
hydraulically controlled Type 4E (Table 21A3, Section A3).
Figure 7A4 compares the fast and delayed curves of the 4E
and upline WVE recloser; the A curve is chosen as the fast
curve for the 4E. Comparison of the WVE R response curve
(560 ampere minimum trip) with the 4E A curve (140 ampere
coil) indicates that both reclosers would trip simultaneously
on the fast curves. However, the sequence coordination
accessory on the WVE electronically controlled recloser
prevents unnecessary fast-curve operations of the WVE R
curve for faults down line of the 4E reclosers. Thus, for down-
line faults, only the fast curve of the 4E will operate, so that
the entire feeder will not be subjected to momentary blinks.
Figure 7A4 also compares the WVE recloser B curve (560
ampere minimum trip) to the 4E recloser B curve (140 ampere
coil) and D curve (140 ampere coil). Both of these delayed
curves will successfully coordinate with the WVE B curve.
Choose the 4E D curve in this case, however, because it
allows a greater current range for coordination of downline
fuses, discussed under "Branch Protection."

159
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications (Continued)
1000
100~------+-------~-------r------~
100 1000 10000 100000
CURRENT
Figure 7A4.
Comparison of main-circuit and feeder recloser curves.
GROUND-FAULT PROTECTION
Ground-fault sensing of the upline WVE recloser is set at 280
amperes. Its function is to trip for ground faults between the
WVE and node 3, and to provide back-up protection for
ground faults down line of the 4E reclosers. Thus, the WVE
ground fast curve should respond after the 4E fast curve.
Again, the sequence coordination device will prevent simul-
taneous operation of the reclosers' fast curves for ground
faults down line of the 4E units. Also, the WVE ground
delayed curve should respond after the 4E delayed curve.
160
Figure 7A4 shows the time-current curves for proper coor-
dination. The WVE G8* curve (280 ampere minimum trip) will
allow the 4E A curve (140 ampere coil} to respond first to
ground faults down line of the 4E reclosers. In the same way,
the WVE G3 curve (280 ampere minimum trip) will allow
operation first of the 4E B curve (140 ampere coil}. For
ground fauHs of magnitudes that exceed the 560 ampere
phase minimum trip of the WVE, either the ground- or phase-
trip curve will respond, depending on which trips faster at that
fault-current magnitude.
If more sensitive ground-fault protection is desired, the
single-phase 4E reclosers can be replaced with a three-
phase, hydraulically controlled WV (Table 20A3, Section A3).
The WV recloser can be equipped with ground-fault sensing
and set as low as circuit unbalances under normal conditions
will allow. It must coordinate with ground-fault sensing at the
upline WVE, although an extremely sensitive ground-fault
protection will make the reclosers prone to nuisance tripping
from transformer inrush. Also, the use of a three-phase
recloser instead of three single-phase units will reduce service
continuity to the single-phase loads. Thus, all aHernatives
must be considered in order to select the protection best suited
to the requirements of the particular distribution system.
BRANCH PROTECTION
We now turn our attention to the two branches (Figure 8A4)
indicated from Nodes 4 to 5 and Nodes 6 to 7 on the diagram.
The first is a two-phase 40 ampere line, and the second a
single-phase 29 ampere line. Each must be equipped with
protection/isolating capability.
Temporary fault protection is provided by the 4E recloser at
Node 2. The other two requirements of coordination -lockout
for permanent faults and isolation of the smallest portion of
the affected circuit - can be provided most economically by
fuses on the branches, which must of course be coordinated
with the upline Type 4E recloser. With the sequence coordi-
nation accessory installed in the WVE recloser at the head of
the main circuit, any fuse that coordinates properly with the
4E reclosers will coordinate properly with the WVE.
 A4
The largest fuse whose maximum-clear curve does not intersect
VJJJ with the recloser delayed curve is the maximum fuse size that
fYY'[;' will successfully coordinate.

~:
Assuming this first step has already been done, Figure
9A4 shows the results of comparing T links with the A (fast)
~I and D (delayed) curves of the Type 4E, 140 ampere-coil
I recloser. The 65T link is the maximum fuse rating that will
I successfully coordinate. Note that the recloser A curve is
I multiplied by a K factor of 1.35, which corresponds to two fast
I and two delayed operations, and a reclosing interval of one-
and-a-half seconds. (For your convenience, Tables 3A4 and
4A4, listing reclosing intervals for hydraulically controlled
TYPE 4E reclosers and T-link K factors, are reproduced here from
140A 40A Section A3.) Recall that the K-factor shifts the recloser curve to
account for the cumulative heating and cooling effects of fuses
as well as for ambient temperature, fuse preloading, and
predamage. Examination of the intersection of the modified
recloser A curve and the 651 minimum-melt curve yields a
maximum coordination range to 2100 amperes. Since the
I
maximum short-circuit current at the ends of the fused
I
~ I
branches is 1140 amperes at Node 5 and 1215 amperes at
Node 7, using 65T fuse links at both Nodes 4 and 6 will properly
\§7 I coordinate with the upline single-phase recloser. With the
I recloser protecting against temporary faults and the largest-
1800-KVAR I possible fuses functioning only for permanent faults,

i
POLE-MOUNTED
Y CAPACITOR BANK @ I
I i7
VJJJ
customers at the end of the system are assured a high level
of service continuity.
rYYY'I
TABLE 3A4
Figure 8A4. Reclosing Interval, Hydraulically Controlled Reclosers
Protection of branches. McGraw-Edison Recloslng Interval
Recloser Type (seconds)
H 1.0
Recloser-Fuse Coordination 4H, BH 1.5
When coordinating a recloser with a down line fuse, the object V4H,V6H 1.1
is to choose a fuse whose TCC curves lie between fast and L, V4L, D, DV, E, 4E 2.0
delayed curves of the recloser. Result: the recloser fast curve W, PWVW
provides temporary fault protection, and the fuse should melt PWV, VWV, VWV38, WV 2.0*
and clear for a permanent fault. Typically, a fuse curve shape •Accessory available for 30-cycle reclosmg on f1rst operat1on.
IS chosen, such as a K or T type, and the whole family of ratings
is then overlayed on the recloser curves for consideration.

161
A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications (Continued)

TABLE 4A4
"K" Factor for Source-Side and Load-Side Tin Fuse Links
Source-Side Fuse Links Load-Side Fuse Links

For source-side fuse coordination, the X" factor, plotted to For load-side fuse coordination, the "K" factors are used to multi-
average values, is used to multiply the time values of the ply the time values of the recloser fast curve. The intersection
delayed curve (B, C, 0, E, etc.). The intersection of this reference of this reference curve with the fuse minimum-melting time
curve with the fuse minimum-melting time curve determines
the maximum coordinating current. Note that either the fuse or curve determines the maximum coordinating current. These
recloser curves must be shifted so that both are plotted to the factors are based on the recloser fast curve plotted at maximum
same voltage reference. time.
Multipliers for: Multipliers for:
Recloslng Two-Fast, One-Fast Four- Recloslng Time One-Fast Two-Fast,
Time in Two-Delayed Three-Delayed Delayed In Cycles Operation Operations
Cycles Sequence Sequence Sequence 25-30 1.25 1.8
25 2.7 3.2 3.7 60 1.25 1.35
30 2.6 3.1 3.5 90 1.25 1.35
50 2.1 2.5 2.7 120 1.25 1.35
90 1.85 2.1 2.2
120 1.7 1.8 1.9
240 1.4 1.4 1.45
600 1.35 1.35 1.35

60 3600
50
40
' 3000
2400
65T
30 1800
\ 1200
20
\
10
l\ 4E 600
8 140A 480
D
6 360
5 300
4 240
3 180

2
\ 120
4E 1\
140A
1.35A \ en
r/J
1 60~
0 .8 48 tD
z N
0 .6
(.) A
\
36 li:
w .5
r/J
30~
~ .4 24 ~
w
:::!' .3
;:: '"\.!'- 18 r/J
w
.J
\
\ 1\"' '
.2 12 ~
\
.... ~
\ r\ r'\ w
0.1 6.0 ~ ,_
.08 4.8
~
06
.05 ' l'ooo.
3.6
3.0
.04 2.4

.03 1.8

.02 1.2

\
8 88888§ § §§§§~~
CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 9A4.
Comparison of fuse-link and recloser curves for coordination of branch protection.

162
 A4

CAPACITOR FUSING to a multiphase fault whose magnitude is 1400 amperes, as

"The capacitor bank located on the branch at Node 8 is a pole- indicated by the maximum short-circuit current notation in
mounted, ungrounded 1800 kvar bank with a rated voltage of Figure 1OA4. Fault currents at this level will be cleared by the
24.9 kV (Figure 10A4). Capacitors are typically protected by fuse before the recloser can respond.
iJses, for which the requirements are supplied by the capacitor
onanufacturer. Capacitor fuses therefore are usually fixed
protective devices, and in this case the recommended fuse is
a 40K tin link.
II is important that the capacitor fuse operate and clear
before any recloser operation, as a capacitor fault resulting
fmrn the failure of a capacitor unit may escalate into a multi-
pllase fault and multiple capacitor-unit failures if not cleared
immediately, or if subjected to a reclosing operation.
F~gure 11 A4 compares the time-current curves of the 40
a'f1)ere K fuse with the Type 4E recloser with 140 ampere
ali, which will serve as back-up protection. For a capacitor-
alii failure, the maximum fault current is three times the rated
C11nent if the bank is ungrounded. In this case, TYPE4E

-
140A
105A /S
kvar 10 = 600 41 _67A
Irated =
kVratedL-N 14.4
Thus, Itault = 3Irated = 3 x 41.67 = 125A
I
Since the recloser has a 280 ampere minimum trip, it will I
u respond for this fault; therefore, the 40 ampere K fuse will I
I
dear it.
Further examination of Figure 11A4 shows that the fuse ~ 40K
GROUP I
'lnaXimum clearing curve and the recloser A (fast) curve intersect ~ FUSED
I
at 290 and 800 amperes. Fault current in this range could I
cause simultaneous fuse and recloser operation, but fault 1800-KVAR I
arrents in this range as a result of capacitor failure are POLE-MOUNTED
~ly. If a fault persists, it more than likely will escalate
.
I
y CAPACITOR BANK
~:
\§7
u )i;
rYYYl

Figure 1OA4.
Group-fused capacitor bank.

163
-------

A. Overcurrent Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Protective Equipment Selections and Applications (Continued)

600 36000
500 30000
400 24000
300 18000
200 12000
40K
TIN
100 6000
80 4800
60 3600
50 3000
40 2400
30 1800
20 4E 1200

10
8
6
5
\'
'\
140A
D
600
480
360
300
\ 240
4
3 \ \ 18o en
rn
0
z
2

1
\ '~
\ 1\
1\
120

:c
60 0
Ci5
c(
ID
N

0 48 ~
*
(.) .8
36 ~
z .5 .6 30 d
-.4 \ !\
24 ~
w
::::! .3 \ 18 z
i= .2

.1
\
N~
'' '
12 w

6.0
::::!
i=

.08 4.8
.06 ...... 3.6
.05 1.35A 3.0
.04 2.4
.03 " A 1.8
.02 \. '" 1.2
\
~
'
1\J U) .;. (11 Ol 0
(X) ......
o0 o0 0
ooo
00
8o
0

CURRENT IN AMPERES

Figure 11 A4.
Comparison of fuse-link and recloser curves for coordination of capacitor protection.

164
 A4

controlled reclosers, which inherently provide more versatility

, system is now protected (Figure 12A4), using a minimum
llllliD!tJer of devices and maintaining complete temporary fault
pilledion as well as ground-fault protection. Attention also
liB been given to keeping momentary power interruptions to
aniniroom.
is a relatively simple, straightforward protection scheme,
llllwtone that illustrates the progression of decisions that must
IIIR l!nade from substation to feeders to branches, and from
IIIIIIDfant three-phase loads to end-of-line single-phase
SBI"IIice. For more complicated system problems, the design
than do hydraulic reclosers, and which may be eq uipped with
other significant features and options. Current-limiting fuses
are another option. Also, sectionalizers may be applied in
series or with fuses for additional flexibility in isolating
permanently faulted line segments.
Except for the inclusion of transfer and connecting devices,
designing overcurrent protection even for load transfer and
loop schemes employs basically the same procedure as
described above for a hypothetical radial system. See the
appropriate discussions in Section A3.

VJJJ
"11'
@ I
I
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I

TYPE 4E 65T

~
-
220A
140A
105A 40A
r-.:::-::::...----,;ar-_ _---~.._ _ _ _ _ _ _----. ;&
29A~
65T
'§/ I
LEGEND
TYPEGW I
448A
I
- - - - 3PHASE I
2 PHASE ~ 40K
GROUP I
1 PHASE \§7 FUSED
I
NODE NUMBER
I
MAX. LOAD CURRENT 1800-KVAR
POLE-MOUNTED
I
~:
NAX. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT Y CAPACITOR BANK
MIN. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT I

GENERATOR
OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER
RECLOSER
SECT!ONAUZER
FUSE
0\lercurrent protective devices selected and coordinated
as described in the accompanying discussion:
Recloser 1
Type WVE elec~r~mically_ controlled, three phase, 560
~pere phase mmu~um_ tnp, 280 ampere ground minimum
1rip. S~qu~nc~ coordmat1on accessory. Function: Protection
of mam c1rcu1t (/1 to /2) and feeder (/2 to /3) with three-
phase load, plus ground-fault protection of both feeders.
Locks out for permanent fault before breaker relay reaches
trip position.
\§lulL
rYYY\
Recloser 2
Three Type 4E hydraulically controlled, single phase, 140
ampere coil, 280 ampere minimum trip. Function: Protection
of feeder (/2 to /6) with three branches, none with three-
phase loads. Isolates entire feeder in event of fault not
cleared by downline device.
Sectionalizer
Type GW electronically controlled; three phase, 448
ampere phase actuating current. Function: In coordination
with Recloser 1, to isolate feeder (/2 to /3) in event of
permanent fault.
65T Fuse Links
Function: In coordination with Recloser 2, to isolate branch
served (/4 to /5 or /6 to /7) in event of permanent fault on
that branch.
40 K Fuse
Group capacitor fusing - requirements supplied by capacitor
manufacturer. Function: To isolate capacitor bank in event
of capacitor fault before any operation of Recloser 2.

Figure 12A4.
Demonstration distribution system with all overcurrent protection devices in place.

165
166
 Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

167
 Table of Contents
Page
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Introduction .................................. 171
Principles and Objectives . ...................... 172
The Nature of Overvoltages ...................... 172
Sources of Surges ..... . . ..................... 172
Types of Surges .............................. 172
Overvoltage Protection Methods and Equipment ...... 172
Surge Arresters .............................. 173
Shield Wires .......... . ...................... 173
Terms and Definitions .................... .. ..... 173
General Terms ............................... 173
Types of Voltage Withstand Tests Applied
to Insulation ............................... 173
Surge Arrester Terminology ..... . ....... .. . . .... 174
Lightning Phenomena .......................... 175
Origin of Lightning: Some Theories .. . .............. 175
Mechanics of a Lightning Flash .................... 176
Lightning and Electric Power Systems .......... . ... 177
Stroke Currents: Magnitude and Shape ........... 177
Measuring the Incidence of Lightning ............. 178
Overvoltages of System Origin ............. . .... 180
Switching Surges ......... . ..................... 180
Switching Distribution Line and Transformer
as a Unit .................................. 180
Capacitor Switching ........................... 181
Energization of an Isolated Capacitor Bank ....... 181
Energization of a Charged Capacitor Bank ....... 181
Voltage Magnification ........................ 181
Restrike During Capacitor-Bank Interruption .. .. .. 182
Prestrike During Capacitor Energization , ....... .183
Inductive Current Chopping ........ . ............ 183
Current-Limiting-Fuse Arc Voltage ................ 184
Summary of Switching Surges . .. ........... . ... 185
Ferroresonant Overvoltages .... .. . . .......... .. .. 185
Harmonics ....................................186
Sources and Characteristics ............... . .... 186
Effects and Concerns ... . ................. . ... 186
Power-Factor-Correction Capacitors ............ 187
Corrective Measures ...... . ........... .. ...... 188
Traveling Waves .. .... .. .. . ........... . ........ 189
Causes and Characteristics .......... . ............ 189
Two Waves: Voltage and Current ................. 189
Formulas for Determining Surge Impedance and
Velocity of Propagation ............ .. ..... . .... 189
Inductance ................................ 189
Capacitance ............................... 190
Surge Impedance .................... . ...... 190
Velocity of Propagation ........ ... .......... . . 190
Application of Formulas ...................... 190
Wave Behavior at Junctions .. .. ....... .. ......... 190
At a Junction of Dissimilar Lines ................. 190
At a Short Circuit ............... . ............. 191
At an Open Circuit .................... .. ...... 192
At Capacitive and Inductive Terminations .......... 193
At a Termination Equal to
Characteristic Impedance .............. . ..... 193
At an Open Point Terminated by a Silicon-Carbide
Surge Arrester ............................. 194
At an Open Point Terminated by a Gapless
MOV Surge Arrester ......................... 195
Index of Figures and Tables ..................... 196
168
Page
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER
CHARACTERISTICS AND
GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Introduction ................... . ....... ... .. . . 197
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation ....... . .. . . 198
Impulse Withstand: How It Is Determined
and Defined .. . ............... . .............. 198
Standard Test Waves .......................... 199
Impulse Withstand Characteristics of
Insulation-System Components .................. 199
Porcelain Insulators ............. . ...... . ...... 199
Air Gaps ....................................199
Wood ......................................199
Fiberglass, Plastics, and Fiber-Reinforced
Plastics (FRP) ...................... . . . .. . .200
Impulse Withstand Characteristics of Materials
Combined in Series .. . ........................200
Porcelain and Wood or Fiberglass ............... 200
Air and Wood .................. . .... . . . . . .... 201
Fiberglass or FRP and Wood ...................201
Air and Porcelain ........................... . .201
Example of Insulation Withstand Calculation .........201
Role of Wood as a Design Safety Factor .... . ...... .. 201
Extinguishing Flashovers .......................201
Mechanical Damage from Surge Currents .........202
Other Wood Characteristics .....................202
Underground Distribution Circuits .... . .......... .203
Distribution Equipment Insulation ............... .204
Insulation Categories ........................... .204
Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL) ............ . .. .204
Low-Frequency Voltage Withstand ................. .204
Atmospheric Factors . . .... . .......... . ......... .204
Equipment Withstand Levels ..... . ............... .204
Transformer Insulation Tests ................... .204
Other Equipment Insulation Tests ............... .205
Surge Arresters .............................. .206
Basic Design and Operation . . ......... . .... .. ... .206
Surge Arrester Classifications .................. . . .207
General Arrester Application Factors .............. .. 208
Selection of Voltage Rating .............. .. .... .208
Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage MCOV .. .209
Temporary Overvoltage . .................... .209
Margins of Protection ....................... .209
Shield Wires ..................................21 1
Index of Figures and Tables .....................21 2

Page
1 SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND
OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
llllroduction . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . .. . ................213
Arrester Function and Selection ... . . ... . . .. .. .. .214
~~~ester Voltage Rating .. . . . . .. ... .. ...... . . ..... 214
System Operating Voltages . ......... ... ... ..... 214
System Faults and Other Unusual Operating
Conditions ...... . . . . . . . . ................. .214
Effect of System Grounding During
Line-to-Ground Faults .... ............... .. 215
Coefficient of Grounding and
Percent Arresters .. . . . . .... . .. ..... . . .. .. 216
Distribution Circuit Considerations . .. . ... ....... .216
Conditions Requiring Arrester Selection
by Calculation . ...... .. .... . . . ....... .. ... 216
Arrester Voltage Rating Recommendations ........ 217
IEUation Coordination ... . . ... . .. . .. . .. ... . .. .. .217
Equipment Withstand ... .. . ....................218
Comparison of Oil-Filled and Dry-Type
Equipment ....... ... . . . ............ . ..... 219
Margin of Protection . . . . .................... . .219
Anester Class . ......... . . . .... ... . . . . . . .... . . .220
Arrester Location and Connection . ... . . . ..... .. .221
Eslinating Lead-Wire Voltage . ... . .... . ... . ..... . .221
~of Arrester Lead Length . . .......... .. ...... .221
Qher Location/Connection Considerations . . . .. . . . . . .222
Ola:head Line Protection .. . . ........... . ..... .. 223
underground Circuit Protection . . .. . .. . .. ... . . .. .224
Recommended Protection Methods .. . ... . . . .. . .. .. 224
Section B
OVERVOLTAGE P~
Page
Type Of Arrester .. .. ......... ........ ........ .. .226
Distribution Apparatus Protection . . ..... .... . ... .22.7
Distribution Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . .... . ... . .... .22.7
Grounding . . .. .. ... . .. .. . .. .. . .. . ... ... . ... .22.7
Fuse Location . . .. .. .... ...... ..... .. ... .. . ..22.9
Single Phasing .. . ............... . . .. .........22.9
Secondary Surge Protection ........ ..... .. . . ...230
Voltage Regulators .... .... .. ........ . . .. . .. ... .231
Switchgear .. . .. . .. . . . ................. .. . .....233
Capacitors .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. ......... ... . . ... . .233
Substation Protection ... . . . . . ......... .. .. ... . .234
Index of Figures and Tables ......... . ... ........235
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Introduction .... . ..... . ........... .. . . . .. . .... 237
Preliminary Considerations ..... . . .. .. .. ... ..... 238
Review of Principles ...... . ...... . ... . .. ..... ... 238
System Configuration and Data ...... . . . . . .........239
Surge Arrester Selections and Application ...... . .240
Overhead Line Protection ........ . .. . .......... . .240
Distribution Equipment Protection .... . . . .. ..... .. .. 240
Reclosers and Sectionalizers .. ... . . .... .... ....240
Distribution Transformers .... . ... . ... .. .... . . . .. 241
Capacitor Bank . ... . .... . ... .. . ... .... .. .... .242
Summary ... .. . . .. ... ............ . . ..... .. ....242
• • •
REFERENCES AND CREDITS ....... . .. ...... ... .264
169
170

1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
An Introduction
One of the world's best-known signs, "Danger! High Voltage"
ordinarily is used to call attention to both normal and unusual
tonditions on a distribution system that can be hazardous to
the public and/or to utility personnel. Once the danger is
lleCOgnized, human beings can take appropriate steps to
protect themselves from harm.
Protection against the potential hazards of overvoltages,
however, requires more than warning signs and physical
isolation (as by fencing) of the areas involved. Distribution
systems are designed to operate at a particular voltage, and
when the voltage exceeds design level, whether from a surge or
from more gradual increases in voltage, utility personnel and
1he system itself are potentially at risk. Overvoltages are
caused by numerous events that occur during normal operation
ma distribution system, but they frequently are not planned and
are not considered normal conditions. Protection against such
hazards, therefore, must involve design criteria and protective
measures that are an integral part of the distribution system
and that allow for additions or upgrading as circumstances
require.
Most of the causes of overvoltage are transient, lasting
only several microseconds to a few cycles, and their source
naay be either of system origin or external to the system. The
chef external source is lightning, a highly unpredictable nat-
um.l phenomenon that places great stress on power system
Table of Contents, Page 168
Index of Figures and Tables, Page 196
Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
components. Internal sources include switching operations
and line-to-ground faults. One common source, capacitor-
bank switching, generally places less stress on components
than does lightning, but it could occur much more frequently.
Fortunately, most of the effects of transient overvoltages
are limited to a small portion of the distribution system.
Although lightning surges may travel great distances from the
stroke location, they can be dealt with by local protective
devices. It should be noted that overvoltage problems relating
to ferroresonance or harmonics would have the potential for
affecting large areas of a system.
This section of the manual begins with introductory comments
on the principles of overvoltage protection, including a brief
discussion of protection methods, and then turns its attention
to the fundamentals and theory of overvoltage phenomena.
The purpose is to provide a thorough understanding of the
sources and related characteristics of overvoltages, and to
present some basic corrective measures that can be taken to
reduce or eliminate the potential for overvoltage. Sections 82
and 83, which follow, contain detailed discussions of the
specifics of overvoltage protection: the characteristics of
insulation and protective equipment, and how those tools are
applied in protecting distribution lines and apparatus.
171
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Principles and Objectives
A cursory comparison might easily give the impression that
protecting a distribution system against the hazardous
effects of overvoltage is less complicated than protecting it
against overcurrent. It would appear offhand that the sources
of overvoltage are relatively few because they do not include
such nuisance factors as adventurous wildlife and falling tree
limbs. It might appear also that there are few decisions to
make because the types of equipment specifically designed
for overvoltage protection are so limited. However, in some
areas the occurrences of faults are closely related to the
occurrences of over-voltages, because a high percentage of
faults are caused by lightning. And the overall subject of over-
voltage is highly complex, involving areas that still are not
completely understood.
Although surges can be produced within the system (as a
result of switching, for example), lightning is by far the principal
cause of potentially damaging overvoltage; and while many
of the mysteries of this natural phenomenon have been
unveiled since the days of Benjamin Franklin, there remains
much to be discovered. Protection problems are magnified in
some cases because of inability to predict with precision either
the magnitude or the results of overvoHage occurrences without
the use of sophisticated analytical techniques and equipment.
In addition to the obvious safety factors relating to personnel
and customers, economics provide a strong incentive for the
highest practical level of overvoltage protection. Higher-than-
normal voltages will cause the insulation of such distribution
apparatus as transformers, regulators, switches, etc., to break
down, leading to immediate or eventual failure. It also will
cause line or cable flashovers, resulting in either temporary
faults or disruption of service to customers. · tion. This could take from several seconds to a few hours.
Economics play an important part also in determining the
nature of the protection provided, particularly the respective
roles of line or system insulation, apparatus insulation, and
protective equipment (surge arresters and shield wires).
THE NATURE OF OVERVOLTAGES
Overvoltages originating from outside the distribution system
are mostly due to lightning. There are other possible external
sources, such as transmission lines falling into distribution
lines and the so-called electromagnetic pulse (EMP) resulting
from nuclear blasts.
Overvoltages originating within the system may be caused
by circuit-configuration changes as a result of switching or
faults, or by internal events that affect fundamental and near-
fundamental frequency, such as an excess of system-driving
voltage.
Sources of Surges
1. Lightning, the principal source of damaging overvoltage
on distribution systems, can produce surges either by
direct strikes or through induction. The resulting voltage
surge may vary from a relatively small increase to many
times the normal peak line-to-ground voltage, as system
insulation levels permit.
As stated previously, the art of protection is complicated
to a degree by the fact that lightning parameters are not all
fully understood. Of particular help in planning, however,
are well-documented studies of the incidence and magni-
tude of lightning strokes.
172
2. Switching within the system can cause overvoltages to
appear at remote points as well as at the switching location.
Switching surges usually are not a concern at the distribution
level, however, since the steps taken to protect against
lightning-caused overvoltage will usually cover them, too.
3. Fundamental and near-fundamental frequency-related
overvoltages result from such occurrences as voltage
regulation problems, the amplification of harmonic
voltages and currents by resonance within the network,
and ferroresonance caused by single-pole switching.
Another cause is faults involving ground- an example of
the interrelationship between overcurrent and overvoltage
protection.
Types of Surges
The form that surges take -transient or temporary/sustained
- is determined by their source.
1. By nature, surge voltages produced by lightning are tran-
sient phenomena. That is, they are of short duration with
respect to a particular segment of line and will travel down
the line. Thus, the potential for damage from such surges
is not restricted to the immediate area of the occurrence.
The surges may cause damage also at discontinuities in
the line, such as at open points, where the voltage wave
doubles.
2. Voltages related to ferroresonance, capacitive rise, unbal-
anced system voltage, and voltage regulation fall into the
temporary/sustained category. That is, their duration is
directly related to their cause and will exist until the cause is
removed either by automatic controls or human interven-
3. Overvoltages caused by switching are generally transient
but can be sustained if the switching results in a resonant
condition at fundamental frequency or one of the low-
order harmonic frequencies.
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION METHODS AND
EQUIPMENT
Three equally important and interrelated factors are involved
in overvoltage protection: the design of the overall distribution
system, the basic impulse insulation level (BIL) of the distri-
bution apparatus (transformers, regulators, etc.) on the
system, and protective devices (surge arresters, shield
wires).
The insulating capability of the basic system is determined
by the characteristics of the various components used (poles,
insulators, conductors, etc.) plus configuration, spacing, and
all the other factors that comprise system design. The insulation
of a system must withstand the continuous power-frequency
voltage for many years under a variety of atmospheric condi-
tions. To insure the long-term integrity of the system, it
naturally is designed to withstand voltages higher than normal
system levels. It is not economically feasible, however, to
build systems that will withstand voltages as high as those
associated with transient overvoltages.
Likewise, the insulation level of distribution apparatus is
designed to withstand voltage somewhat higher than normal.
This method of protection works well up to a point, but it soon
reaches a stage at which the added cost of a higher BIL is
not economically feasible.

The vital additional level of overvoltage protection is pro-
vided by installing protective equipment designed to limit the
amount of voltage a piece of apparatus (or segment of line)
may experience (or "see"). This method actually permits the
BIL of the apparatus to be reduced, since it can be based on
1he lower overvoltage potential, and generally results in a
more cost-effective overvoltage protection scheme. Utility
practices vary greatly, of course, and all must take into
account the three essential factors of customer service,
potential exposure (particularly to lightning), and economics.
Surge Arresters
A surge arrester, the most commonly used add-on equipment
b" overvoltage protection, is defined in industry standards
(ANSI C62.1-1981) as "a protective device for limiting voltage
on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge current; it
prevents continued flow of follow current to ground, and is
capable of repeating these functions as specified." The three
basic classifications of arresters are distribution, intermedi-
ate, and station.
For an arrester to prevent the voltage across the protected
equipment from becoming excessive, its characteristics
nurt, of course, be coordinated with the BIL of that equipment.
That is, the arrester selection process must take into account
1he ability of the equipment to withstand overvoltage and
make certain the arrester functions well within the limits of
1he equipment insulation. Note that "insulation coordination"
as applied to overvoltage protection differs from the "coordi-
nation" of overcurrent devices, since the latter relates to the
relative timing (or responsiveness) of protective devices used
..-. series.
Shield Wires
Transmission and subtransmission lines normally employ
shield wires or static wires located high above the phase con-
ckJctors to shield the phase conductors from direct lightning
strokes. The shield wires intercept most direct strokes and
allow them to be conducted harmlessly to ground. However,
1here remains a small probability of backflashover from the
Dtier to the ground that is a function of the tower construction
and footing resistance.
On distribution systems, the grounded neutral conductor
sometimes is located above the phase conductors to act as
a shield conductor.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Folowing are some of the commonly used terms and definitions
the reader will encounter in Section B, Overvoltage
Protection. They relate to the various conditions and compo-
'lents of principal interest in understanding and coping with
a.~ervoltage phenomena: voltage surges, line and equipment
insulation tests, insulators, and overvoltage protective
devices. Many of these terms and definitions are discussed
..-. detail as they are introduced in appropriate portions of the
leXt.
General Terms
Self-restoring Insulation. Materials such as air and porcelain,
whose insulating properties are completely recovered after a
cisruptive discharge (flashover).
Nonself-restoring Insulation. Materials such as oil and
caft paper, which exhibit permanent damage and loss of
l'lsulating properties after flashover.
Rashover. A disruptive discharge around or over the surface
of an insulator. (This term may be easily confused with
81
"Sparkover," described below under ·surge Arrester
Terminology.")
lsokeraunic Level. A universally accepted measure for
determining the incidence of lightning - defined as the num-
ber of days in a year (or month) that thunder is heard in a par-
ticular location. Abbreviated IKL.
Traveling Wave. A sudden change in voltage or current that
is not transferred instantaneously to all points of an overhead
line or cable, but rather requires some finite interval for the
surge (traveling wave) to propagate down the line. May be
caused by a lightning stroke, switching of components, a
short circuit, or conductor break.
Withstand Voltage (or Withstand Level). The highest value
of applied voltage at which equipment will not flash over.
Surge-Wave Description. The wave shape of an impulse
(other than rectangular) of a current or voltage is designated
by a combination of two numbers. The first, an index of the
wave front, is the virtual duration of the wave front in
microseconds. The second, an index of the wave tail, is the
time in microseconds from virtual zero (see below) to the
instant at which one-half of the crest value is reached on the
wave tail. Examples are 1.2 x 50 and 8 x 20 waves.
The wave shape of a rectangular impulse of current or voltage
is designated by two numbers. The first is the minimum value
of current or voltage that is sustained for the time in microsec-
onds designated by the second number. An example is the 75
A x 1000 wave.
VIrtual Zero Point (of an impulse). The intersection with the
zero axis of a straight line drawn through points on the front
of the current wave at ten percent and 90 percent of crest
value, or through points on the front of the voltage wave at 30
percent and 90 percent of crest value.
Virtual Duration of Wave Front (of an impulse). The virtual
value for the duration of the wave front is as follows:
1. For voltage waves with wave-front duration of less than 30
microseconds, either full or chopped on the front, crest, or
tail: 1.67 times the time for the voltage to increase from 30
percent to 90 percent of its crest value.
2. For voltage waves with wave-front duration of 30 or more
microseconds: the time required for the voltage to
increase from actual zero to maximum crest value.
3. For current waves: 1.25 times the time for the current to
increase from 10 to 90 percent of crest value.
BIL. A contracted abbreviation of "Basic Impulse Insulation
Level," which is a reference full-wave impulse withstand level
expressed as crest voltage of a standard 1.2 x 50 microsecond
wave shape (see "Full-Wave Withstand," below). This is the
accepted criterion for the impulse withstand capability of dis-
tribution equipment. For effective overvoltage protection, the
BIL (withstand level) of the equipment to be protected must
be coordinated with the characteristics of the protecting
surge arresters.
Types of Voltage Withstand Tests Applied to
Insulation
The first three tests described below are impulse-voltage
tests applied to both line and equipment insulation. The other
test is a low-frequency withstand test applied primarily to dis-
tribution equipment.
173
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Principles and Objectives (Continued)
Full-Wave Withstand. The industry-accepted standard test-
voltage (or "lightning-impulse") wave shape for all types of
insulation is 1.2 x 50 microseconds with a continued gradual
decay to zero on the wave tail. The crest value is frequently
referred to as the BIL (see page 173).
Chopped-Wave Withstand. An applied test voltage that
begins as a basic 1.2 x 50 microsecond wave but is
"chopped" (caused to decay to zero very rapidly) by the
sparkover of a suitable shunting air gap at or shortly after
crest. Values run approximately 115 percent of full wave.
Transformer standards - both power and distribution - specify
both chopped-wave and full-wave withstand levels.
Front-of-Wave Withstand. An applied test voltage with a
specified (and relatively steep) rate of voltage rise that is
chopped at a specified time before the normal wave crest is
reached - usually one-half microsecond. Power transformer
standards specify a front-of-wave withstand level in addition
to the two withstand levels previously described.
Low-Frequency Voltage Withstand. In addition to some or
all of the above impulse-voltage tests, depending on industry
standards, equipment insulation is required to withstand low-
frequency (60 Hz) voltages greater than the maximum rated
operating voltage. The test generally consists of a one-minute
application of 60 Hz voltage under dry conditions, and a ten-
second application of a lower 60 Hz voltage under wet con-
ditions.
Surge Arrester Terminology
Sparkover. A disruptive discharge between the electrodes of
an arrester. (Note that the term is not applicable to metal-
oxide-varistor (MOV) arresters or other devices constructed
without the series gaps found in silicon-carbide arresters.
Also, care should be taken not to confuse "Sparkover" with
"Flashover; described above under "General Terms.")
174
Arrester Insulation Withstand Voltages. Power-frequency
withstand voltage and impulse withstand voltage of an
arrester's insulation are, respectively, the highest rms value
of the 60 Hz voltage and the highest crest value of the surge
voltage that can be applied to an assembled arrester without
flashover. Since arrester insulation withstand levels must nat-
urally be higher than the arrester sparkover level, insulation
withstand voltages are determined with internal conducting
parts removed or otherwise made inoperative. Any external
series-gap electrodes that shunt an insulating member also
are removed.
Arrester VoHage Rating. The rms value of the maximum 60 Hz
voltage (line to ground) to which an arrester should be
subjected even under transient conditions.
Power-Frequency Sparkover. (Not applicable to MOV
arresters.) The rms value of the minimum 60Hz voltage that
will cause sparkover of an arrester when applied between its
line and ground terminals. This sparkover level should be
high enough to prevent arrester operation on harmless low
transient voltages. Industry standards state that power-
frequency sparkover of an arrester should be at least 1.5
times rated voltage, except for station arresters rated 60 kV
and above, where the minimum is 1.35 times rating.
1.2 x 50 Impulse Sparkover. (Not applicable to MOV arresters.)
The highest standard lightning impulse voltage longer than
three microseconds that an arrester will allow without
sparkover. This arrester sparkover characteristic is coordinated
with equipment BIL in overvoltage protection applications.

Lightning Phenomena
Since lightning is by far the leading cause of damaging
overvoltages on distribution systems, a knowledge of its
characteristics is essential for the student and practitioner of
overvoltage protection.
Although more than two hundred years have passed since
Benjamin Franklin's famous experiment with a kite proved the
presence of electricity in lightning, the bulk of our knowledge
regarding the characteristics of lightning was gained after the
mid-1940s, following the introduction of radar. Radar can be
used to measure precipitation intensities or the characteristics
af the lightning discharge channel. Other important measuring
equipment are antennas for electrostatic field analysis, and
magnetic links and oscillographs for current discharge analysis.
The following discussion is a combination of widely held
theory regarding the origin of lightning and observable,
recordable fact as to some of the important characteristics of
~ing and their effect on electric power lines.
ORIGIN OF LIGHTNING: SOME THEORIES
Alhough the origin and generation of lightning are not
completely understood, generally accepted theory revolves
around the separation of positive and negative charges with-
'il a thundercloud as shown in Figure 181. The general pat-
tern is for positive charges to be located at the top of the
hmdercloud, with negative charges in the lower region. The
concentration of positive charge where a stroke is thought to
originate is nearoo C to -1ooC isotherm.
A number of theories have been postulated to account for
tis separation of positive and negative charges. Three prin-
cipal ones, and the persons with whom they are associated,
ae:
10
i'
.-J:~ 6
~ +
I
0°C
4 +
0
POSITIVE
RAIN
- =
Figure 181.
Ail currents and distribution of electricity in a typical thundercloud.
81
1. Elster-Geitel: Large water drops falling in the earth's electric
field are polarized with negative charge on top and posiiNe
charge on the bottom. When the large falling drops contact
similarly polarized smaller ascending drops, chalge is
transferred, and the larger drops - now net negatively
charged - fall as rain, and the smaller drops - now net
positively charged - rise to the upper portion of the thun-
dercloud.
2. Wilson: Water drops polarized by the earth's electric field,
as in the Elster-Geitel theory, meet positive ions moving
toward earth and negative ions moving away from earth.
The small percentage of drops falling more slowly than
positive ions acquire the ions for a net positive charge, and
the higher percentage of faster-falling drops repel the pos-
itive ions and acquire the negative ascending ions for a net
negative charge. Small rising drops become positively
charged in a similar fashion.
3. Vonnequt: Negative ions outside the cloud are carried
toward the cloud (conductive current) and become
attached to cloud particles. Connective currents move the
cloud particles, which become clumped in pockets.
Positive ions are released at the earth's surface and are
carried by updrafts into the cloud, where they become
attached to particles and accumulate in the upper portion
of the cloud. This attracts more negative ions into the cloud
-positive feedback- thus increasing the cloud's electrification.
No matter what the cause of this charge separation may be,
as the amount of the separation increases, so does the
resulting electric field. When field strength exceeds the critical
breakdown level, thought to be in the range of 500 to 1000
kV/meter, the lightning discharge begins.
+ + +
+
+
NEGATIVE
RAIN
:
:
115
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Lightning Phenomena (Continued)

MECHANICS OF A LIGHTNING FLASH
The majority of lightning flashes to or near level ground are
initiated from the thundercloud and consist of a "stepped
leader'' of negative charge advancing downward, from cloud to
earth, followed by a return stroke from earth to cloud. The
initiating leader has formed as a result of intercloud dis-
charges that create the necessary field distributions.
Formation of such a leader is a complex, dynamic process
of electron acceleration to the ionization potential of gas
molecules, resulting in the release of additional electrons.
These molecules then repeat the process (that is, an electron
avalanche is created) and there follows a recombination of
electrons and ions, gas heating, and thermal ionization.
Thus, a highly charged, conductive channel is created.
The leader "steps" from cloud toward earth traveling at the
rate of 0.1 to 0.8 meters per microsecond, with each step a
distance of 10 to 200 meters, the average being about 50
meters. The interval between steps ranges from ten to 100
microseconds, with 50 microseconds the average. Figure 281
illustrates the progression and time lapse of a stepped
stroke, which actually would consist of many more steps than
shown within the ten-millisecond time frame indicated.
The process may be repeated over and over, so that what
appears to the eye as a single flash is really made up of a
number of strokes. More than 80 percent of flashes are made
up of two or more component strokes, and analysis of one
exceptional flash showed it to have 54 component strokes.
Figures 381, 481 and 581 summarize the stroke process
just described, identified as a negative lightning flash since it
emanates from a negatively charged cloud center. The
sequence shown covers the majority of flashes of concern to
the power engineer.
Positively charged leaders do emanate sometimes from
tall structures toward negatively charged clouds, and may or
may not be followed by return strokes from cloud to earth.
Such strokes also are defined as negative flashes.
Although rare, positively charged clouds may initiate positive
leaders to earth followed by return strokes, or they may
cause negatively charged leaders to emanate from tall
objects with or without return strokes.

CLOUD

++++++ +++~+-

2 4 6 8 10 Figure 381.
TIME (MILLISECONDS) Charge along cloud base induces opposite charge on
earth.
Figure 281.
Progression of a stepped stroke from cloud to earth.

When a stepped leader approaches within striking dis-

tance of ground, an upward connecting leader rises to meet
the stepped leader and a return stroke travels toward the
cloud at a rate from 0.1 to 0.5 times the speed of light. The
return stroke neutralizes the charge in the leader channel
and ultimately the charge center in the cloud. Despite this
neutralizing effect, however, the previous charge center may
be recharged by neighboring charge pockets within the
cloud. If this occurs, a "dart leader'' will proceed down the
path of the original "stepped leader," causing another return
stroke to arise from earth to cloud. +++++
+ +
Figure 481.
Lightning leaders propagate toward earth.

176
 81
the voltage of the downward leader. Because such wllage
exceeds the line-to-ground withstand voltage of system ilsUa-
tion, insulation failure can result unless adequate OYeniOiage
protection is provided. It obviously is preferable thai a path to
ground for the lightning stroke be provided by the operation
of surge arresters rather than by insulation failure. When the
path is found, the link between cloud and earth is completed
and the cloud energy is released in the form of surge current.
Since the line-to-ground connecting point may be remote
from the stroke contact point, a portion of the line conductor
may have served as part of the lightning current path.

STROKE CURRENTS: MAGNITUDE AND SHAPE

In order to establish the magnitudes of overvoltages possible
on a distribution system as a result of lightning, it is essential
that the engineer have an understanding of the magnitude
and shape of currents produced by direct strokes. Data has
Figure 581. been collected by many observers, beginning in the 1920s,
Return strokes flash from earth to cloud. on the character of lightning strikes to earth. Most of the data
has been developed from three sources:
1. Lightning strikes to transmission lines.
LIGHTNING AND ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS 2. Strikes to tall objects (towers).
Ughtning need not even come in direct contact with power 3. Arrester discharge currents.
lines to cause problems, since induced charges can be Ideally, for our purpose the data would be based on strikes
introduced into the system from nearby lightning strokes to to distribution lines, but except for information on currents
ground. Although the cloud and earth charges are neutralized discharged by distribution-class arresters, such data has not
through the established cloud-to-ground path, a charge will been generally available. Work to determine the characteristics
be trapped on the line as shown in Figure 681 . The magnitude of strokes that actually terminate on distribution lines is now
of this trapped charge depends on the initial cloud-to-earth being conducted in South America and Florida.
gradient and proximity of the stroke to the line. Voltage Some of the data collected by K. Berger and associates is
induced on the line from the remote stroke will propagate summarized in Table 1B 1. This data was collected from
along the line in the form of a traveling wave until dissipated measuring devices mounted on towers of 70 and 90 meters.
by attenuation, leakage, insulation failure, or surge-arrester (References 1 and 2.)
operation. (Traveling waves and the characteristics, function,
and operation of surge arresters are discussed in detail in
later sections.) TABLE 181
Statistical Data for Lightning Strokes Based on Data
from Measuring Devices atop Towers of 70 and 90 Meters
Percent Exceeding
Stroke Characteristic Tabulated Value
95% 50% 5%
Crest Current (kA) (kA) (kA)
Negative First Strokes 14 30 80
Negative Following Strokes 4.6 12 30
Positive Flashes 4.6 35 250
Maximum dYdt (kA/us) (kA/us) (kA/us)
Negative First Strokes 5.5 14 32
Negative Following Strokes 12 40 120
Positive Flashes 0.20 2.4 32
Front Duration (us) (us) (us)
Negative First Strokes 1.8 5.5 18
Negative Following Strokes 0.22 1.1 4.5
Positive Flashes 3.5 22 200
Tail Duration (Time to 112 Crest) (us) (us) (us)
Negative First Strokes 30 75 200
Figure 681. Negative Following Strokes 6.5 32 140
Trapped charge remains on line. Positive Flashes 25 230 2000
Time Interval between Strokes (ms) 7 33 150
Total Flash Charge (C) 1.3 7.5 40

When lightning strikes a line directly, the voltage increases

rapidly at the contact point. This voltage, which also propa-
gates in the form of a traveling wave in both directions from
the stricken point, attempts to raise the potential of the line to
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Lightning Phenomena (Continued)

Measuring the Incidence of Lightning

In addition to understanding the shapes and magnitudes of
voltage surges that can be produced by lightning, utilities
90 must make some determination of the incidence of lightning

80
~ in their respective service areas in order to devise suitable
levels of overvoltage protection.
\r-it\ ~l=13kA A universally accepted measure for this purpose is the
a=0.74
isokeraunic level (IKL) or thunder day (TO) - defined as the
number of days in a year (or month) that thunder is heard in
50 ~
a particular location. Figure 881 is an isokeraunic map of the
United States showing the mean annual numbers of days
""' '- ~ with thunderstorms as reported by the U. S. Weather Bureau.
This is generally regarded as a weak indicator for utilities'
purposes in that it does not establish the number of strokes
' ~
,. SARGENT'S
DISTRIBUTION to ground and does not indicate if more than one lightning
'\0 LEVEL GROUND flash occurred.
' \
~
To overcome this deficiency, various empirical formulas
have been developed to establish the ground flash density,
Ng, as related to IKL. This relationship takes into account that
~\ not all flashes are to ground; in fact, better than 50 percent
are cloud-cloud flashes. Various ratios of cloud-cloud to
cloud-earth flashes have been observed, varying from 0.5 in
~ temperate climates to 9 in tropical climates. The generally
.1 " accepted relationship is:
~
.01 ~ Ng {0.1-0.2) (IKL) [flashes/KM2-year]
5 10 20 50 100 200
Most recent research in U.S. suggests an average value of
STROKE CURRENT: kA

Figure 781.
Ng =0.15 (IKL)
Distribution of strokes to ground level.

Characteristics of lightning strokes to distribution lines,

which· usually have heights of 20 meters or less, also have
been investigated. It has been determined that the response
of distribution lines to lightning can be calculated based on
the stroke distribution to level ground. This will be covered in
Section 83, under "Overhead Line Protection:·
The distribution for strokes to level ground as calculated by
Sargent is shown in Figure 781. This distribution shows high
occurrences of the lower-magnitude negative first stroke. As
the demonstration abscissa indicates, there is a 30 percent
chance that stroke current will exceed 20 kA. (Reference 3.)

178
 81
Other relationships are: 1. Recording thunderstorm hours to differentiate between
short and long storm times.
Ng =2.6 X 10-3 (IKL)1.9 (U.K.) 2. Utilizing lightning-flash counters to get a much more precise
=0.036 (IKL)1.3 (U.S.S.R.) indication of flash occurrence. Most recent counters are
=0.004 (IKL)2 (Sweden) designed to be insensitive to all but cloud to earth flashes,
thereby directly yielding data on ground-flash densities.
To overcome errors created by relying solely on isokeraunic The application of this data requires a sufficiently long
levels, two approaches are being taken: enough record in a particular area to allow for annual
variations.

Figure 881.
lsokeraunic map showing thunderstorm days as reported by U.S. Weather Bureau.

179
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Overvoltages of System Origin
All distribution-system overvoltages other than those caused
by lightning are produced by disturbances or less-than-ideal
conditions within the system itself. The most common and
troublesome internal sources of overvoltage are switching
operations, ferroresonance, and harmonics. These sources
and the characteristics of the surges they produce, plus related
problems, will be examined in this section. Overvoltage
calculations and some of the basic corrective actions also will
be covered.
SWITCHING SURGES
Switching surges are overvoltages produced by changes in
operating conditions within the network when switching is
performed. There are several ways in which these overvoltages
can be generated, and all have one thing in common: the
trapping of energy in part of the circuit and the subsequent
release of that energy.
The two types of switching surges are those produced by
circuit or system conditions, and those produced by inherent
switch action. The first type includes surges caused by the
switching of line (or cable} and transformer as a unit, by
capacitor switching, and by voltage magnification. The second
type includes surges caused by restrike during capacitive
current interruption, by prestrike during capacitor (line and
cable} energization, by inductive current chopping, and by
current-limiting-fuse arc voltages.
Switching Distribution Line and
Transformer as a Unit
Overvoltages may result when a lightly loaded or unloaded
transformer is remotely switched through a long run of cable or
overhead line, or with a large capacitor bank. These situations
are more common on transmission systems, but also may
occur on distribution systems under any of the following
conditions:
• Large capacitor banks are located on the primary side of a
transformer and both are switched as a unit.
• Economic considerations dictate that relatively large
transformers have no high-side breaker or switching device.
• A large transformer is located on an industrial site.
• Reclosing is performed on a line terminated with a large
transformer after a temporary fault has occurred during
light load conditions.
SOURCE E:J~------LO_N_G__LI_N_E_O_R_C_A_B_L_E-r------~3 f__
SWITCHING I 3t
DEVICE CAPACITOR"! LARGE
BANK TRANSFORMER
Figure 981.
Diagram of system on which transformer energization
may introduce overvoltage-producing harmonics.
180
When the transtormer is energized under such conditions,
the resulting magnetizing inrush current is rich in harmonics,
mainly the second and fourth. These harmonic currents are
injected into a parallel L-C circuit which, if tuned in the
neighborhood of the low, even harmonics, can produce large,
sustained overvoltages typically referred to as dynamic
overvoltages. Figure 981 shows a system where this
phenomenon may occur; the equivalent circuit for a simplified
analysis of the system is shown in Figure 1081. The symbols
used are:
Ls = system inductance
Lt = transformer inductance
=
C capacitance between switching device and transformer
If the parallel combination of Ls, Lt and C is resonant at the
second or fourth harmonic, overvoltages may develop. The
formula to determine the resonant frequency for the circuit is
f= - - = = -
2rt'l/ Leq C
where
The voltage levels generated in such circumstances usually
are 2 per-unit or less and normally are sustained. The energy
involved is enough to damage distribution-and intermediate-
class arresters if sparkover occurs, but it should not damage
station-class arresters.
Some of the corrective measures to avoid this problem are:
• Detune the circuit by changing the capacitor-bank size.
• Serve the transformer and capacitor-bank combination
from a stiffer source.
• Use station-class arresters to protect equipment while also
being able to withstand the energies developed.
• Modify switching practices to prevent unloaded transformer
and capacitor bank from being switched as a unit.
HARMONIC
Ls c t CURRENT
GENERATOR
Figure 1081.
Equivalent circuit for analysis of system in Figure 981.

Capacitor Switching
When a capacitor bank is energized or de-energized, over-
voltages are produced that may affect both the capacitor and
the system to which it is connected. The switching surges
generally are not high enough to cause arrester sparkover,
unless magnified by a system resonance condition. However,
some cases of capacitor-bank switching can cause problems
without such magnification.
ENERGIZATION OF AN ISOLATED CAPACITOR BANK
Figure 1181 shows an equivalent circuit of an isolated single-
phase capacitor bank being energized. The following nomen-
clature is used:
L =system inductance
Es = system voltage (L-N)
Ec = capacitor voltage
C = capacitor bank capacitance
Figure 11 81 .
Equivalent circuit of an isolated single-phase capacitor
bank being energized.
When the switch is closed, current flows into the capacitor
to charge it to the same voltage as the source. The current is
limited to a finite value by the inductance, L, which also
stores energy as the current builds. This causes the capacitor
voltage to overshoot the equilibrium value and results in a
transient voltage and current that oscillate at the natural
frequency of the circuit. The magnitude of the current
depends on the difference between the system voltage and
the capacitor voltage at the time of closing and is given by:
If the capacitor is uncharged and the switch closes at the
system voltage peak, the transient voltage could theoretically
reach 2 per-unit. The resistance of the system damps the
voltage to a lower level. Fortunately, this transient will seldom
affect a surge arrester because the switching-surge sparkover
level of arresters is typically more than two times nominal
system voltage.
Energization of a three-phase grounded-wye capacitor
bank has the same effect as for a single-phase bank, except
that nonsimultaneous pole closing prolongs the total duration
of the voltage and current sources.
Energizing ungrounded-wye capacitor banks can result in
transient voltages approaching 2.5 per-unit and greater.
81
Energization of the first two phases of the bank wi result in
0.5 per-unit power-frequency voltage on the neutral of the
bank. If the third phase is then energized at a peak voltage of
opposite polarity, the resulting maximum transient would be
2.5 per-unit on that phase. Even higher transients are possille
on the capacitor-bank neutral and the last phase to close.
ENERGIZATION OF A CHARGED CAPACITOR BANK
When a capacitor bank is deenergized at its terminals and
immediately re-energized, a trapped charge is retained. If
the system voltage is at opposite potential at the time of
re-energization , a maximum voltage of 3 per-unit may result.
This voltage level may damage capacitors and other equipment.
Since it also could cause arrester sparkover, the arrester
class should be determined based on the capacitive-current
discharge capability of the arrester.
Capacitors have a built-in discharge resistor to drain a
trapped charge. Standards specify that the time for decay of
residual voltage to 50 volts or less should not exceed five
minutes for capacitors rated higher than 600 volts. Therefore,
re-energization should be delayed for five minutes to prevent
overvoltages unless special provisions have been made for a
faster discharge.
VOLTAGE MAGNIFICATION
Capacitor switching can become a problem if the transient
voltage is magnified by a resonant condition. Voltage magni-
fication normally occurs when a capacitor is switched on the
high-voltage side of a transformer while there is another,
smaller capacitor connected to the low-voltage side. Figure
1281 shows a one-line diagram of the type of system
susceptible to voltage magnification; the equivalent circuit is
shown in Figure 1381. Note that there are two main loops in
this circuit consisting of two series inductances (ls and LT)
and two shunt capacitors (C1 and C2).
If the resonant frequencies of the two loops are approximately
the same (lsC1 = LtC2), voltage magnification results, since
the lower-voltage circuit (Lt, C2) is being injected with a voltage
source at its own resonant frequency. Voltages as high as
5 per-unit in the low-voltage circuit have been encountered in
situations such as this when the switched capacitor is a
capacitor bank, or as high as 2 per-unit when the switched
capacitance is a distribution line or cable. The voltage magnitude
is intensified when the switched capacitor is much larger than
the fixed capacitor on the low-voltage system. These voltage
magnitudes are high enough to cause distribution arresters
on the low side to spark over.
69kV ~ >-~-12_._47-k_v_--r-----
I
LARGE
SWITCHED
i 1 SMALL
FIXED
BANK
1 1 BANK
Figure 1281.
Circuit that may cause magnification of capacitor
switching overvoltages.
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Overvoltages of System Origin (Continued)
Ls Lr
E C _{
Ct
Figure 1381.
Equivalent circuit of diagram in Figure 1281.
The reason for concern with regard to this problem is that
capacitor switching is often a daily event. Repetitive surges
may eventually damage equipment, and the duty on the
arresters is relatively severe. Voltage magnification is often
evidenced by failed equipment and arresters at remote loca-
tions during capacitor switching.
The following steps will usually remedy the problem:
• Detune the circuit by changing bank sizes or moving
banks.
• Use preinsertion resistors on breakers to limit voltage
surge magnitudes.
• Unground the remote bank.
• Switch large banks in more than one section.
Figure 1481 illustrates representative waveforms of this
occurrence for system parameters, with reference to Figure
1281 and 1381, summarized as follows:
Ls = 14.3 mh
C1 = 10 uf
LT = 350 mh
C2= .41 uf
4.69pu-
Figure 1481.
Waveforms of overvoltages on 2-mvar, 34.5 kV capacitor
bank after energizatlon of nearby 50 mvar, 115 kV bank.
RESTRIKE DURING CAPACITOR-BANK INTERRUPTION
When deenergizing a capacitor bank, a capacitor switching
device clears the current at a current zero. Since the current
is strictly capacitive, the voltage at the time of interruption is
at a peak. But since the current magnitude is quite low compared
to fault currents, the current may be interrupted when the
contacts have parted only a small amount. When this occurs,
peak voltage is trapped in the capacitor on the load side of
the switch.
182
Successful interruption depends on whether the interrupter
can build up sufficient dielectric strength to withstand the
rate-of-rise of the recovery voltage. Figure 1581 shows that,
one-half cycle after interruption, two times system voltage
appears across the interrupter contacts. If restrike occurs at
this point, the capacitor attempts to recover to crest voltage
of the opposite polarity, and in doing so overshoots by the
amount of the attempted correction. The inrush current is
oscillatory at high frequency, and if this current is interrupted
at a high-frequency current zero, as much as 3 per-unit volt-
age may be trapped on the capacitor, and the restriking
process may continue with the subsequent buildup of even
higher voltages.
Ungrounded-wye banks subject the capacitor switching
device to even higher recovery voltages than the 2.0 per-unit
observed for grounded-wye banks. The transient recovery
voltages can attain values of 2.5 per-unit on the first phase to
open when the other two phases open on the next current
zero, 3.0 per-unit on the first phase to open when the other
two phases open on the second current zero, and 6.4 per-unit
if the first phase to clear restrikes at 2.5 per-unit (compared
to 4.0 per-unit for a grounded-wye bank).
Restriking capacitor-bank switching devices can result in
high system-voltage surges, which may cause equipment
damage if not protected adequately. Therefore, it is desirable
to choose a switching device that will minimize the possibility
of restrike. Opening resistors are sometimes used to ease
the duty on the interrupters. At high system-voltage levels,
ungrounded-wye banks are not practical, because switching
devices with the required recovery-voltage duty are often not
available.
.. ...·....
:-···
•' •• BUS VOLTAGE
...·.. .: ·...
....
\
'••,
......:'
..: ::..
::
·.·
CURRENT
MAX 4 Ec ACROSS SWITCH
CONTACTS Y. CYCLE AFTER
RESTRIKE
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
Figure 1581.
Oscillographic representation of recovery voltage
across interrupter contacts after capacitor-bank
deenergization.

PRESTRIKE DURING CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION
When a capacitor bank is energized, an arc is established
within the interrupter contacts before they physically make
contact: a phenomenon known as prestrike. Since the current
flowing is of high frequency, it may go through several zeros
before metallic contact is finally attained. Interrupters have
been improved so that they can clear at current zero, regardless
of whether it is a result of high-frequency or power-frequency
current. If current is interrupted at one of the current zeros
after prestrike occurs, voltage can be trapped on the
switched capacitor. When the interrupter again strikes the arc
or metallic contact is made, switching surges are produced
similar to those discussed earlier. Multiple re-ignitions have
been known to occur with vacuum interrupters.
Figure 1681 shows an example of prestrike. The peak tran-
sient voltage increased from 1.80 to 3.65 per-unit, which
should result in an arrester operation. In addition, the capac-
itor inrush current is proportionately higher, which may be
damaging to the capacitor fuses.
Some of the corrective measures that may be taken:
• Use a switch that does not cause prestrikes with subse-
quent clearing.
• Use preinsertion resistors.
• Insert current-limiting reactors to limit the overvoltage.
• Use arresters to clamp overvoltages.
BUS VOLTAGE
-3.65pu
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
1.89pu-
-3.65pu
CAPACITOR CURRENT
PRESTRIK~ \
ARC
EXTINCTION
Figure 1681.
Oscillographic example of prestrike during capacitor
energization.
81
Inductive Current Chopping
Some circuit breakers are capable of interrupting low levels
of currents prior to a current zero. This action, which is known
as current chopping, can give rise to abnormal overvoltages
because of the magnetic energy associated with the current
being trapped in the circuit.
Such overvoltages usually are observed when the interrupter
on an unloaded transformer chops the magnetizing current in
the process of an unloaded transformer deenergization.
When this happens, energy is trapped in the transformer
magnetizing inductance, which is subsequently interchanged
with circuit capacitance, producing a voltage surge. The mag-
nitude of the voltage surge is conservatively:
v~~cfi
where
Lc =chopped current level
Lm =transformer magnetizing inductance
C =capacitance on the transformer side of the switch
As can be seen in the above formula, the voltage surge
produced is independent of the voltage level; therefore, this
phenomenon is most troublesome on low-voltage, low-BIL
systems. The level of energy discharged is of medium range
and may damage low-thermal-capacity arresters.
For example, a 1000 kVA transformer's surge impedance
is 5 x 1Q4 ohms. If an interrupter's current-chopping level is
two amperes peak, a voltage surge of 100 kV peak might be
produced. Actually, the voltage surge produced is less than
60 percent of this value due to energy loss in the transformer
core.
One of the corrective measures taken to solve this problem
is the use of fuii-BIL transformers rated 95 kV and above,
even on lower-voltage systems. Another solution is to add
surge capacitors to reduce the surge impedance of the trans-
former, although a significant length of cable between the
breaker and the transformer may be used for the same purpose.
183
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Overvoltages of System Origin (Continued)

Current-Limiting-Fuse Arc Voltage 100

Current-limiting fuses force the fault current to an early current 34.5
zero by developing a high arc voltage that opposes current
kV/
flow. The rapid change of current through the circuit inductance
can result in an arc voltage that is much higher than normal
operating voltage. The voltage is given by the relationship:
di
90

80
v
E
where
=e + (-L-}
dt
~ 70
/
25kV
E = arc voltage
=
e normal system voltage
w
(.!)
~
:...J
60
/
/
L = total system inductance ~ 20kV
(.)
a:
< 50
J
~! = change in fault current

The magnitude of the arc voltage depends on the fuse-

~
::>
~

~
40
L
l7
~4 .4kV
element construction. For current-limiting fuses that have ele- ~
/ 12.5kV
ments of uniform cross-sectional area (wire-element fuses
30 /
rated 12 amperes or less), the voHage has a definite relation-
ship to available fault current. j_
/ 8.3kV
Figure 1781 shows the maximum arc voltage that could be
generated as a function of available fault current. The maximum
20
If. 7.2 kV
possible arc voHage in a wire-element fuse also depends on
the point in the voltage cycle during which the fault current is
initiated.
·or~···kV 2.4kV
4.8kV
I
For current-limiting fuses that have nonuniform (ribbontype)
elements, the maximum arc voltage that can be produced is o I
constant regardless of available fault current. It is dependent 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
only on the recovery voltage across the fuse. Figure 1881 CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (kV)
shows the maximum arc voltage for a nonuniform-element
current-limiting fuse as a function of the circuit voltage. Figure 1881.
Maximum arc voltage that can be produced by a ribbon-
element current-limiting fuse.

120

100
38 KV FUSES-6 THRU 12 AMP

~
w 80
(.!)
~
:...J
27 KV FUSES 6THRU 12 AMP
~ I
(.)
60
a;
<
I I I
23 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
~ I I I I
:::l
~ 15.5 KV FUSES 1.5 THRU 12 AMP
~ 40
I I I I I
~ 8 3 KV FUSES 1.5 THRU 12 AMP
· I I .~
5.5 KV FUSES 6 THRU 12 AMP
20

0
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .7 2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70
AVAILABLE CURRENT (rms symmetrical kiloamperes)

Figure 1781.
Maximum arc voltage that can be produced by a wire-element current-limiting fuse.

184

Arc-voltage magnitudes generally are not high enough to
damage equipment, but may cause arrester sparkover with
possible damage to low-thermal-capacity arresters. The
switching surge duty on a surge arrester can be more severe
than the discharge of a short-duration lightning stroke. This is
so because the arrester must discharge all or part of the
energy that has been stored in the system inductance ahead
of the fuse. Also, additional energy supplied from the power
source will be absorbed by the arrester. Tests have shown
that arresters will withstand the thermal duty, provided the
arrester has an energy dissipation value of one kjoule/kV of
rating.
Arc voltage is a low-frequency switching surge phenomenon.
Therefore, the waveform is comparable to the minimum 60 Hz
sparkover level of the arrester (peak voltage). Current-limiting
fuses with nonuniform elements cause arrester sparkover at
approximately ten percent above the minimum 60 Hz sparkover
level. C-L fuses with uniform elements, however, produce
surges that will cause arrester sparkover at approximately
20 percent above the minimum 60 Hz value.
An example will illustrate how to determine if an arrester
will sparkover due to current-limiting-fuse arc voltage. A
15.5 kV, 40° C current-limiting fuse is applied on a 12.47/7.2 kV
grounded-wye system with 9 kV arresters. The maximum arc
voltage is 18 kV, according to Figure 1881, since C-L fuses
rated above 12 amperes have nonuniform elements. For 9 kV
distribution-class arresters, the power-frequency sparkover
level is 15 kV, which has a peak value of 21.2 kV. Since the
maximum arc voltage is less than 21.2 kV, sparkover is not
probable.
81
FERRORESONANT OVERVOLTAGES
The term ferroresonance is often used to describe all phenom-
ena associated with the operation of a capacitor in series Wlitlh
a nonlinear or saturable inductor. During series resonance, a
very high voltage can occur across the elements of a se~
LC circuit. Figure 1981 shows a series LC circuit being excited
at or near its natural frequency by a voltage source E. From
this figure it is obvious that the voltages Ec and EL add up to
the applied voltage E. But as shown in Figure 20~1, the pha.sor
diagram for this circuit, the voltage across the mductor leads
the current by 90 degrees, and the voltage across the capacitor
lags the current by the same amount. Therefore, the magni-
tudes of Ec and EL can exceed the magnitude of E.
The most common occurrences of ferroresonance are on
grounded systems having lightly loaded transformers with
ungrounded-wye or delta-connected primaries, where single-
pole switching leaves phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground
capacitance connected to the load side of the switch.
+Ec-
+
E

Summary of Switching Surges

Table 281 summarizes the causes and effects of the distribution-
system switching surges discussed in the preceding pages.

Figure 1981.
TABLE 281 LC circuit for illustration of ferroresonant overvoltages.
Summary of Switching Surges on Distribution System
Cause and Effect
Maximum Ec
Cause Expected Duration
Voltage Energy of of Follow
(pu) Discharge Current
Circuit or System
Conditions:
Switching Capacitance 2pu Medium Prolonged E
and Unloaded
Transformer as a Unit
Capacitor Switching 3pu High Prolonged
i
Voltage Magnification Spu High Prolonged
Inherent Switch or
Interrupter Action:
Restrikes During 3-6pu High Prolonged
Capacitor Switching Figure 2081.
Prestrikes During 6pu Low - Phasor diagram for circuit in Figure 1981.
Capacitor Energization
Inductive Current Independent Medium Prolonged A simple example will help to illustrate this phenom~non.
Chopping of System
Figure 2181 shows single-pole switches used to energiZe a
Voltage
delta-connected transformer. The interconnections are by
Current-Limiting- 2pu Medium -
cable, as is usually the case with pad-mounted transformers..
Fuse Arc Voltage
(non-uniform element) If one of the switches is closed and the other two are open,
- as in the drawing, a current path is provided as ~ ~n
Current-Limiting- Independent Medium
Fuse Arc Voltage of System Figure 2281. If the inductance and capacitance values 1n this
(uniform element) Voltage circuit are such that they can be resonant at power freq~Jei11C"J'.
excessive voltages can appear across the transformer wi"lciinQs
and at the cables on the unenergized phases.

185
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Overvoltages of System Origin (Continued)
Figure 21 81.
Switch used to energize a delta-connected transformer..
------------,
''
.::r:: .,/
- ,------/
,-- -
I
-- - - - - -)
Figure 2281.
Path of current produced by closing one phase of
switch in Figure 2181.
Although this example illustrates a transformer supplied
through a cable, ferroresonance can also occur on lightly
loaded rural systems with long overhead feeders. It may also
occur with four- and five-legged core transformers with
grounded-wye-connected primaries fed by a concentric neu-
tral cable. In this case, resonance may occur with the phase-
to-ground capacitance and magnetic coupling between ener-
gized and deenergized primary wind ings.
Some of the control procedures used to avoid ferroresonance
are:
• Three-phase switching.
• Use of grounded-wye primary transformer connections.
• Use of resistive secondary loads.
• Grounding the neutral of wye-connected primaries.
• Limiting the lateral length between single-pole devices and
the transformer bank.
The high voltages involved in ferroresonance have been
known to cause failure of connected equipment such as
surge arresters, transformers, and reclosers. The high current
often causes sectionalizing or equipment fuses to blow.
HARMONICS
Overvoltages due to harmonic distortion of the voltage wave-
form are generally not sufficiently high to cause arrester
sparkover or immediate insulation failure. However, when the
harmonic levels are increased by resonance, accelerated
degradation of insulation may occur, particularly in the
capacitor banks involved in the resonance.
Following is a brief summary of the harmonics problem
and methods of dealing with resonance. For a more detailed
discussion, refer to Electric Power Systems Harmonics
Design Guide, Cooper Power Systems Bulletin No.87011.
186
Sources and Characteristics
A distribution system has many potential sources of harmonics,
which, in general, are produced by devices with nonlinear
operating characteristics such as transformers, rotating
machinery, arc furnaces and arc welding equipment, and
power electronic devices.
Transformer saturation characteristics result in a non-sinu-
soidal exciting current when a sinusoidal voltage is applied.
The harmonics of consequence are the third, fifth, and seventh.
Also, transformer inrush-current results in saturation on
either the positive or negative half of the fundamental voltage
wave, so some even harmonics, mainly the second and
fourth, are generated.
Harmonics produced by rotating machinery are related
principally to variation in magnetic reluctance caused by slots
in the machine stator and rotor. Second harmonic currents
can be produced due to saturation, mainly in the teeth.
I Arc furnaces and arc welding equipment generate
I harmonics because of the nonlinear voltage-current charac-
I teristic of power arcs. The harmonics of concern are usually
I the fifth, which may reach 20 percent of the fundamental voltage,
I and the seventh, which may be five-eighths percent of the
I
I
fundamental.
I Power electronic devices, because of their increasing use,
constitute the most important category of harmonic-generating
equipment.
Line-commutated devices such as DC traction power system,
DC supplies for batteries, and solar cells generate harmonic
currents whose harmonic numbers are given by:
h = pn ± 1
where
h = harmonic number
p = pulse number of device
n =positive integer (1 ,2,3, ... )
The theoretical magnitudes of the currents are given by:
lh = !.1
h
where
Ih = harmonic current magnitude
I 1 = fundamental current magnitude
The actual magnitudes are somewhat lower due to non-
instantaneous commutation and delay angle if phase control
is used.
Effects and Concems
Harmonics are of concern because of their effect on power
equipment, control, protection, and metering, and because
they are a source of telephone interference.
Harmonics can cause additional losses and heating on
capacitor banks. Also, unfavorable phase relationship
between harmonic voltages and supply voltage may cause
peak voltages with amplitudes considerably above the nominal
ten percent overvoltage rating of capacitors. This is important
because corona starting-and-extinction levels are a function
of peak-to-peak voltage, and capacitor life is directly related
to these levels.
In the case of induction motors, reduced efficiency and
heating, especially as a result of induced rotor currents, are
the most significant concerns. Also, the interaction between
harmonic currents and the fundamental frequency causes an
oscillating torque, which may result in mechanical oscillations.

In transformers, harmonics can increase both iron and current
losses. The result is increased heating, but it is not usually
SV"Iiftcant.
Inductive coupling between AC distribution lines and
lelephone lines induces harmonic voltages on the telephone
system that may cause interference with message transmittal.
lbis may occur when the same poles are shared by tele-
phone and distribution circuits. Factors affecting the severity
Gl interference are length of exposure, harmonic frequencies,
capacitor-bank sizes and locations, and system grounding.
Noise from harmonics on carrier control systems can
cause erroneous operations if the harmonics generated are
!'leaf a carrier frequency. Protective relays may also be affected,
depending on the type of relay and design features. Relaying
nefligence operating on sampled data or zero crossing of
SV~als is especially susceptible to error from harmonic
dstortion. Although changes in operating characteristics are
Elatively small, relays have a tendency to operate slower
and/or at higher pickup values.
Harmonics may cause both positive and negative errors in
electric metering, with the significance of errors varying
greatly with different types of meters. Induction watt meters
tale been found to have error magnitudes within acceptable
llevels of accuracy for realistic levels of harmonics.
81
POWER-FACTOR-CORRECTION CAPACITORS
Harmonic-current magnification can occur when the system
is resonant at one or more of the harmonic currents flowing
through it - a problem that is present when power-factor-
correction capacitors are used on a distribution feeder. A paralel
resonant circuit and its impedance characteristic are shown
in Figures 2381 and 2481. The impedance irtcreases,
theoretically to infinity, at the resonant frequency, fo. Injecting
a current through the circuit at this frequency will cause an
extremely high voltage.
SYSTEM
IMPEDANCE
STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER

l
I
DC DRIVE

I
POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION CAPACITOR

Figure 2581.
ZL ~t
>-
IL Zc ::~lie System with power-factor-correction capacitors located
at a source of harmonics.

l An example will help illustrate the effect of power-factor-

correction capacitors located at a source of harmonics.
Z =ZLI /Zc Figure 2581 shows a system on which compensation is
applied at the same bus where a DC motor drive is connected.
Figure 2381. Figure 2681 shows a simplified circuit of the same system,
A parallel resonant circuit. but with the DC motor drive replaced by a harmonic source.
Xc is the capacitor-bank reactive and Xs is the system reactive
up to the low-voltage bus. The resonant frequency for this circuit
is given by:

fr=...!.-1-= f1
21t "lsC 'J
-/X
Xs
where
fr = resonant frequency
w
u
z
fr =fundamental frequency
i§
w
0..
~

HARMONIC
SOURCE

fo

Agure 2481.
Impedance characteristic of a parallel resonant circuit.
Figure 2681.
Simplified circuit of system in Agure 2581 .

187
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Overvoltages of System Origin (Continued)

If the resonant frequency is close to the frequency of one Tuned filters, Figure 2781, provide a shunt path for current
of the harmonic currents generated by the DC drive, harmonic of one particular frequency, the tuned frequency
magnification may occur, and high currents may circulate being:
between capacitor bank and system, causing fuses to blow.
Also, parallel resonance is a high impedance to harmonic f = 1
currents at the resonant frequency. Therefore, high harmonic 27till
voltages may result, causing damage to capacitors and other
equipment. At the resonant frequency, the impedance of the filter is
Voltage distortion has been used as one criterion to determine reduced theoretically to zero (as plotted in Figure 2881 ),
acceptable system performance when harmonics are present. drawing that particular harmonic current out of the system.
It frequently is expressed in terms of total harmonic distortion High-pass damped filters, Figure 2981, provide a shunt-
(THO), which is the ratio of the effective (rms) value of all har- path for all harmonics above the tuned frequency, which is
monic voltages to the effective value of the fundamental. the same as that indicated above.
Thus, the voltage distortion, VD, may be written:
11
%VD = [ XVh 2 ] 2 X 100%
V 12
According to IEEE guidelines, the voltage distortion should
not be greater than those listed in Table 381.
w
TABLE 381 (.)
Voltage Distortion Limits z
<
System
Voltage
Dedicated
System*
General
System
~~ II
460 Volts 10% 5%
2.4 to 69 kV 8% 5%
115 kV and Above 1.5% 1.5%
*A dedicated system is one servicing only converters or loads not affected by
voltage distortion.

Note that this measure does not reflect the true peak voltage
fo
to which insulation structures are subjected. The peak voltage
must be estimated by arithmetic sum of the components. For Figure 2881.
capacitor banks, the peak should be less than 120 percent of Effect of tuned filter on harmonic current.
rated peak voltage.

Corrective Measures
Corrective measures that may be taken for harmonic resonance
problems include increasing the short-circuit capacity at the
point of connection of a harmonic source, or selecting a
capacitor-bank size to avoid resonance. Both of these measures
will shift the resonant frequency of the circuit to frequencies
I c

other than the ones generated by the harmonic source.

Another corrective measure is the use of filters to provide
a shunt path for harmonic currents, thereby reducing the level
of harmonic currents and voltages in the system. One of the
advantages of filters is that they provide part or all of the
reactive power required by the converter. Two kinds of shunt L R
filters can be used: tuned or high-pass.

1 c
Figure 2981.
Diagram of high-pass damped filter application.
L

One of the problems when applying filters is that they not

only absorb the harmonic current from the nearby source but
also from other parts of the distribution system. They therefore
R should be carefully tailored to the particular installation.
Parallel resonant frequencies between filters and system
should be investigated; a resonance near the third or fourth
Figure 2781. harmonics may cause additional problems.
L----==------' Diagram of tuned filter application.
188
 81

Traveling Waves
CAUSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Traveling waves frequently occur in power transmission and
distribution systems, and may be caused by short circuits,
conductor breaks, lightning strokes, or switching of compo- +
nents. The sudden change in voltage or current caused by e
one of these events is not transferred instantaneously to all
points on an overhead line or cable. Instead, some finite
interval is required for the surge (traveling wave) to propagate
down the line.
////lll//llllll
R L R L R L

e +i-
e= +zi
;,1"/~$-4@
FORWARD WAVES

Figure 3081. Figure 3181.

Physical representation of a distributed parameter line. Relationship of propagating voltage (e) and current (i)
waveforms.

The characteristics of traveling waves on particular lines or
cables are due to the distributed nature of the resistance (R),
inductance (L), and capacitance (C) of the lines. Figure 3081
is a physical representation of a distributed parameter line,
which is broken into many small R, L, and C components. If
a sharply rising voltage wave is applied to one end of the line
during a lightning stroke or a system switching event, the first
capacitor becomes charged very quickly, but the first series
inductance prevents the second capacitor from charging
simultaneously with the first one. The surge progresses down
the line in a fashion analogous to what happens when the
end of a long rope is whipped and the loop travels to the
other end.
FORMULAS FOR DETERMINING SURGE
IMPEDANCE AND VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION
Surge impedance and velocity of propagation are based on
the distributed inductance and capacitance of the distribution
line. The following formulas can be used to determine the
impedance values of different kinds of conductors. Note that
the discussion has been simplified to consider only the balanced
line mode of propagation for multiphase lines.
Inductance
L = .7411 log10 { ~~~) mh/mi (3-phase line)

Two Waves: Voltage and Current L = .7411 log 10 { G~R) mhlmi (1-phase line)
Although a traveling wave is initiated by a sharp increase in
voltage, a wave of current accompanies the voltage surge. It
is of the same shape and is related to the voltage wave by the L = .7411 log 10 ~ mh/mi (single-conductor cable)
surge impedance (Zs).
where GMD = Geometric Mean Distance between
I =_y_ conductors
z~ fi
z2= ·fc =~ DabDbcDca
=
where L inductance per-unit length = =
GMR Self GMD Geometric Mean Radius of conductor
=
C capacitance per-unit length =
h conductor height
The velocity (v) of the wave propagation is described by the r = line conductor radius
r1 = cable conductor radius
equation: r2 = inner radius of sheath

v = 1/-YIC Dab =distance between phase a and phase b conductors

Figure 3181 shows the relationship of the propagating voltage All parameters must be expressed in the same units.
{e) and current (i) waveforms. Waves are reflected at line or
cable discontinuities and terminations, and the behavior of
the reflected wave depends on the characteristic of the
junction -that is, is it an open circuit or short circuit- and the
surge impedance. A traveling wave will reflect differently if it
encounters a transformer as opposed to a lightning arrester.
Wave behavior at junctions will be discussed in more detail
later.
189
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Traveling Waves (Continued)

Capacitance
L= .74111og 10 ( 2~)=.74111og 10 2x3g;12
C = .0388/log 10 { ~~~) uf/mi (3-phase line)
= 2.636 mh/mi
C = .0388/log10 {G~R) uf/mi (1-phase line)
C = .0388 = .0388 = .011 uflmi
log 10 (2h/r) log 10 (2 x 30 x 12/.2)
C = .0388KIIog10 ~ uf/mi (single-conductor cable)
2
Z8 = 1381og10 { : ) = 1381og10 (2 x 30 x 12/.2)
where K = permittivity
= 490 ohms
Surge Impedance
Recall that surge impedance is expressed as Zs = VDC. If the or
equations for L and C above are substituted for the surge
impedance, the following approximations for surge impedance z8 = '-' UC =[ 2.011 X 1Q·6
3
·636 x 10. ] 1/2= 490 ohms
are valid:
2
Zs = 1381og10 { rh ) ohms (overhead line)
v- _1_ - - - - - ' - - - - -
- --J UC ((2.636 X 10·3)(.011 X 10·6)] 1/2
= ~ log10 { ~ ) ohms (cable)
= 1.86 x 1os mi/sec = Speed of Light
Typical values for the surge impedance of overhead lines and
cables are: WAVE BEHAVIOR AT .JUNCTIONS
Overhead lines, Zs = 500 ohms (typically 400 - 600 ohms) Previously, it has been shown that a traveling wave of voltage
Cables, Zs =50 ohms (typically 20-60 ohms) has an associated traveling wave of current related to it by
the surge impedance Zs. At junctions of distribution lines and
Velocity of Propagation at terminations with R, L, and C components, as well as at
As stated before, the velocity of wave propagation is: short or open circuits, this relationship must still hold valid.
Wave behavior as related to these various line components
V= 1/'-1 LC and conditions are discussed below.
For open-wire lines, the resulting electromagnetic wave is
propagating through air, and therefore travels close to the
speed of light. Velocity in this case is independent of circuit
configuration and can be approximated as:

V = 3 x 1os m/sec = 1000 ft/J!Sec. A

The line merely serves as a wave guide.

For cables, the electromagnetic wave is confined to travel
through the dielectric medium, or insulation. The velocity
therefore is dependent upon the L and C of the cable and can
be approximated as:
V = _1_ = 3 x 1os rn/sec = 1000 ftl!lsec.
'-'LC ~ ~
Application of Formulas
Consider an overhead single-phase line located 30 feet
above the ground; conductors are 2/0 copper with a radius of
0.2 in. Let us determine the surge impedance and the velocity
of propagation.
h = conductor height = 30 ft = 12 x 30 in.
r = conductor radius = 0.2 in.
Substituting into the formulas for L and C yields
Figure 3281.
Wave behavior at a junction of dissimilar lines.
At a .Junction of Dissimilar Lines
To illustrate wave behavior at a junction of dissimilar lines.
Figure 3281 shows an incident source wave of voltage traveling
on a distribution line of surge impedance Z1, approaching a
junction with a distribution line of surge impedance Z2. The
reflected wave produced when the incident wave (V1) reaches
point A is:
V2= Z2-Z1 xV1 =aV1
z2 + z1
The refracted (continuing) wave is:

190
 81

v, At a Short Circuit

I. I
I
Using the previously mentioned formulas for reflection
and refraction, waveform behavior at a short circuit,
shown in Figure 3481, is:

z, •
I Z2= %Z1 z1 = 0 for short circuit

I
v, I
- r-- V3 (refracted)=~= 0
v3

+
Z2+ z1

~ v1 SHORT CIRCUIT
I
v2
I
I
... I

-t- I V3
7');
v2
I I I
I
I
I
Figure 3381.
Pn:qession of voltage waveforms: incident (V1), reflected (V2),
and refracted (V3).

Rgure 3381 shows the progression of voltage waveforms:

n:ident (V1), reflected (Y2), and refracted (V3), when Z2 112 Z1.
The following calculations relate to the figure:
=
...
V2 LK
v2 =( z2- z1 ) v1 =( 1/2 z1- z1 )
Z2 + Z 1 112 Z 1 + Z 1

Y1 -- ( --1/2 -z 1 )
z1
v1--1- v1
3
~
3/2
I
Figure 3481.
Wave behavior at a short circuit.

In this case, a voltage wave of two-thirds the incident value

continues on the distribution line with lower impedance, while
ooe-third of the wave is reflected back toward the source,
cancelling a like portion of the incident wave.
The current waveforms at junctions of dissimilar lines have
1he same relationships:
11 = V 1 (incident)
z1
It is impossible to develop a voltage across the short circuit.
Therefore, when a traveling wave of voltage reaches the
short circuit, the voltage reflects in a negative direction,
cancelling the incident voltage wave. The reflected current
wave augments the incident current wave, doubling the cu rrent
in the line.

12 = - V2 (reflected)
z1

13 = Vs (refracted)
z2

191
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Traveling Waves (Continued)

At an Open Circuit
The current must be zero at all times at an open end of a
distribution line. For determining wave behavior at an open ~ .............
TIME
I -
circuit, use the previous formula, with Z2 ==.Thus, V2 = V1
and V3 = 2V1.
A current of the same magnitude but opposite polarity is ~
v,
~ t=O
I

initiated to cancel the incident current wave. Figure 3581 Vr._

shows the behavior of a square wave at an open circuit. In
this case, the voltage wave "doubles" at the open point.
I c-
-..--
t= 2~t
Uv,
A more realistic picture of the behavior of traveling waves
at an open point is illustrated in Figure 3681. The incident r Vz-.
wave is shown as a series of blocks approximating the volt-
age waves encountered on distribution systems. Vr-
_.--
j
I OPEN CIRCUIT
v, I __.... t= 3~1 -

.. I
I
~ v, Vz~
I
~.a

:--
V, : INCIDENT WAVE

'I
I
2:
V REFLECTED WAVE

Vr:TOTALOF

~t:
REFLECTED AND
INCIDENTWAVES -v,
FINITE TIME INTERVAL
Vr

JV2 .--
,._
I

LJ
r-
~.J
I I= 4~t

r I
I

1"""--

_____.__,!_:__ J -- ---
Vr~
t= 7~1

r--•
-
Vz....,
~.J
____,..,
v1 ~
v,_
~---- r---
Vr--
Vz-
-·
~.J
I
v,_ ~
t=9~t

Figure 3581.
Behavior of a square wave at an open circuit.

~ -~
..... - Vz
~
~ t= 11 ~ t

Figure 3681.
"More realistic" picture of traveling waves at an open
point.

192

At Capacitive and Inductive Terminations
figure 3781 shows the behavior of the first reflection on the
R:ident wave at a capacitive termination. Because the voltage
across the capacitor cannot be changed instantaneously, the
dage is initially zero and then builds exponentially to twice
lie incident wave. The reflected wave, V2, is shown in a
dashed line, and the resultant voltage in a solid line.
Thus, the capacitor initially appears to be a short circuit
and then appears as an open circuit when fully charged.
Sometimes the reflected wave will reflect back from another
capacitor and, being reversed in a positive wave, will produce
an additional "blip" in the voltage waveform, producing a peak
woltage that actually exceeds twice the incident wave.,
81
As might be expected, an inductive tennination acts ~
sitely to a capacitive termination. It first appears as an open
circuit (zero current) to the incident wave and then changes
in an exponential fashion to appear shorted. FI!Jlre 3881
illustrates the effect, with the reflected wave in<icated in the
dashed line.
At both capacitive and inductive terminations, the time con-
stant of the exponential change is determined by the surge
impedance of the line. Obviously, these terminations can
result in very complex waveforms, especially if there are
other reflections. Precise determination of the waveforms is
best accomplished by digital computer programs designed
for electromagneteic transients analysis.

At a Termination Equal to
I Characteristic Impedance
There will be no wave reflections if a line is terminated
I with a resistance equal to the surge impedance of the line.
However, this is not practical on distribution systems.
- - - H..~v, I

•
I
I --~-~~.. v,
INDUCTIVE
TERMINATION

~ ----------------~- II
I -
v2~ -~

v, I
I
I
I
Agure 3781.
Wave behavior at a capacitive termination. I

Figure 3881.
""-+-
Wave behavior at an Inductive termination.

193
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY
Traveling Waves (Continued)

At an Open Point Terminated by a Silicon-Carbide

Surge Arrester
At an open point terminated by a silicon-carbide surge
arrester, voltage builds as previously described for an open
circuit until the arrester reaches sparkover level. When
sparkover occurs, the excess voltage is discharged to ground
as a nonlinear function of the surge current through the
arrester. As shown in Figure 3981, voltage at the surge initiation
point is not cancelled until a negative return wave retravels
the route of the incident wave. Wave cancellation is preceded
by a positive reflected wave with peak value equal to one-half
the sparkover voltage (peak of V2A).

f - - JUST BEFORE
SPAR KOVER
"""" ..........._
~ .........._
-v1
VOLTAGE(E)

~
DISTANCE

"""" .........._
v1

"""
AT SPARKOVER
- =
Vr E SPAR KOVER
v2A- ~
.........
.... ~ i SPARKOVER

Vr

AFTER SPARKOVER i
..............
... ...
I I I ~.... ~
- SURGE ARRESTER RESEMBLES
SHORT CIRCUIT
V2A .. ~ ....
V2a~ 1--'
'\
....
•+-t
MAX DISCHARGE

Vr

f-- V28 PARTIALLY CANCELS V1

-- ~
1/
...
..... .....
=
Vr V2A + V1 PEAK '\
~

V2A- 1-- ... _..

V2a-
1', "1-!-t
..........
MAX DISCHARGE

V2A = REFLECTED WAVE BEFORE SPAR KOVER

f--
V28 =REFLECTED WAVE AFTER SPAR KOVER

Figure 3981.
Wave behavior at an open point terminated by a silicon-carbide surge arrester.

194
 81
At an Open Point Terminated by a Gapless MOV one-half the turn-on voltage. (Note the propagation of the Vr
Surge Arrester peak.) The peak is typically less severe than for a siicorl-<:albKf
The response of a gapless MOV surge arrester at an open arrester of similar rating.
point resembles that of a gapped silicon-carbide arrester,
except that the reflected wave, V2, does not drop off as
abruptly after conduction begins. The arrester appears as an
open point until the turn-on voltage is reached. Assuming the
arrester voltage remains constant, the arrester changes to a
short circuit as the incident wave increases (Figure 4081).
Wave cancellation is again preceded by a positive reflected
wave that actually increases the incident wave by approximately

JUST BEFORE
............
TURN-ON ........... -v1

"' .............
~
............
ATTURN-ON ...... ...... v1
"'- Vr
......... ~
v 2 - f-., ,• TURN-ON
i

AFTER TURN-ON .............

V1-
_~ . Vr
.... ...

~ TURN-ON
v2-
,-,., ~"-- ..... +
Vr

~
PEAK VOLTAGE ~ r-- v1

I I
Vr = V2 + V1 PEAK ~
f--.; ~ TURN -ON
, ..
v2 -
"'' -. j_

' ',

Figure 4081.
Wave behavior at an open point terminated by a gapless MOV surge arrester.

195
B. Overvoltage Protection
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORY

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Page
Fuse-Fuse Coordination
1B1 Air currents and distribution of electricity in a typical thundercloud . .. .. ...... . ..... .. ... . . . . . ... . ...... .175
2B1 Progression of a stepped stroke from cloud to earth .. . . .... . .. .. .. .. .. . . . ... . .. .. .. . ... . . . . .. .. .... . 176
3B1 Charge along cloud base induces opposite charge on earth . ... .. ... . .................... .. ..... . ..... 176
4B1 Lightning leaders propagate toward earth . ... . ...... .. ... . .. . .. .. ............. . .. .. .. .. .. . ... . . ... 176
5B1 Return strokes flash from earth to cloud . . ....... . ..... . ...... . . . . . ... . ..... .. . .. ..... . ... . ....... 177
6B1 Trapped charge remains on line . . ......... ... ..... .. ... . .. . .. . ......... . ..... . .. . ... . ....... . .. . 177
7B1 Distribution of strokes to ground level ... ........ .. ................... . .... .. ................ . ... .178
8B1 lsokeraunic map showing thunderstorm days as reported by U. S. Weather Bureau . ... . .. .. . . . . ... .. .. .. . .179
Overvoltage of System Origin
9B1 Diagram of system on which transformer energization may introduce overvoltage-producing harmonics ... .. .. . 180
10B1 Equivalent circuit for analysis of system in Figure 9B 1 . .. ..... .. .. . . ... . .. . ... . . ..... .. ... .. . . ... . . . . 180
11 B1 Equivalent circuit of an isolated single-phase capacitor bank being energized . .. ... .. . .. ...... . .. .. ...... .181
12B1 Circuit that may cause magnification of capacitor switching overvoltages . .. .. .. ..... .. . . . . ... .. .. . .. . .... 181
13B1 Equivalent circuit of diagram in Figure 12B1 .. . . ....... . . . ... . . .. . .. . ... . ......... .. ............. . .182
14B1 Waveforms of overvoltages on 2-mVAR, 34.5 kV capacitor bank after energization of nearby 50-mVAR,
115-kV bank . . . . . . . .. .... . . . ... . .. . .. . .. . ... .. .. . ...... .. .. . ... . .. . ...... .. . . . .. ...... .. . .182
15B1 Oscillographic representation of recovery voltage across interrupter contacts after capacitor-bank
deenergization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. . 182
16B1 Oscillographic example of prestrike during capacitor energization . .......... . ...... . ... ... ... .. . ... ... .183
17B1 Maximum arc voltage that can be produced by a wire-element current-limiting fuse . .. . .. .. ..... .. . ... . ... .184
18B1 Maximum arc voltage that can be produced by a ribbon-element current-limiting fuse .. .. . . . . ... .. .. . .. .. . .. 184
19B1 LC circuit for illustration of ferroresonant overvoltages ......... . ........... . .. . .. ... . ... .. .... . ... .. .185
20B1 Phasor diagram for circuit in Figure 19B1 . ...... ... ..... . ... . ........ . ........ . .. .. ...... . ... . . ... 185
21B1 Switch used to energize a delta-connected transformer . ... . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . .. . ... . . .. ..... . ... ... .. . .. 186
22B1 Path of current produced by closing one phase of switch in Figure 21B1 .. . ... . ...... .. .. . ...... . ... .. .. .186
23B1 A parallel resonant circuit .. . .. .. . . ... . . ...... . ... . .. . ........ . .. ..... ... .. ... ... ... . ..... .. ... . 187
24B1 Impedance characteristic of a parallel resonant circuit ..... . ... . . . ......... ... ....... . .... . ...... . .. .187
25B1 System with power-factor-correction capacitors located at a source of harmonics ..... .. . . ... .. . . . . .. ... . .. 187
26B1 Simplified circuit of system in Figure 25B 1 ........ . .... .. ... ... ... .. .... .. ........ . ....... . .. . . . .. 187
27B1 Diagram of tuned filter application ...... . . ... .. . ... . .......... .. .. . .. .. ... . .. . ...... . ... . . ... .. .. 188
28B1 Effect of tuned filter on harmonic current .. .. .. .. ... ..... . ... . ...... ... . .. . . ... . .. ... . . ... . .. . .. ... 188
29B1 Diagram of high-pass damped filter application ....... . . . ... . ... .. ... . .. .. ..... .. .......... . ... . . ... 188
Traveling Waves
30B1 Physical representation of a distributed parameter line . . .... . ..... . .. .. .. .. ..... .. ... .. . . .. . .. . . . .. .. 189
31B1 Relationship of propagating voltage (e) and current (i) waveforms ....... . ... . ...... . .... . .... . ....... .. 189
32B1 Wave behavior at a junction of dissimilar lines . . . . .... . ... . ..... . .. . . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . .... . . . . . . . ... .. .190
33B1 Progression of voltage waveforms: incident (V1 ), reflected (V2), and refracted (V3) ..... . .... .. ... . ... . . . . .. 191
34B1 Wave behavior at a short circuit . . .. . ..... .. .. .. ... . .. .. .. . ... . ... .. ... . . . ...... . ... . ... . . .. . . ... 191
35B1 Behavior of a square wave at an open circuit ........ . .. .. .. . .. .. . . ....... .. ... . . . .... . . . . . ... .... .192
36B1 "More realistic" picture of traveling waves at an open point ..... .. . . . .. .. ... . ..... . ... .. . ..... . .. . . . .. .192
37B1 Wave behavior at a capacitive termination . .. . . . . ... ... ..... . ... . ... . ... . ...... . ...... .. .. . .. .. .. .. 193
38B1 Wave behavior at a inductive termination . ... . . . . ..... . . . .. ... ... . ... . . . . .. . ..... . . ... .. . . . . . .. .... 193
39B1 Wave behavior at an open point terminated by a silicon-carbide surge arrester . ... . ... . . . .. . . . ........ ... .194
40B1 Wave behavior at an open point terminated by a gapless MOV surge arrester . .. .. .... . . ... . ..... . . .. . . ... 195
TABLE
Lightning Phenomena
1B 1 Statistical data for lightning strokes ..... . . . .. ... .. . .. . .. . ..... . .. . ....... . ...... .. .. . ... .. .... . .. 1 n
Overvoltages of System Origin
2B 1 Summary of switching surges on distribution system .. .. .. . .... . . ... . ... ... ....... ....... . . ... .. . ... 185
3B1 Voltage distortion limits ..... .. . .. . . ..... . .... . .............. . ...... .. .. . ... . ... . ...... .. .... .. . 188

196

2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER
CHARACTERISTICS AND
GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
An Introduction
lite its counterpart in the overcurrent-protection portion of
the manual, this second section on overvoltage protection
bridges the gap between fundamentals and theory, and applica-
ton specifics. Here, however, the focus is as much on certain
axnponents of the distribution system itself as on protective
devices and measures. The reason, of course, is that surge
arresters, the only add-on devices designed specifically to
protect against the hazards of voltage surges on distribution
systems, provide a vital additional margin of protection
beyond the point at which it is cost effective to increase or
l4lQrade line and equipment insulation. And the degree of
protection provided by line and equipment insulation must be
known for proper application of surge arresters.
The following discussion deals first, therefore, with the
axnponents, other than the conductors, that contribute to the
l'lsulating effectiveness - that is, to the impulse withstand
characteristics- of overhead lines: various types of insulators,
wood, air gaps, etc. Standard insulation tests and the termi-
nology and criteria relating to them are described (the principal
test produces a wave shape whose rise time and duration are
snJilar to those of a lightning surge), and the application of
tests to both line components and distribution equipment is
Table of Contents, Page 168
Index of Figures and Tables, Page 212
Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PfiOTECTI(.')t4
explained. The overvoltage protection requirements peculiar to
underground circuits also are discussed.
Conductor insulation, obviously an important factor in
distribution-system design, is determined by the individual
utility's standards and therefore is beyond the scope of this
manual. Our goal is not system design, but rather to assist in
evaluating and applying the elements that will contribute to
overvoltage protection at various points on any system and to
the protection of specific equipment.
Of particular interest in the discussion of surge arresters is
the comparison of new-technology (metal-oxide-varistor)
arresters with previous-technology (silicon-carbide) arresters.
This manual is being written while the switch to MOV
arresters, with their superior characteristics, is occurring, but
both types of arresters and their general application factors
are described in detail, since the changeover is still very
much in process.
Although shield wires, a method of reducing the number of
direct lightning strokes to conductors, are not generally used
on distribution lines, they are briefly discussed, along with an
alternative method of shielding.
197
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation
In order to estimate with a high degree of accuracy the insulation
withstand characteristics of distribution lines, the impulse
withstand characteristics of the insulation-system components
should be studied. For overhead distribution lines, these
components are porcelain, wood, air, fiberglass, plastics, and
fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP). All of these materials, when
properly applied, are classified as self-restoring insulation,
since their insulating properties are completely recovered
after a disruptive discharge (flashover). (The other category
of insulation, non-self-restoring, is discussed in a following
section, "Distribution Equipment Insulation.")
Both phase-to-phase and phase-ground withstand charac-
teristics must be considered, to determine the lower (that is,
the more critical) of the two insulation levels. The insulation
withstand characteristics of the pole-top structure are of primary
concern, since insulation at midspan is through air and therefore
its withstand level is usually much higher than at the pole.
After describing how withstand levels are established and
defined, the following discussion covers, first, the withstand
characteristics of individual components, and then the
characteristics of various combinations of components and
materials. Special attention is given the noteworthy insulating
characteristics of wood.
IMPULSE WITHSTAND: HOW IT IS DETERMINED
AND DEFINED
Distribution lines generally are not shielded and therefore
are susceptible to direct lightning strokes. Transient overvoltages
, FRONT FLASHOVER
CREST FLASHOVER
CRITICAL WITHSTAND
RATED WITHSTAND ,~2111____
1 11__
TIME
OF CREST
FLASHOVER
I TIME RANGE I
_..,. WAVE FRONT...,_
FLASHOVER
TIME RANGE WAVE TAIL FLASHOVER
TIME IN MICROSECONDS
Figure 182.
Volt-time curve for determining impulse-voltage withstand levels.
198
caused by lightning surges are of greater concern than those
caused by switching surges. As a result, the insulation and
insulation coordination requirements for distribution systems
are based primarily on lightning surge voltages.
To describe the capability of insulation to withstand over-
voltages caused by lightning surges, the impulse flashover
volt-time characteristic, as shown in Figure 182, is used.
(Reference 4.) The curve is developed by applying a designated
wave shape and polarity with varying voltage magnitudes,
from which the following criteria for insulation effectiveness
are established:
1. Critical flashover (CFO) is the crest voltage of an applied
impulse wave that will cause flashover on the tail of the
wave 50 percent of the time.
2. Critical withstand is the highest crest voltage the insulation
can take without flashover under specified conditions. The
probability of having flashover for this crest voltage is usually
less than one percent.
3. Rated withstand is the crest voltage that insulation is
required by established standards to withstand without
flashover under specified conditions. It is usually five to ten
percent less than critical withstand.
If a large number of impulses of various magnitudes are
applied to self-restoring insulation, the result is a distribution
of flashover voltages about the mean (CFO) very similar to a
normal distribution.
WAVEFRONT FLASHOVER
VOLTAGE RANGE
..:======:=~~~======~
TIME OF CRITICAL
FLASHOVER
-+ TIME RANGE
NO IMPULSE-
FLASHOVER
 Section 18
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

Standard Test Waves TABLE 2B2

hiustry has standardized on a lightning-impulse test wave or Typical Critical Impulse Flashover (CFO) Levels for
'mpulse wave shape of 1.2 x 50 microseconds. Shown in Post-Type Insulators
Figure 282, this wave shape has a rise time and duration CFO {kV)
~ilar to those of a lightning surge. T 1, or the time of the ANSI Class Positive Negative
front, is measured from the virtual zero point established by Polarity Polarity
lhe intersection of a straight line drawn through the 30 and 90 57-1 130 155
percent voltage points and the T axis. The upper limit ofT 1 is 57-2 180 205
determined by the intersection of the mentioned straight line 57-3 210 260
and a horizontal line at crest voltage value. T2, or the time of
lle tail, is measured from the same reference point as T 1 to CFO is the crest voltage of an applied impulse wave that
lte time corresponding to half of the crest value on the wave will cause flashover on the tail of the wave 50 percent of the
tail. Allowable tolerances on the test wave are plus or minus time. If the probability of flashover is assumed to have a normal
20 percent on T1, plus or minus 30 percent on T2, and plus distribution, a voltage surge that is .91 x CFO would have a 0.1
or minus three percent on crest-voltage value. percent probability of causing flashover. Therefore, a reasonable
rule of thumb for porcelain insulators is to consider rated
withstand as 90 percent of CFO.
v As discussed in Section 81, most lightning strokes have
negative polarity. However, both positive and negative polarity
1.0 waves are generally applied to determine which produces the
.9
I
I
lower withstand.
I
I
The withstand characteristic of porcelain is affected by weather
.s I conditions, especially rain. Investigators have determined that
--~-------------------------
'I the wet withstand is approximately 75 percent of the dry with-
.3 stand for negative waves .
Electrically, the porcelain insulator may be modeled as a
capacitor.
!IS
Air Gaps
Figure 2B2. Sparkover characteristics of air gaps between conductors are
Standard 1.2 x 50 microsecond standard test wave. similar to those of standard rod gaps. Table 382 lists repre-
sentative values for wet negative impulse sparkover for air
gaps between conductors, and for rod gaps.
There likewise are standards for a switching-impulse test A conservative rule of thumb is to use 200 kV per foot for
'IICNe.However, this test wave may be applied to power-related impulse insulation of air. Like porcelain insulators, air gaps
equipment in the substation, but it is not generally applicable are also modeled as capacitors.
to distribution systems. TABLE 3B2
The actual surges that occur on distribution systems are Negative Impulse Sparkover Levels for Air Gaps
different from the impulse waves in standard tests. Standard Between Conductors and for Rod Gaps
waves are used to describe a standard insulation strength,
Negative Impulse Sparkover {kV)
not the equipment behavior under actual lightning and
Gap Spacing {in) Air Gap* Rod Gap
switching surges.
12 250 260
IMPULSE WITHSTAND CHARACTERISTICS OF 18 365 360
INSULATION-SYSTEM COMPONENTS 24 480 480
30 600 575
Porcelain Insulators 36 660 675
The two types of insulators most commonly used in overhead ..
* M1mmum voltage at wh1ch sparkover could occur.
distribution lines are pin-type (ANSI Class 55) and post-type
(ANSI Class 57). Typical critical impulse flashover levels Wood
(CFO) for 1.2 X 50 microsecond waves applied to pin- and The impulse withstand characteristics of wood depend on its
post-type insulators are shown in Tables 1 82 and 282, in type, moisture content, treatment, and physical condition. The
which the terms positive and negative polarity refer to the most important single factor is moisture content, which is related
polarity of the test wave.
to the degree of seasoning and the surface moisture absorbed
from rain or humid air. Investigators have found that the values
TABLE 1B2 for insulation withstand of various samples of dry wood vary
Typical Critical Impulse Flashover (CFO) Levels for from 50 to 200 kV per foot. Figure 382 shows the negatNe
Pin-Type Insulators impulse flashover for wet wood crossarms. (Reference 2.)
CFO {kV) A good impulse withstand value for wood for design
ANSI Class Positive Negative purposes is 100 kV per foot. Wood can be modeled eled.l ic:aly
Polarity Polarity as a resistance in parallel with a capacitance; therebe, ils d&-
55-2 70 85 acteristic is not generally additive to other insulation IJpeS
55-3 90 110 when combined in series.
55-4 105 130 Various observers have concluded that the ifT1Jlllse :Aailfllll
55-5 130 150 of wood is not significantly reduced by repor1ed bm+ ••11•
impulses, unless cracks are caused, allowing rnoistUIIe ~
penetrate.
199
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation (Continued)

500
600
tL400
>
:.:300 .........
500
a:
w !"'-..... ~ KV/~ICROSECOND
t;200
J:
Cll
:5LL 100 --- MINIMU~ --- -- WOOD PORCELAIN
COMBINATION~ ''
/ ........
0 /
,' WOOD
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9
LENGTH, FEET / "'
/
Figure 382. 200
Negative Impulse flashover of wet wooden crossarms.
PORCELAIN
/tNSULAlOR
100 ,
Fiberglass, Plastics, and
Fiber-Reinforced Plastics (FRP)
The impulse insulation values of these materials, when
weathered, approach those of wood. A good design value for 5 6
2 3 4
insulation withstand, therefore, is 100 kV per foot. Like wood,
WOOD LENGTH
components of fiberglass, plastics, and FRP can be modeled (FT)
electrically as resistors in parallel with capacitors, and their
characteristics therefore are not generally additive to other Figure 582.
insulation types, except wood, when combined in series. Impulse withstand values of wood-porcelain combination
for different lengths of wood.
IMPULSE WITHSTAND CHARACTERISTICS OF
MATERIALS COMBINED IN SERIES
Investigators have suggested a simple expression for the
Porcelain and Wood or Fiberglass
total flashover voltage of a porcelain-wood combination:
It has been mentioned that wood (or fiberglass) can be modeled
electrically as a resistor in parallel with a capacitor, and that
porcelain can be modeled as a capacitor (Figure 482).
Vt =(Vi2 + Vw2)1/2
Because of this, the impulse withstand levels of the two insulation Vi is the flashover voltage of the porcelain insulator and Vw is
components are not strictly additive. Short lengths of wood, the flashover voltage of the wood. Calculated and measured
with flashover below that of the insulator, will tend to flash values have been found to be within 20 percent of each other
over first, in which case the porcelain insulators predominate for a wide range of wood-porcelain combinations.
in the series combination. However, longer lengths of wood, As a conservative approach, the insulation withstand of the
with flashover greater than that of the porcelain insulator, will porcelain-wood combination can be determined by either the
predominate in the series combination. Therefore, if the wood porcelain alone or the wood , whichever is greater. When
length in the series path is too short to produce a withstand more than one insulator is involved, as in phase-to-phase
greater than that of the porcelain insulator, wood adds little or impulse withstand determination, the impulse withstand of
nothing to the total impulse insulation level, which is determined the insulators alone is the sum of the two.
solely by the level of the porcelain insulator. If, however, the
wood length is enough to produce a withstand greater than
the insulator, the wood alone determines the insulation level.
Figure 582 shows the withstand ratings for a wood-porcelain
combination utilizing different lengths of wood.

II IF>
CAPACITOR
CH T POST-TYPE INSULATORS

___,___,-·]!~JI---
3.5' ANSI CLASS 57-1

RH
PORCELAIN AS
l II IF
WOOD AS CAPACITOR
RESISTOR AND
CAPACITOR IN PARALLEL
Figure 482.
Diagram of Insulation model with wood In series with
porcelain. Figure682.
Pole-top structure with two post-type insulators on wood.

200
 Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

Figure 682 shows an example of a pole-top structure with two
IINSI Class 57-1 insulators spaced 3.5 feet apart on wood.
"The withstand of the insulators alone is .9 x 155 x 2 = 279 kV
• 90 percent to be conservative). The withstand of the
IDXI alone is 3.5 x 100 = 350 kV. Therefore, the withstand of
h combination is the larger withstand value, or 350 kV
phase-to-phase.
» and Wood
Sfnce an air gap, like a porcelain insulator, can be modeled
as a capacitance, the equivalent circuit of the air-wood
mrmination is the same as for porcelain-wood. The withstand
aflle combination is determined by the greater of the individual
-.ilhsta.nds, using 200 kV per foot for air and 100 kV per foot
b wood.
Fiberglass or FRP and Wood
1he withstand values of fiberglass or FRP and of wood can be
added directly at 100 kV per foot, since they exhibit similar
.-thstand characteristics.
Air and Porcelain
1he withstands of these two paths are not directly additive,
because unequal capacitances result in unequal voltage
lisfribution. Some engineers use whichever value of the two
is larger, while others add the two directly and use 75 percent
of the total.
When there are two or more flashover paths in parallel, the
IISUal recommendation is to calculate the withstand of each
separately and determine the lowest.
!E XAMPLE OF INSULATION WITHSTAND
CALCULATION
1he pole-top structure used in this example is shown in
figure 782. The CFO of the post-type insulators is 155 kV,
and of the pin-type insulator, 150 kV. Remember that the .9
ft.lltiplier is used for porcelain, based on the assumption of
90 percent of the CFO as conservative; also, that the recom-
mended design CFO value for wood is 100 kV per foot, and
tJr air, 200 kV per foot. In the calculations below, the length
or distance for wood and air is stated in inches divided by 12.
At .8. PIN-TYPE INSULATOR
20"
~
12"
Bt ell!
30" POST-TYPE INSULAlORS
oil I Conductor A to Conductor B
ct 1st Path: Pin-Type Insulator. 12"Wood.
Post-Type Insulator
1. Phase-to-phase withstand of conductor A to B:
1st path: porcelain insulators withstand
= .9 (155) + .9 (150) = 274.5 kV
wood withstand = 100 g~~ = 100 kV
32
2nd path: air withstand = 200 ( ) = 533.3 kV
(12)
Lowest combination withstand is 274.5 kV phase-to-phase
2. Phase-to-phase withstand of conductor 8 to C:
1st path: porcelain insulators withstand
= .9 (155) 2 = 279 kV
wood withstand = 100 ~~~~ = 250 kV
30
2nd path· air withstand= 200 ( ) = 500 kV
. (12)
Lowest combination withstand is 279 kV phase-to-phase
3. Phase-to-ground (neutral) withstand, conductor C to N:
1st path: porcelain withstand= .9 (155) = 140 kV
wood withstand = 100 ~~~~ = 500 kV
2nd path : air withstand = 200 ~~~~ = 1000 kV
Lowest combination withstand is 500 kV phase-to-ground.
The minimum phase-to-phase insulation withstand is 274.5 kV
and the minimum phase-to-ground insulation withstand is
500 kV.
ROLE OF WOOD AS A DESIGN SAFETY FACTOR
Extinguishing Flashovers
It is obvious, given its insulating characteristics, that a s ufficient
amount of wood can increase the impulse insulation level of
a line construction. Another benefit of wood is that it tends to
extinguish a flashover, thus producing a lower line outage
rate than would otherwise be expected , considering all the
flashovers that could cause outages.
Investigators have found that flashovers over a wood surface
or through wood can produce considerable residual arc voltage.
This arc voltage is a function of many factors, but it depends
primarily on arc length and available fault-current magnitude.
Oscillograms studied reveal that some time after a flashover
occurs, the voltage across the wood collapses to a minimum arc
voltage, which generally increases as the impulse flashover
current decreases. Later, when the arc is extinguished, if the
dielectric strength is enough to withstand the applied system
voltage, little or no follow current will flow.

2nd Path: 32" Air

eo· Conductor B to Conductor C

1st Path: Post-Type Insulator, 30" Wood,

.l
Post-Type Insulator
2nd Path: 30" Air

Conductor C to Ground (N)

0 1st Path: Post-Type Insulator, 60"Wood
2nd Path: 60" Air

Agure 782.
·D iagram of pole-top structure for use In example of
mulation withstand calculation.
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation (Continued)

Some investigators have developed lightning-flashover 24

probability curves based on a determination of the minimum I
I
arc-voltage gradient for a large sample of various hard I I

vi ~I
IL
woods, with and without insulators, and the criterion that 0 20 I

)~
power follow current is unlikely if the instantaneous value of 1-
z
the power-frequency voltage gradient is less than the minimum ~
arc-voltage gradient. Such a curve is shown in Figure 882. ~t; 16
(Reference 6.) This theory is based also on the observation -w
~a: s, til

.§~ff
that flashover with power follow current is independent of wu
available fault current. <!l~
~li 12
~

1.0...-----------------, g~
~~
(tj
Q:'

f J)~
wen 8 ~!'---~
!il~
~IL
a:
w
4
~ I v
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 80
ELECTRODE SEPARATION, INCHES

0~~~--~--~-~--~-~
0 0.5
PONER FREQUENCY VOLTAGE GRADIENT
KV-RMS PER INCH OF WOOD
Figure 882.
Calculated probability of lightning flashover with power
arc.
Other investigators have determined the amount of wood
required to prevent power follow current after flashover is
related to instantaneous system voltage and available fault
current. That is, longer lengths of wood are necessary at
higher voltages and higher available fault currents to prevent
power follow currents - relationships shown in Figure 982.
(Reference 5.)
Comparison of this information shows differences in the
power-frequency voltage gradient versus the probability of
power follow current as a result of flashover. Until more infor-
mation becomes available, the use of wood should be
considered an additional safety factor rather than a design
amount to be used in achieving a desired outage rate. With
no allowance for the arc-quenching properties of wood, 85
percent is an accepted value for the probability that power follow
currents will result from a flashover.
Figure 982.
Minimum lengths of wood required to prevent follow
current.
Mechanical Damage from Surge Currents
The use of the arc-quenching properties of wood as a design
safety factor must allow for the possibility of damage when
surge current passes through or over the wood surface, with
greater damage occurring when the flash-over path is internal.
The tendency for surge current to flow internally or externally
is related to the moisture content of the wood, which depends
primarily on the seasoning. In tests, seasoned wood exhibits
near-surface current flow and unseasoned (green) wood
exhibits internal flow. If unseasoned wood is used in line con-
struction, there is an initial period when the wood is highly
susceptible to mechanical damage if involved in the principal
flashover path.
Other Wood Characteristics
Depending on the resistivity of the wood used in line
construction, leakage currents of sufficient magnitude to
cause fires or injuries can occur as a result of porcelain or
plastic insulator failure. Treatment of wood with creosote or
pentachlorophenol has practically no effect on its resistivity.

202

Underground Distribution Circuits
In the context of overvoltage protection, the equipment on
underground circuits to be protected from the effects of transient
overvoltages include the underground cable as well as apparatus
found also on overhead systems: transformers, switchgear,
capacitors, voltage regulators. Although the cable itself is
becoming more of a concern in recent years as a result of
shorter-than-expected life for some cable insulation, the
major problem is the practical difficulty associated with locating
surge arresters as close as possible to the equipment to be
protected.
Typical UD primary circuits consist of radial taps from overhead
distribution lines, protected with a surge arrester at the tap
point (that is, at the riser pole, the point of transition from
overhead to underground). Lightning strikes, by far the most
common cause of overvoltages on distribution lines, obviously
must originate on the overhead circuit, and some utilities
report satisfactory experience on 15 kV systems with distribution
82
arresters located on riser poles. Such experience, however,
cannot necessarily be extrapolated to higher-voltage systems.
(Reference 7.)
Taps extending from the riser pole may be several thousand
feet long, with varying numbers of load taps. The ends of the
radial underground taps are of extreme importance, because
the traveling wave theory of surge propagation indicates a
worst-case effect of voltage doubling as a surge is reflected
from the open end of the circuit. As system voltages are
increased, the required voltage ratings and protective
characteristics (sparkover and discharge voltages) increase
proportionally, but the basic impulse insulation levels (Bils)
of equipment increase in lesser proportion. Consequently, it
becomes increasingly difficult to keep surge voltages below
the equipment Blls.
The steps that may be taken to provide the desired protection
on underground circuits are discussed in Section 83.
203
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Distribution Equipment Insulation

In order to establish the capability of on-line equipment to ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS
withstand overvoltages on the distribution system, it is necessary Flashover levels of external insulation vary with air density,
to know the performance characteristics of the equipment's temperature, humidity, and contamination. "Standard" conditions
insulation. These characteristics are usually specified in are a temperature of 20°C, air pressure of 760 millimeters of
terms of flashover or withstand voltage for a given applied mercury, and 11 grams of water vapor per cubic meter of air.
waveshape, and are broadly classified in two areas for distri- Precipitation tends to reduce the insulation flashover voltage
bution equipment: impulse performance and low-frequency considerably for low-frequency and switching-surge voltages.
performance. but it has little effect on lightning-impulse voltages. It is interesting
to note that although precipitation increases the probability of
INSULATION CATEGORIES flash-over, higher humidity reduces the probability of
The two basic categories of insulation are self-restoring and flashover at a given voltage.
nonself-restoring. Altitude also adversely affects the equipment withstand
Self-restoring insulation includes materials such as air and voltage and is usually accounted for by the use of altitude
porcelain, whose insulating properties are completely recovered correction factors: that is, the equipment withstand rating is
after a disruptive discharge (flashover). Nonself-restoring reduced for higher altitudes.
insulation, on the other hand, exhibits permanent damage
and loss of insulating properties after flashover. This second EQUIPMENT WITHSTAND LEVELS
category, which is used extensively in distribution equipment, As previously mentioned, equipment 81L is the insulation's
includes oil, kraft paper, and other liquid, solid or gaseous impulse withstand capability expressed in terms of the crest
internal insulation. value of a standard impulse wave shape. Typical 81L values
Ideally, each insulation category or specific combination of and related low-frequency withstand voltages for distribution
the two would have an absolute withstand voltage above transformers are shown in Table 482, and for reclosers, in
which flashover would always occur and below which it would Table 582.
never occur. However, as described in the preceding section
on overhead line insulation (see "Impulse Withstand: How It TABLE 4B2
Is Determined and Defined"), established withstand levels Distribution Transformer Withstand Levels
are based on a suitably low probability of flashover under Nominal System BIL Low Frequency
specified conditions. How this concept is applied to distribution Voltage (kV) (kV) (kV RMS)
equipment is described below. 1.2 30 10
2.4 45 15
BASIC IMPULSE INSULATION LEVEL (BIL) 4.8 60 19
After a piece of equipment has been designed and 8.32 75 26
constructed, specific tests are performed on it to verify its rating. 14.4 95 34
23 125 40
One of the parameters so verified is the basic lightning 23 150 50
impulse insulation level (commonly referred to as the 81L), 34.5 200 70
which is the accepted term for describing the impulse with-
stand capability of distribution equipment. That is, the 81L is
TABLE 5B2
the electrical strength of insulation expressed in terms of the Recloser Withstand Levels
crest value of a standard impulse wave shape (1.2 x 50
Nominal System BIL Low Frequency (kV RMS)
microseconds), which has a rise time and duration similar to
Voltage (kV) (kV) 1 min dry 10 sec wet
those of a lightning surge.
There are two types of 81L: statistical and conventional. 14.4 95 35 30
Statistical 81L, used for self-restoring insulation, is the peak 14.4 110 50 45
value of a standard lightning impulse for which the insulation 24.9 150 60 50
has a ten percent probability of failing (resulting in a 34.5 150 70 60
46 250 105 95
flashover) under specified conditions. Conventional 81L, used
for nonself-restoring insulation, is the crest value of a standard
lightning impulse for which the insulation does not fail when Transformer Insulation Tests
subjected to a specific number of applications under specific Transformer insulation is submitted to special tests in addition
conditions. to the tests already mentioned.
The impulse insulation level associated with oil-filled
LOW-FREQUENCY VOLTAGE WITHSTAND transformers is determined by the full-wave test previously
Equipment insulation is also required to withstand low- described plus a chopped-wave voltage application. The full-
frequency (60 Hz) voltages greater than the maximum rated wave test uses 1.2 x 50 microsecond (81L) voltage. The
operating voltage. This ability is generally determined by a chopped-wave test uses a 1.2 x 50 microsecond wave of
one-minute application of 60 Hz voltage under dry conditions, 1.5 x 81L magnitude that is chopped by gap flashover at one
and a ten-second application of a lower 60 Hz voltage under to three microseconds following initiation of the impulse. This
wet conditions. procedure tests the insulation's withstand to a lightning-
caused surge that flashes over the line insulation.

204

Front-of-wave tests may also be specified to show the insu-
ralion's withstand to severe lightning surges terminating close
t» the transformer bushings. Such surges rise very fast until
'leieved by external-gap flashover prior to the crest of the
!laW. The crest value of applied voltage is equal to or greater
flan 150 percent of BIL, and the time to flashover is 0.5
ftcr'osecond for distribution voltage classes.
The usual sequence for distribution-transformer impulse
1ests is one reduced full-wave (50 to 70 percent), two
s:hopped-wave, and one full-wave. If front-of-wave is specified,
1llo tests normally precede the two chopped-wave tests.
Transformer low-frequency withstand levels are determined
by applied tests at rated frequency in which the core is not
ar.cited, and induced tests at higher-than-rated frequency in
82
which the core is excited. Voltage levels for both are 1.6 to
two times the winding rated voltage, for one minute in the
applied test, and for 7200 cycles in the induced test.
Other Equipment Insulation Tests
Typical tests for full-wave-voltage withstand (BIL) of capacitors,
reclosers, switches, and cutouts specify three consecutive
applications of voltage, usually of positive polarity. If no
flashover occurs, the sample passes the test. If only one
flashover occurs on external insulation, it is considered random,
and the sample passes the test if a second set of three voltage
applications produces no failure.
Low-frequency withstand for reclosers, switches, and
cutouts is determined by one application of specified voltage
for one minute under dry conditions and for ten seconds
under wet conditions, with no flashover occurring.
205
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Surge Arresters
In an overvoltage protection scheme, there are two basic
300 SERIES (CORROSTION PROOF)
methods available to protect equipment from the detrimental STAINLESS STEEL
effects of overvoltages: provide greater voltage withstand LI NE TERMINAL
Standard connectors
capability by increasing the equipment's basic impulse insulation accommodate #6 solid
level (81L}, and limit the magnitude of voltage a piece of through 210 stranded
leads.
equ ipment may experience (or "see") by installing protective
equ ipment designed for that purpose.
The first method -increasing the equipment's 81L- works
well up to a point, but it soon reaches a stage at which the
added cost of a higher 81L does not produce a proportional - --UllraSIL
SILICONE
increase in reliability. RUBBER
On the other hand, the alternate method of limiting the HOUSING
overvoltage a piece of equipment can see through the use of
an add-on or separate protective device actually permits the
81L of the equipment to be reduced, since the 81L can be ~----::> METAL OXIDE
VARISTOR (MOV)
based solely on the lower overvoltage potential. This method DISKS
generally results in a more cost-effective overvoltage protection
scheme.
The principal device used to limit overvoltage - the surge £ ,'=""""""--- BONDED SOLID
INTERFACE
arrester- must be capable of performing a number of functions:
• It must withstand the continuous power-frequency voltage
for which it is intended to operate. --!';:-- - - - GLASS REINFCRCED
• It must discharge any transient energy from the system in EPOXY COLLAR

the form of current, while preventing the voltage across the

equipment from becoming excessive.
• It must operate in the same environment as the protected
equipment.
• And, of course, it must provide all of these things at a rea-
sonable cost.
As defined in industry standards (ANSI C62.1-1981 ), a
surge arrester is "a protective device for limiting voltage on 300 SERIES - --t:Y
equipment by discharging or bypassing surge current, it prevents STAINLESS STEEL
GROUND TERMINAL
continued flow of follow current to ground, and it is capable of Standard connectors accommodate
repeating these functions as specified." #6 solid through 2/0 stranded leads.

BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATION Figure 1082.

Cutaway Illustration of UltraSIL Housed VariSTAR
The basic design and ratings of surge arresters have evolved Distribution Arrester.
from the basic spark gap arrester, to the silicon-carbide (SiC)
material with related designs, to the modern day metal-oxide
varistor (MOV) designs. Within the MOV designs there are
both internal non-gapped and gapped designs with housings
made of either porcelain or polymer type materials. Figure
1082 shown a cutaway of a silicon rubber housed, non-
gapped MOV arrester, while Figure 11 82 shows a cutaway of
a silicon rubber housed, gapped MOV arrester.
The MOV arrester is highly nonlinear and has low losses at
normal operating voltage. Valve elements withstand the line
voltage during normal system operation, but go sharply into
conduction at a precise voltage level and cease conducting
when the voltage drops below that level.

206
 82
SURGE ARRESTER CLASSIFICATIONS
D!SORIES (CORROSION PROOF)
Sll~ti..ESS STEEL There are three basic arrester classifications recognized by
1JNE TERMINAL
!iar.m"d conneci(J(S ANSI Standards: distribution, intermediate, and station. The

--
~ale #6 solid
~ 210 stranded
differences in these classifications are in terms of voltage rating,
protective characteristics, and the durability in pressure-relief
or fault-withstand characteristics.
1. Distribution arresters, the most widely used, are specified
by standards as arresters with ratings of 1 through 30 kV.
'<:.;,~- UltraSIL SILICONE In relationship to the other classes of arresters they have
RUB BER HOUSING the highest discharge voltage (that is, they will allow the
highest voltage to appear across equipment) for a given
incoming surge. There is no requirement for pressure relief.
2. Intermediate arresters are specified as having voltage ratings
of 3 through 120 kV. They have better protective characteris-
tics than distribution arresters, but generally not as good as
station-type arresters. Pressure-relief capabilities are
required, although some special type of intermediate
arresters developed for underground system protection do
not have pressure relief.
3. Station-class arresters offer the lowest discharge voltages
(allowing the lowest voltage to appear across equipment)
and therefore provide the highest degree of protection. By
standards they have ratings between 3 and 684 kV and
must have pressure-relief capability.
There obviously is a great deal of overlap between the various
arrester classifications. To further identify their respective
characteristics and capabilities, it is helpful to know something
about the standard tests performed in each classification .
L - - - kVRATING Table 682 lists these test requirements in accordance with
300 SERIES (Visible from ground)
STAINLESS STEEL
ANSI/IEEE Standard C62. 11. Typical arresters in each class
GROUND TERMINAL are shown in Figures 1282 through 1482.
Standard connectors accommodate
#6 solid throu gh 210 stranded leads.

Agure 1182.
Cutaway Illustration of UltraSIL Housed VariGAP
Distribution Arrester,

TABLE 682
Comparison of Standard Requirements for Surge Arrester Classifications
Arrester Class
Characteristic or Feature
Distribution Intermediate Station
Ratings 1-30 kV 3-120 kV 3-684 kV
Approximate Protective
Characteristics (at 10 kA)* 3.5 p.u. 3.0 p.u. 2.7 p.u .
Current Discharge Requirements
High Current, Short Duration 65 kA N.D. 65 kA 65 kA
100 kA H.D.
Duty Cycle 5 kA N.D. 5kA 10 kA (>550 kV)
10 kA H.D. 15 kA (550 kV)
20 kA (800 kV)
Low Current, Long Duration 75 A N.D. Transmission-Line Discharge
250 A H.D. Test Required
Pressure Relief
High Current Not Required 16.1 kA 40-65 kA
Low Current Not Required 400-600 A 400-600 A
• In p.u. of arrester rattng.
K..D. =Normal Duty
H.D. = Heavy Duty

207
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS
Surge Arresters (Continued)
Figure 1282.
Distribution-class surge arresters.
Figure 1382.
Intermediate-class surge arresters.
208
Figure 1482.
Station-class surge arresters.
GENERAL ARRESTER APPLICATION FACTORS
As previously stated, a surge arrester must be able to withstand
the continuous power-frequency voltage, discharge any transient
energy that occurs, and operate in the same environment as
the protected equipment. Some of the factors involved in
satisfying these requirements are discussed below.
Selection of Voltage Rating
When applying an arrester, the voltage rating is compared to
the maximum expected phase-to-ground voltage against
which the arrester will be required to operate. In most cases,
this is considered to be a single line-to-ground fault condition
where the arrester on an unfaulted phase may have to oper-
ate at an elevated voltage. Depending on the type of system
connection, the voltage on an unfaulted phase can vary, as
explained in Section B3, which covers arrester application in
more detail. Once this number is available, the arrester rating
for the particular application can be selected.
ANSI Application Guide C62-11 states that the voltage rat-
ing of an arrester should always be equal to or greater than
the maximum expected power-frequency voltage on a given
system.
Commonly used ratings of arresters for various system
conditions are summarized in Table 1B3 in Section B3.
 82
MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS OPERATING VOLTAGE MCOV
MOV arresters are given a maximum continuous operating 1.8
r--,. 1.ja II
~Hage (MCOV) rating indicating the voltage at which they
can be energized continuously over their lifetime. Once the 1.7 l l'f. II
r--.1 .69 ~.68
'lOrmal system line-to-ground voltage has been calculated, .60 1.59
1.6
lhe MCOV of a metal-oxide arrester can be selected as being ...... N..J NCll'iMAL DUTY rl. NSI AND
equal to or greater than this voltage. 1.51 1.50 HEAVY DUTY (UHS)

This is the continuous line-to-ground voltage plus any over- li- 'i-ll II I
I!Oitage factor and can be calculated as follows: II ~If 1.42
I
1~
~~":~
1.34
i"
Vmax = VLL X 1.05 ~~·
1.
{3
1.2

1.1
Where VLL =nominal system voltage, line-line 001 0.1 10 100 1000 1000~ 0
1.05 == typical maximum continuous operating
Time Dura1ion in Seconds
voltage factor
Figure 1582.
TABLE 782 Temporary overvoltage curve. No prior duty- 60° C
Protective Characteristics - VariSTAR Heavy Duty Riser ambient.
Pole (URS)

l Arrester
Rating
(kV rms)
MCOV
(kV rms)
A metal-oxide surge arrester will operate successfully and
maintain its protective characteristics provided it is not required
to dissipate more energy than it can tolerate. Thus, an MOV
3 2.55 arrester can operate at voltages above its conduction level for
6 5.10 durations dictated by the energy it must dissipate. When the
9 7. 65 overvoltage is reduced to the arrester's maximum MCOV rating
10 8.40 before its energy dissipation capability is reached, the arrester
12 10.2 will maintain its protective characteristics and will not fail.
15 12.7
18 15.3
MARGINS OF PROTECTION
21 17.0
24 19.5 After it has been determined that an arrester can survive on
27 22.0 the system, its ability to protect a given piece of equipment
30 24.4 can be examined. This is done by comparing the protective
33 27.0 characteristics of the arrester to the insulation level (Btl) of a
36 29.0 given piece of equipment.
The procedure for establishing margins of protection is
discussed in more detail in Section 83, under "Insulation
TEMPORARY OVER VOLTAGE
Coordination."
The next consideration in selecting an MOV arrester is the
possible duration of a temporary overvoltage, such as a fault
condition. There is concern about the continuous heating of
lhe MOV arrester, which may in time affect its efficiency.
There are, therefore, temporary overvoltage curves published
br MOV arresters (Figure 1582). These curves show the max-
inurn overvoltage and the length of time it can be withstood
b" an MOV arrester. Provided the overvoltage condition is
cleared within the limits of the curve, the MOV arrester is
applied properly.

209
210

Shield Wires
As stated in Section 81, the overhead shield wires normally
employed on transmission and subtransmission lines can be
effective in reducing outages due to lightning. Although shield
wires are not very common on distribution systems, the higher
lle system voltage, the greater the possibility that they will be
used. Even with shield wires, however, it is still necessary to
nstall surge arresters to protect equipment on a distribution
system, as the ability of the shield wire to reduce the number
of direct strokes to the phase conductors does not prevent
wltages greater than the equipment BIL from appearing on
lhe circuit.
82
When a shield wire is applied on a distribution circuit, the
usual practice is to install the common neutral in the shield
wire position , above the phase conductors. An alternative to
use of a shield wire on urban-type circuits is to raise the middle
phase conductor to provide shielding to the other phases,
and increase the number of arresters on the middle phase to
help compensate for its increased susceptibility to lightning
strokes (Reference 7).
211
B. Overvoltage Protection
2. INSULATION AND SURGE ARRESTER CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL APPLICATION FACTORS

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Page
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation
182 Volt-time curve for determining impulse-voltage withstand levels .......................................198
282 Standard 1.2 x 50-microsecond test wave .........................................................199
382 Negative impulse flashover of wet wooden crossarms ...............................................200
482 Diagram of insulation with wood in series with porcelain ..............................................200
582 Impulse withstand values of wood-porcelain combination for different lengths of wood ......................200
682 Pole-top structure with two post-type insulators on wood .............................................200
782 Diagram of pole-top structure for use in example of insulation withstand calculation ........................201
882 Calculated probability of lightning flashover with power arc ............................................202
982 Minimum lengths of wood required to prevent follow current ...........................................202
Surge Arresters
1082 Cutaway illustration of UltraSIL Housed VariSTAR Distribution Arrester ..................................206
1182 Cutaway illustration of UltraSIL Housed VariGAP Distribution Arrester ...................................207
1282 Distribution-class surge arrester .................................................................208
1382 Intermediate-class surge arresters ...............................................................208
1482 Station-class surge arresters ...................................................................208
1582 Temporary overvoltage curve. No prior duty- 60° C ambient. .........................................209
TABLE
Overhead Distribution Line Insulation
182 Typical critical impulse flashover levels (CFO) for pin-type insulators ....................................199
282 Typical critical impulse flashover levels (CFO) for post-type insulators ................................... 199
382 Negative impulse sparkover levels for air gaps between conductors and for rod gaps ....................... 199
Distribution Equipment Insulation
482 Distribution transformer withstand levels ..........................................................204
582 Recloser withstand levels ......................................................................204
Surge Arresters
682 Comparison of standard requirements for surge arrester classifications ..................................208
782 Protective characteristics- VariSTAR heavy duty riser pole (URS) ......................................209

212

3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND
OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
An Introduction
Whereas the equivalent section on overcurrent protection
deals with a variety of tools, the following discussion of
overvoltage protection applications focuses primarily on one
type of device: surge arresters. The "other protection details"
mentioned in the title include the use of shield wires under
some circumstances. System conditions conducive to surges
that might require corrective measures other than arresters
also are listed, but these are discussed in more detail in
Section 81.
Presented first are factors involved in the selection of
arresters based on system conditions, followed by discussions
of the location of arresters in relation to the equipment they
protect, and of the proper connections for optimum protection.
Attention then turns to determining margins of protection,
Table of Contents, Page 169
Index of Figures and Tables, Page 235
Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
which is accomplished by coordinating arrester protective
characterisics with the insulating capabilities (BIL) of equipment.
The final application details covered relate to specific
areas of distribution-system overvoltage protection: overhead
lines, underground circuits, distribution apparatus, and
substations. These areas are not necessarily mutually exclusive
in overvoltage protection schemes, but each involves special
considerations in the application of arresters. Historically, the
emphasis in overvoltage protection has been on protecting
equipment from surges, with line protection receiving only
incidental attention. Growing concerns about reliability in
recent years, however, have prompted many utilities to
broaden their approach to overvoltage protection.
213
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Arrester Function and Selection
As discussed previously, surge arresters are applied to
distribution systems to limit high transient overvoltages to
safe values. The vast majority are applied directly to distribution
feeders, with a much smaller percentage being applied in
substations.
In limiting the transient overvoltages on distribution systems,
arresters perform two major functions: protecting equipment
from failure and minimizing system power interruptions.
These two functions relate, respectively, to the characteristics
and principal applications of nonselfrestoring and self-restoring
insulation, which are discussed in detail in Section B2. Briefly,
nonself-restoring insulation, which includes kraft paper and
oil and constitutes most of the insulation used in transformers,
reclosers, capacitors, and other distribution equipment,
exhibits permanent damage and must be repaired or
replaced if a dielectric breakdown occurs within the equipment.
In contrast, the insulating properties of self-restoring insulation,
which includes air plus porcelain and other materials used
primarily in line insulators and equipment bushings, are
completely restored if the disruptive discharge (flashover) is
extinguished quickly enough. Such flashovers therefore usually
result in a temporary power interruption rather than an equip-
ment failure. It should be noted, however, that flashovers can
lead to permanent damage if they persist for too long a peri-
od.
The proper use of arresters based on system conditions
and coordinated with equipment insulation levels can help to
minimize equipment failures and system interruptions due to
transient overvoltage conditions. Arrester selection, the first
step in accomplishing this goal, will be discussed immediately
below, followed by recommendations for arrester location and
connection, and the specifics of particular applications.
There are three considerations involved in arrester selection:
arrester voltage rating, insulation coordination. and arrester
class.
ARRESTER VOLTAGE RATING
The voltage rating of surge arresters is defined as the highest
power-frequency voltage at which the arrester is designed to
operate. (ANSI standards define an operating duty-cycle test
at this voltage for each class of arrester.) The rating is based
not only on the system operating voltage but also must take
into account possible 60 Hz overvoltage conditions, especially
those due to system faults, and the characteristics of the
particular distribution system (new or established, urban or
rural, etc.).
System Operating Voltages
Preferred nominal system voltage classifications have been
defined in ANSI Standard Voltage Ratings for Electric Power
Systems and Equipment (60 Hz), C84.1. The standard
recognizes that no system can operate at its nominal voltage
at all times over its entire length, as system regulation will
cause the voltage to vary above and below the nominal
value. Figure 1B3 illustrates the distribution characteristics of
system voltage into which the total range of corresponding
operating voltages of the industry may be divided. This figure
takes into account the natural variation between different
systems for any specific nominal voltage.
214
~ ~
I ~~
VOLTAGE RANGE B
IIOLTAGE RANGE A I I
re.
(/')
I.
g.... I.
'
~ I
0.. •
VOLTAGE
Figure 183.
Distribution characteristics of system voltage.
All equipment on a power system can operate over a narrow
range of voltages (voltage range A) and still give excellent
performance. Most electrical equipment can operate continu-
ously at voltages either above or below nominal (voltage
range B), but the performance of equipment at the high and
low extremes of the voltage range may not be optimum.
Since maximum voltages are of primary concern in
arrester application, the maximum voltage on a system
should be known to achieve precise selection of arrester ratings.
If no information is available on the maximum system operating
voltage, then the maximum range B voltage given in ANSI
standards must be assumed.
Care must be taken to avoid possible arrester misapplication
when maximum system voltages listed in ANSI standards are
assumed for certain distribution systems. In some voltage
classes, transformers are equipped with taps above rated
voltage that permit operation of the system at voltages above
range B maximums. On such systems, higher-rated arresters
than those normally used may be desirable.
System Faults and Other Unusual
Operating Conditions
In most cases, consideration of only those overvoltages
resulting from system faults is sufficient when applying
arresters, and only the effects of system faults will be dealt
with in detail here. However, high overvoltages can occur on
some systems as a result of the following unusual operating
conditions:
1. Generator overspeed following load rejection.
2. Changes in system grounding conditions due to switching.
3. Coupling from high-voltage parallel lines.
4. Contact with high-voltage circuits.
5. Ferroresonance and other single phasing effects.

Corrective action {not involving arresters) obviously must
be taken if any of the conditions described occur or seem
likely to occur. Note that ferroresonance is discussed in
Section 81 under "Overvoltages of System Origin."
System faults, which must be considered when applying
arresters, can cause temporary 60 Hz overvoltages until the
fault is cleared. The arrester must be able to withstand these
overvoltages, which are a function of the system grounding
method.
EFFECT OF SYSTEM GROUNDING DURING LINE-TO-
GROUND FAULTS
A theoretical circuit with zero ground impedance, shown in
Figure 283, illustrates neutral shift on wye-connected systems.
A fault on phase A causes the voltage to collapse completely
{Figure 283[C]). Since there is no impedance between the
fault and the transformer neutral, phase A and the neutral
remain at ground potential. The voltages from phase-to-
ground of phase 8 and C remain unchanged from the normal
operating condition.
The practical system shown in Figure 383 illustrates neutral
shift on wye-connected systems with ground impedance.
Since resistance will always be in the ground between the
fault and the transformer, this example more accurately
FAULT
A B
SUBSTATION
G
(A) SYSTEM
Figure 283.
Line-to-ground voltages on theoretical wye system with no ground resistance.
FAULT
A B
SUBSTATION
G
(A) SYSTEM
Figure 383.
Line-to-ground voltages on wye system with ground resistance.
83
depicts actual situations. The neutral impedance may be Otjy
the resistance of ground, or an intentional resistance or reac-
tance placed into the transformer neutral to limit fau QJirenL
As shown in Figure 383{C), a line-to-ground fault on phase A
causes the neutral of the transformer bank to shift ~ from
ground because of the voltage drop in the neutral resistance.
Note that the voltages from phase 8 and C to ground are now
higher than during normal system operation.
The condition of neutral shift in ungrounded systems is
illustrated in Figure 483. An assumption is made that the
capacitance between lines and from line to ground is balanced,
which makes the neutral coincide with ground {F~gure 4B3{BD.
In addition to the line-to-ground faults illustrated, other fault
conditions affect the selection of arrester ratings. For exaJ11)1e,
double line-to-ground faults can result in high voltages from
the unfaulted phase to ground. Phase-to-phase and three-
phase faults generally do not cause the highest overvoHages
from phase-to-ground. When the system sequence impedances
are known, these overvoltages can be calculated.
B c B C
~ A . N& G
A
(B) NORMAL VOLTAGES (C) FAULT VOLTAGES
B c B C
~
A&G
A
(B) NORMAL VOLTAGES (C) FAUIJ ~I..TAGES
215
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Arrester Function and Selection (Continued)
FAULT
A B
SUBSTATION
c
(A) SYSTEM
Figure 483.
Line-to-ground voltages on ungrounded system.
COEFFICIENT OF GROUNDING AND PERCENT
ARRESTER
Coefficient of grounding and percent arrester are two terms
used to define the arrester ratings required for fault conditions.
Coefficient of grounding can be defined as the ratio of the
maximum line-to-ground voltage at the arrester location, during
faults anywhere on the system, to the phase-to-phase voltage
without a fault. The coefficient of grounding of a system,
multiplied by the phase-to-phase voltage, equals the minimum
surge-arrester rating suitable for that system. Percent
arrester is the ratio of an arrester rating to the system phase-
to-phase voltage expressed as a percentage.
Distribution Circuit Considerations
Over years of application, the vast majority of distribution
arresters have been selected on the basis of experience a
method that has been entirely satisfactory for well-estab-
lished circuit voltages and grounding conditions. The selec-
tion of arresters for new types of systems, however, must be
based on extrapolation from existing experience and the cal-
culation of overvoltages during fault conditions.
Urban distribution circuits have a large number of
low-resistance grounds on the system neutral, which results
in the best possible neutral stability during faults. Therefore,
urban-applied arrester ratings in percent-of-system voltages
are the lowest of any circuit.
Rural distribution circuits, when compared to urban circuits,
have a smaller number of grounds, with resulting higher neutral-
to-ground resistance. Rural circuits therefore are subject to a
greater neutral shift during faults and require higher percentage
arresters. Also, high-voltage distribution circuits generally are
employed in sparsely populated rural areas, and these circuits
tend to have even fewer grounds, and thus greater neutral
shift, than the lower-voltage circuits used in more densely
populated rural areas.
216
B c
A A&G
(B) NORMAL VOLTAGES (C) FAULT VOLTAGES
CONDITIONS REQUIRING ARRESTER SELECTION BY
CALCULATION
The use of neutral impedances on four-wire, multigrounded-
neutral circuits is becoming more common. A few utilities
have resorted to neutral impedances on their distribution cir-
cuits in order to confine fault currents within the rating of
available fuses and reclosers. However, neutral impedances
introduce numerous problems in the selection of arrester rat-
ings, and the application of arresters on such systems on the
basis of experience is extremely hazardous because of the
wide range of neutral impedances that could be used. The
only satisfactory method of arrester selection in these cir-
cumstances is by calculating line-to-ground voltages under
fault conditions.
Only the selection of arrester ratings as affected by system
line-to-ground voltages during faults has been discussed.
Equally important is the probability of faults occurring on the
circuit. If no arrester operations occur during faults, then the
phase-to-ground voltages during faults need not be consid·
ered. The following factors affect fault probability:
1. Phase spacing, pole-top clearances, and line insulation
level.
2. Tree trimming.
3. Shielding of the line by surrounding objects.
4. Frequency and intensity of lightning storms.
5. Line maintenance.
6. Atmospheric contamination.
Calculations of arrester rating for distribution circuits differ
from calculations used when dealing with transmission circuits.
Experience indicates that when arrester ratings are based on
Ro1X1 and Xo1X1 ratios for distribution circuits (NEMA UB LA-1),
they are higher than needed. Investigation reveals that line
resistance tends to limit overvoltages, and the positive-
sequence resistance, R1, must also be included in the deter-
mination of the overvoltages.

Arrester Voltage Rating Recommendations
Table 183 provides a general application guide for the selection
of the proper arrester rating for a given system voltage. These
recommendations, are determined as follows:
• .1.25 x nominal line-to-ground voltage for four-wire,
multigrounded-neutral systems.
• .0.80 x nominal line-to-line voltage for three-wire, solidly
grounded neutral systems.
• Nominal line-to-line voltage for delta and ungrounded-wye
systems.
Although these recommendations are generally applicable,
calculations should be made to insure that the parameters of
a particular system under consideration are taken into
account. This is especially true when substation transformers
are grounded through an impedance or when spacer cable
construction is used.
83
INSULATION COORDINATION
Insulation coordination is the process of comparing the
impulse withstand strength of insulation with the voltag'e that
can occur across the arrester. This of course is an important
step in determining the adequacy of insulation, the extent of
additional overvoltage protection that may be required, and
ultimately the margin of protection.
As stated previously, self-restoring insulation, related primari'ly
to line components and equipment bushings, will flash over
at critical voltages and be restored to its full insulating capability
if the discharge has not persisted, whereas the nonsetf-
restoring insulation used in distribution equipment can be
permanently damaged by excessive voltages, necessitating
repair or replacement. Arrester application for the purpose of
limiting line flashovers is largely a matter of matching
arresters with system characteristics, as discussed above,
and the individual utility's approach to overhead protection.
The following discussion on insulation coordination, therefore,
focuses on the establishment of overvoltage protection margins
for distribution equipment.

TABLE 183
Commonly Applied Surge Arrester Ratings
System Voltage Recommended Arrester Rating per IEEE C62.22
(kV rms) (kV rms)
Four-Wire Wye Three-Wire Wye Solidly Delta and
Nominal Maximum Multi-Grounded Neutral Grounded Neutral Ungrounded Wye
2.4 2.54 - - 3
4.16Y/2.4 4.4Y/2.54 3 6 6
4.16 4.4 - - 6
4.8 5.08 - - 6
6.9 7.26 - - 9
8.32Y/4.8 8.8Y/5.08 6 9 -
12.0Y/6.93 12.7Y/7.33 9 12 -
12.47Y/7.2 13.2Y/7.62 9 15 -
13.2Y/7.62 13.97Y/8.07 10 15 -
13.8Y/7.97 14.52Y/8.38 10 15 -
13.8 14.52 - - 18
20.78Y/12.0 22Y/12.7 15 21 -
22.86Y/13.2 24.2Y/13.87 18 24 -
23 24.34 - - 30
24.94Y/14.4 26.4Y/15.24 18 27 -
27.6Y/15.93 29.3Y/16.89 21 30 -
34.5Y/19.92 36.5Y/21.08 27 36 -
46Y/26.6 48.3Y/28 36 - -

217
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Arrester Function and Selection (Continued)

Equipment Withstand does, however, undergo low-frequency tests to confirm its

Recalling Section 82, in which insulation characteristics,
impulse withstand tests, etc., are covered in detail, note that
the 1.2 x 50 impulse voltages that insulation must withstand
are classified into discrete values called Basic Impulse
Insulation Levels, abbreviated BIL. One or more BIL levels
may be used at a given circuit voltage.
As also discussed previously, two additional impulse withstand
tests that are sometimes applied are the chopped-wave and
front-of-wave tests. These tests simulate the conditions that
can occur when a line is flashed over by a lightning stroke.
There also are standards for switching-impulse tests, which
may be applied to substation equipment but are not generally
applicable to distribution systems. Most distribution equipment
ability to withstand 60 Hz voltages greater than the maximum
rated operating voltage. For a summary of typical BIL values
and related low-frequency withstand voltages for distribution
transformers and reclosers, refer to Tables 482 and 582 in
Section 82.
In Rgure 583, the complete volt-time withstand characteristics
of a transformer are plotted and compared with the discharge
voltage characteristics of an arrester. The recommended
margin of protection - discussed in more detail below - is
indicated at three points: {MP1) the chopped-wave test level,
{MP2) the BIL range, and {MP3) the switching-surge range.

CHOPPED WAVE WITHSTAND (CWW)

I
BIL RANGE (BILl

\ SWITCHING SURGE RANGE (BSL)

BIL _I (TRANSF.)
FRONT OF --'-++1-MP2=-LPL -1 BSL
MP3= SPL -1
WAVE
PROTECTIVE
LEVEL ---+--11:...----+-T- (ARRESTER)
(FOW)
(SPL) I
SWITCHING IMPULSE PROTECTIVE LEVEL

LIGHTNING I
IMPULSE CLASSIFYING CURRENT (LPL)

Figure 583.
Insulation coordination: equipment withstand voltage compared with surge arrester protective characteristics.

218

COMPARISON OF OIL-FILLED AND
DRY-TYPE EQUIPMENT
All apparatus that does not have an insulating liquid as part
of the insulating structure can be considered dry-type equipment.
Transformers of the lower voltage ratings, all rotating
machines, and metalclad switchgear are examples.
The insulation strength of dry-type equipment, unlike that
of oil-filled equipment, does not increase significantly as the
duration of the applied impulse voltage decreases. For the
purpose of insulation coordination, therefore, the insulation
strength of the equipment is considered to be equal to the 81L
for all impulse voltage waves. The arrester discharge voltage
is compared directly to the 81L of the equipment.
It is generally not practical to build dry-type equipment to
have the same 81L as oil-filled equipment for the same system
operating voltage. Thus, the problem of insulation coordination
for dry-type equipment is more difficult than for oil-filled
equipment. Special arresters are available for protecting such
equipment from overvoltages. It also often is desirable to
shield circuits to which dry-type equipment is connected from
direct lightning strokes.
83
Margin of Protection
The difference between arrester discharge characteristics
and equipment withstand level at any given instant of time is
termed the margin of protection, represented by the expression:
MP = Withstand Voltage _1
Arrester Discharge Voltage
The margins of protection are calculated as per Table 283.
In performing such calculations for exercise purposes, the
summary of typical 81L values for transformers and reclosers
listed in Tables 482 and 582 may be used. (81L and chopped-
wave withstand values for specific equipment are available
from manufacturers.) The arrester protective characteristics
called for in the calculations are listed in Table 383.

TABLE 2B3
Bases for Calculating Protection Margins Provided by
MOV Arresters
Metal-Oxide-Varistor Arresters
Chopped Wave Withstand -1
Equivalent Front-of-Wave Protection Level
Equipment BIL
-1
Arrester Discharge Voltage
.83 x Transformer BIL
MP3= -1
Equivalent Switching Protection Level

219
B. Overvol Protection
3.SURGE ESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Arrester Function and Selection (Continued)

TABLE 383

........,,.,... ~
Protective Characteristics of Metal-Oxide-Varistor Arresterst
Maximum Discharge Vol~e (kV crest)
Arrester Protective 8/20 IJS Current ave
Rating MCOV Level*
(kV rms) (kV rms) (kV crest) 3 kA 5kA 10 kA 20 k 40kA
3 2.55 11.5 8.60 9.10 9.50 10.4 11.5 13.0
6 5.10 23.0 17.2 18.2 19.1 20.8 23.0 25.9
9 7.65 33.1 24.8 26.3 27.5 30.0 33.2 37.4
10 8.40 34.4 25.8 27.4 28.6 31.2 34.5 38.9
12 10.2 43.3 32.4 34.4 35.9 39.2 43.3 48.8
15 12.7 54.1 40.4 43.0 44.9 49.0 54.2 61.0
18 15.3 64.9 48.5 51.6 53.9 58.8 65.0 73.2
21 17.0 68.9 51.5 54.7 57.2 62.4 69.0 77.7
24 19.5 80.3 60.1 63.9 66.7 72.8 80.5 90.7
27 22.0 90.9 68.0 72.3 75.5 82.4 91.1 103
30 24.4 101 75.8 80.5 84.1 91.8 101 114
33 27.0 113 84.2 89.5 93.5 102 113 127
36 29.0 121 90.8 96.5 101 110 122 137 I
*Based on 10 kA current impulse that results in a discharge voltage cresting in 0.5 IJS.

Minimum margins of protection recommended by ANSI comparing arresters of the same rating produced by different
Application Guide C62.22-1981 are: manufacturers or when comparing different types of arresters.

MP1 (Chopped-Waved Test Level): 20% ARRESTER CLASS

MP2 (BIL Range): 20%
MPs (Switching Surge Range): 15%
These minimum margins include a safety factor to account
for various unknowns such as errors in estimating maximum
surge current, separation of transformer and equipment, and
voltage withstand reduction caused by deterioration of old
equipment. Within the indicated parameters, the specific mar-
gin of protection is not of significant concern when compar-
ing protection offered by two arresters with adjacent ratings
produced by the same manufacturer, for the lower rating will
always yield the greater margin of protection. The specific
margin of protection is of significant concern, however, when
The majority of arresters applied on distribution systems are
distribution class. This is particularly true at 15 kV and below,
since the protection levels are more than adequate. However,
in cases where arresters are to be located at riser poles to
protect cable-connected equipment or in substations to pro-
tect larger equipment, intermediate- or even station-class
arresters are used to provide even better protective charac-
teristics. Applications requiring pressure-relief capability also
will often necessitate the use of intermediate or station
arresters, depending on the available fault current.

220
 83

Arrester Location and Connection

Location is a critical application factor because excessive
lead length to the feeder line and to ground, and too much
separation between the arrester and protected equipment,
can reduce arrester effectiveness.
Une, ground, and feeder leads offer high impedance paths to
lightning surge current. During lightning surge discharge,
these paths can develop voltages that place an additional
stress on the insulation of protected equipment. Voltage
developed across the leads will add to the arrester discharge
voltage, so that the effect of voltage across long leads can be
to nullify completely the protective characteristics of the arrester.
Short leads are recommended for all arrester applications.
EFFECT OF ARRESTER LEAD LENGTHS
As stated previously, short leads are recommended for all
arrester applications. Figures 683 and 783 illustrate the pon
that considerable distance between an arrester and protecled
equipment can nullify the protection offered by the arrester.
Figure 683 shows an arrester connected to the line at a
distance S from the transformer it is supposed to protect.
..
r---s--~

ESTIMATING LEAD·WIRE VOLTAGE

The total discharge voltage entering protected equipment will be
the sum of the arrester discharge voltage and the voltage drop
that occurs in the lead wires connecting the arrester between
line and ground i.e., arrester IR + the lead-wire L di/dt drop,
which is referred to as the IX drop. 2000 V/ft is commonly
assumed for estimating purposes for lead-wire voltages. This is ARRESTER TRANSFORMER
a good rule-of-thumb value for lightning currents below 20 kA,
but recent studies have shown that voltages as high as 10 kV1ft
is not uncommon. Futther analysis is provided in the Cooper
Power Systems Optimizer software program.
Lead-wire voltage is a nonlinear function of these parameters
because of the different phase relationship between time of
arrester discharge and voltage crest, and time of lead-wire IX
voltage crest. Of real significance is the lead-wire voltage Figure 683.
produced by highmagnitude, rapidly rising lightning currents. Surge arrester separated from transformer by length of
Although currents of this magnitude (65 kA) have a low prob- conductor.
ability of occurrence, they do occur. More realistically, lightning
current of 10 kA to 20 kA have been shown to occur with
rates of rise much less than four microseconds.

MICROSECONDS

Figure 783.
Voltages occurrin~ on circuit ·Of Figure 683 as result of
lightning-stroke discharge by arrester.

221
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Arrester Location and Connection (Continued)
As a lightning-generated surge propagating on the line
encounters the surge arrester, the voltage is clamped.
However, the voltage wave prior to clamping continues on to
the transformer, where it can be reflected positively if the
transformer is at line voltage, resulting in a higher voltage at
the transformer.
In practice, voltage waveforms such as shown in Figure
783 are typical. The overshoot of the transformer voltage, Et,
is understandable in terms of inductances and capacitances,
as follows. The lightning-stroke current is discharged through
the arrester, yielding a discharge voltage, Ea, which is impre~
on the line separating the arrester and transformer. The hne
exhibits an inductance to surges of approximately 0.4 micro-
henries per foot. Initially, the transformer appears capacitive
and the voltage builds at a slower rate than the arrester
discharge. The current charging the transformer capacitance
is limited bythe line inductance. Finally, as the voltage across
the transformer approaches the peak value of the arrester
voltage, substantial surge current is flowing in the line inductance.
It continues to flow for a short time after the transformer voltage
has surpassed the arrester voltage until all the energy stored
in the line inductance is transferred to the winding capacitance
of the transformer or is dissipated to losses. This causes the
voltage overshoot depicted in Figure 783.
The amount of overshoot depends on the rate of rise of the
arrester discharge voltage, the length of conductor, and the
transformer construction . The higher the rate of rise and the
222
longer the conductor, the greater will be the overshoot. If we
consider that the arrester discharge voltage may also be
increased by the length of the arresters lead to ground, then
the importance of keeping the distance between the arrester
and the protected equipment as short as possible becomes
even clearer.
OTHER LOCATION/CONNECTION
CONSIDERATIONS
The arrester and the protected equipment should also have
a common interconnecting ground. That is, the ground lead
of the arrester should be bonded to the ground lead of the
equipment at a common point close to both devices. This
eliminates extra voltage stress that might be impressed by
the drop across ground impedance.
Other arrester location issues are addressed in the following
sections. Of particular interest are the location of arresters on
underground distribution circuits and the location of arresters
with respect to transformer fuses.
It should be noted that most distribution-class arresters are
equipped with isolators at their bottom terminals. The isolator
helps to remove the arrester from the circuit should the
arrester fail. (A backup overcurrent device, a fuse or recloser,
actually clears the fault current.) It is important to make the
ground connection such that the isolator can operate and
move an adequate distance away from the failed arrester.

Overhead Line Protection
Historically, the equipment on distribution lines was protected
from high transient voltages by surge arresters, while the
!lnes themselves were allowed to flash over. If a fault developed,
reclosing operations of the recloser or circuit breaker
restored service after a momentary outage.
However, reliability has become a very important factor as
more and more loads- such as computers, video equipment,
and other electronic devices -are highly sensitive to momen-
tary interruptions. And so it is more important than ever to
take steps to minimize the number of line flashovers and thus
the number of momentary interruptions.
The protection of overhead lines from lightning-initiated
overvoltages can be achieved by the use of overhead shield
wires, or by placing arresters at selected intervals on the top
83
phase only or on all three phases. Although the primary purpose
is to minimize the number of line interruptions that result from
lightning strokes, the arresters will also protect, of course,
against other possible disturbances. It has been shown that
the most effective method is to apply arresters on all three
phases. This is especially effective for spacings of approxi-
mately every 1200 feet.
A review of the characteristics of distribution line insulation
discussed in Section 82 will be helpful; included are tables
summarizing the critical flashover levels of insulators and the
sparkover levels of air and rod gaps. Also, References 811
and 812 for overvoltage protection {listing at end of manual)
contain more details on overhead line protection.
223
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Underground Circuit Protection
The major problem associated with the protection of under-
ground distribution (UD) circuits is the practical difficulty
involved in locating surge arresters as close as desired to the
equipment being protected. In underground applications, the
equipment typically is located in small enclosed spaces with
dead-front connections, and so there are far fewer convenient
places to connect arresters than there are for pole-top or
substation equipment. Feed-thru loadbreak inserts are avail-
able to acommodate dead-front arrester installation at the
end-points and mid-points of an existing UD circuit. The
equipment involved is the same as in overhead applications
- e.g., transformers, switchgear, and capacitors - but also
includes the cable itself. The cable has developed into more of
an issue in recent years as it has become apparent that cable
life in many applications is not what it was expected to be.
Insulation degradation as a result of treeing (limb-like cracks) in
the insulating jacket, coupled with high system transient voltages,
is believed to have contributed to shorter cable life.
RECOMMENDED PROTECTION METHODS
A typical underground system is illustrated in Figure 883. At
a riser pole, the overhead line descends into a cable that
goes underground to serve the customers on the UD circuit.
The major consideration is to protect equipment on the UD
circuit from transient overvoltages initiated on the overhead
circuit, especially those due to lightning. There are five gen-
erally accepted ways to accomplish this:
OVERHEAD LINE
/\-
m.·-- -~ ~--- ~ ~ -
UNDERGROUND CABLE
---- -_-_-_-I-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1~
Figure 883.
T T
Underground distribution cable system.
OVERHEAD LINE
/\-
T T
Figure 983.
UD circuit protection with arrester at riser pole.
224
1. The most basic method (Figure 983) is to place an
arrester at the riser pole to limit the magnitude of the surge
entering the cable system. This is the primary arrester
required for UD circuit protection. If protection dollars are
limited, the installation of an appropriate arrester at this
location may provide adequate protective margins for 15 kV
or lower-voltage systems.
2. The highest transient voltages will tend to be at the open-
ended points on the cable. This occurs because of the
phenomenon of voltage doubling of a traveling wave at an
open point (see "Traveling Waves" in Section 81).1n cases
where the margin of protection may not be adequate, the
next step is to place arresters at these open-ended points
(Figure 1083). The voltage at the open end can reach two
times the protective level of the riser pole arrester for a
lightning surge on the overhead line, but that value will be
reduced if there are cable taps in between. The voltage at
the open end is compared with the 81L or chopped-wave
withstand of the equipment to determine if the protection
is adequate. As the operating voltage increases above 15 kV,
equipment insulation levels do not increase at the same
rate. For 25 kV systems with 125 kV 81L using 18 kV
arresters, and for 35 kV systems with 150 or 125 kV 81L
using 27 kV arresters, it generally is necessary to provide
more than riser pole protection, such as by adding
arresters at the open-ended points.
T T
 83
OVERHEAD LINE
/\-

T T
Figure 1083.
UD circuit protection with arresters at riser pole and open end.

OVERHEAD LINE
/\-

T T
Figure 11 83.
UD circuit with scout protection scheme.

3. One alternative to placing arresters at the open-ended
points when more than riser pole protection is required is
to parallel two arresters at the riser pole. In this case the
arresters share the surge current and consequently
reduce the magnitude of the voltage entering the cable. It
is, of course, important that the arresters have nearly
matched characteristics so that they will share the current
appropriately.
4. Another alternative is the use of the "scout scheme", which
involves the use of one arrester on either side of the riser pole
arrester a span away on the overhead line (Figure 11 83).
The arrester remote from the riser pole intercepts the
propagating traveling voltage wave, operates, and drains
most of the surge current to ground. If the discharge voltage
is high enough, the riser pole arrester will also operate,
thus draining off more of the surge current. A remote pos-
sibility exists that a stroke may terminate on the span
between the arresters, thereby causing the riser pole
arester to share a high-magnitude surge with the scout
arrester. To eliminate this possibility, a shield wire is
recommended between the riser pole and scout arresters,
and even a span beyond.

225
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Underground Circuit Protection (Continued)

5. The ultimate in overvoltage protection on a UD circuit is to
provide arresters at convenient points all along the cable,
in addition to the riser pole arrester. This is generally done
at points of discontinuity, such as where transformers are
tapped from the cable (Figure 1283). Because of their
ground-level location, these arresters usually have to be
dead-front or under-oil arresters, which are difficult to add
to existing installations. Feed-thru loadbreak inserts are
available to accommodate dead-front arrester installation
at the end-points and mid-points of an existing UD circuit.
This particular method of protection is gaining in popularity
primarily because of increasing cable failure problems,
although it helps to protect the transformers as well. The
cable treeing problem may reduce the cable withstand to
substantially below thewithstand capability at time of
installation, and providing more overvoltage protection
may help to prolong the cable life. If it is not physically or
financially possible to add arresters at each point of
discontinuity, margin of protection can usually be sign~
cantly improved by adding mid-point arresters at one p<>rt
of discontinuity. The most effective location for mid-poirt
arresters is usually the first point of discontinuity in the UD
circuit.
TYPE OF ARRESTER
The method of selecting an arrester voltage rating for UD
applications is the same as for overhead applications, but the
margins of protection are much smaller and, therefore, more
critical. The result is that normal distribution class arresters
may not be adequate. Where analysis indicates that this is
the case, special riser pole arresters or intermediate-class
arresters may be used. Margin of protection can also be
improved by utilizing Copper Power Systems VariGap® stv'e
surge arresters in some or all locations.

OVERHEAD LINE
/1-

T T
Figure 1283.
UD circuit protection with arrester at each transformer.

226
 83

Distribution Apparatus Protection

Most of the equipment on distribution systems is located on
poles or in enclosures, and each piece of equipment has its
own overvoltage protection, generally provided by one or
more surge arresters. Transformers make up the bulk of this
equipment and the other distribution devices that are individually
protected include voltage regulators, reclosers, sectionalizers,
switches, and capacitors.
As indicated in the above discussion, "Arrester Leads and
Connections," the best protection is obtained by minimizing
the arrester lead length and placing the arrester as close as
possible electrically to the protected equipment. Some of the
other details of arrester protection are discussed below for
each type of equipment. Note that, if the equipment to be
protected is dry-type rather than oil-filled, a higher margin of
protection will be necessary, as explained previously under
"Equipment Withstand."
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
Grounding
To provide reliable surge protection for the transformer, it is
essential that the arrester ground terminal be interconnected
with the transformer tank and secondary neutral (Figures
1383 and 1483).
use of gaps is illustrated in Figure 1583. With either solid or
gap interconnection, surge current is routed through several
parallel ground impedances, and danger to insulation damage
is minimized, even under conditions of high surge current
and high ground impedance.
As shown in Figure 1683, on a grounded-wye system, one
arrester is necessary across each line to ground for either a
three-phase or a single-phase transformer. With the delta
system of Figure 1783, the arresters on the ungrounded
lines are subjected to full line-to-line voltage if one conductor
is accidentally grounded. A single-phase transformer tapped
off this system requires two arresters: one connected to
ground on each side of the primary.
----~------------~~-------N
----+-----'-1---~--------¢
SURGE
ARRESTER

SURGE Figure 1483.

ARRESTER - - - Transformer protection with solid arrester interconnection
on source side of primary fuse link.

SECONDARY
NEUTRAL
SECONDARY ----~------~----~~-------N
LEAD IMPEDANCE
----+-----~.----+--------¢

Figure 1383.
Transformer protection without arrester interconnection. SURGE
ARRESTER

If interconnection is not used (Figure 1383), a surge current

flowing to ground through an impedance causes a drop that
impresses a high voltage on the primary winding of the trans-
former. Because the secondary winding and the tank are
essentially at ground potential, a potential stress exists
between the two windings, and between the primary winding
and the tank. Connection to a common ground point at the
secondary neutral (Figure 1483) reduces the stress to the Figure 1583.
small impedances drop inherent in the arrester, thus eliminating Transformer protection with arrester interconnection
the stress produced by the drop across ground impedance. through gaps.
If solid interconnection between the tank and the common
ground point is not permitted by local code, gaps can be used
between the tank and the common ground point, and
between the ground point and the secondary neutral. The

227
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Distribution Apparatus Protection (Continued)

SUBSTATION

t
\ LINE-TO-LINE VOLTAGE
+
LINE-TO-NEUTRAL VOLTAGE

+
-=~ t SINGLE-

1
~:,r +
PHASE
" ... BRANCH
T
LINE

~LJ~
nnn
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANK
SINGLE-PHASE
TRANSFORMER BANKS
-----
~ >-
_.......
~ ..~..._t-+--4

_._

Figure 1683.
Arrester application on grounded-wye system.

SUBSTATION

LINE-TO-LINE VOLTAGE

SINGLE-
PHASE
BRANCH
LINE
SINGLE-PHASE
TRANSFORMER
BANK

nnn
THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMER
SURGE
/
ARRESTER..__~~__.

BANK

Figure 1783.
Arrester application on delta system.
228

Fuse Location
Another consideration in the application of arresters to distri-
bution transformers is the proper location of the transformer
fuse with respect to the arrester.
The arrester can be connected on the load side of the primary
fuse as shown in Figure 1883. This connection may reduce
the length of the lead connecting the arrester between line
and transformer ground, but it permits lightning surge current
to flow through the link. If the link is small or the surge of long
duration, the link will be unnecessarily blown or damaged,
removing a transformer from service. This can be a major
source of customer outages during severe storms and, con-
sequently, may be intolerable in some instances.
----~----~------.-------N
----+-----~~--~------¢
1------f- PRIMARY
FUSE
83
phase as a result of ferroresonance. It can also lead to sustained
60 Hz overvoltages appoaching 2.65 per-unit on the open
phase when ungrounded wye-delta transformers are serving
a large single-phase load. Although these overvoltages can
be excessive for all equipment involved, they are especially
troublesome for arresters, which often are the components
that fail under these circumstances. The problem can be
eliminated by placing arresters ahead of the transformer
fuses, but if the transformer is on a fused tap as shown in
Figure 1983, there is also a concern for fuse blowing at the
tap point. (Again, the arrester is on the open phase and is
subject to the high overvoltage conditions.) Regardless of
arrester location, the problem can be minimized by selecting
arresters which provide increased TOV (Temporary
Overvoltage) and enhanced margin of protection such as the
Cooper Power Systems VariGap® style surge arrester. Of
course the entire problem can be eliminated by not using
three-phase transformer connections in applications where
single-phase overcurrent devices are used.

SURGE
TABLE 683 Advantages and Disadvantages of
ARRESTER Connecting Arrester on Source-Side and Load-Side of
Transformer Fuse
Arrester on Source Side Arrester on Load Side
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Surges Fuse cannot If arrester Fuse subjected
·diverted limit energy to fails, to surge
by arrester. failed arrester. fuse may transients.
prevent
porcelain
rupture.
Figure 1883.
Arrester connection on load side of primary fuse link. No Surge arrester Limits
nuisance failure could area of
fuse cause loss of system
blowing . large part of outage.
In addition to shorter leads, an advantage of placing the system.
fuse first is that the fuse can be used to clear a failed arrester Current- Current-
as well as a failed transformer. This usually leads to much limitin~-fuse limiting-
faster clearing times, especially if current-limiting fuses are arc vo tage fuse arc
may cause voltage
used, and it minimizes the possibility of violent arrester failures, arrester to does not
especially in high fault-current applications. operate. appear
Connection of the arrester on the source side of the primary across
fuse link is illustrated in Figure 1483. In this arrangement, the arrester
lightning surge current is drained to ground through the May require
arrester and does not flow through the primary fuse link, thus longer arrester
leads,
minimizing the possibility of unnecessary fuse blowings. The reducing
advantages and disadvantages of both configurations -load- insulation pro-
side and source-side connections - are summarized in Table tection margin.
683. Both schemes are widely used, and the final choice will
depend on the needs and experience of a given area.

Single Phasing s
As mentioned under "Ferroresonant Overvoltages" in Section u
B
81, single-pole switching, or the operation of a fuse or other s
overcurrent device on one phase of a three-phase circuit can T
lead under some circumstances to overvoltages on the open A
T

0
N
I

.,_-<JO--~ '----------,..-'\ y t-
Figure 1983.
System with arrester-protected transformer on fused tap.

229
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Distribution Apparatus Protection (Continued)

Secondary Surge Protection
It has become evident in recent years that many past transformer
failures were the result of secondary surges, which occur as
follows: lightning strikes the distribution circuit, a surge arrester
operates, surge current flows to ground and through the sec-
ondary winding of the transformer due to the ground connection,
and the current in the secondary winding produces a high-
voltage in the transformer, causing the transformer to fail.
Such secondary surges can be controlled, however, by placing
arresters across the secondary windings of the transformer,
as shown on the transformer in Figure 2083 and diagrammed
in Figure 21 83. This practice can have a significant positive
effect on transformer overvoltage protection.
Secondary arresters placed at the customer service
entrance must have the same current discharge capability as
the secondary arresters on the transformer, since they see
the same surge current. For more details on this subject, see
Reference 814 for overvoltage protection.

Figure 2083.
Distribution transformer equipped with primary and
secondary arresters.

LIGHTNING SURGE

OVERHEAD GROUND

H1 X1
1- ":"
CUSTOMER
LOAD

PRIMARY
ARRESTER
METER GAPS

CUSTOMER
SERVICE
GROUND
IMPEDANCE

"TRUE GROUND"

Figure 21 83.
Secondary surge current paths for distribution transformer with secondary arrester.

230
 83
VOLTAGE REGULATORS
SHUNT SURGE ARRESTER
Voltage regulators are protected from transient overvoltages by PROTECTS SHUNT AND SERIES
the use of a low-voltage arrester across the series winding POTENTIAL WINDINGS. SURGE ARRESTER
and a normally rated arrester from the load-side terminal to PROTECTS SERIES MNDING.J
ground (Figure 2283). Regulators can be used in a variety of
configurations such as those shown in Figure 2383, which
also illustrates the different arrester connection requirements
for regulator applications.

BYPASS
SWITCH

SERIES
SURGE
ARRESTER

Regulating a single-phase circuit.

A----------------~~~----e-------A
w BYPASS
U SWITCH 0
~s-------~-rCl_.-----+----Bg
g
c c
SHUNT
SURGE
ARRESTERS
DISCONNECTS

SERIES
SURGE
ARRESTER Figure 2283.
Voltage regulator equipped with low-voltage and nor-
mally rated arresters.

Regulating one phase of a three-phase, three-wire circuit.

BYPASS
SWITCH
A--------~q-------------------------------------A '

SHUNT
SURGE
ARRESTERS

DISCONNECTS

SERIES
SURGE
ARRESTER

2
Regulating a three-phase. three-wirewyeordeltacin:uitwlthtwo111QU1abs.
Figure 2383.
Regulator applications showing arrester connection requirements. {Figure is conlinual a._......_,
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Distribution Apparatus Protection (Continued)

BYPASS
SWITCH
A A'
w BYPASS
g B
SWITCH
B' ~
::1
@
BYPASS
SWITCH
9
c C'

SHUNT
SURGE
ARRESTERS

I
I
I I
I I
I I
SERIES
SURGE
., I
L
I
'--
•
ARRESTER
• 2 3

Regulating a three-phase. three-wire wye or delta circuit with three regulators.

BYPASS
SWITCH
A
BYPASS
w SWITCH
g B --~~------------------~~~~~~------------------------------B'
BYPASS ~
::1
0
rJ) c --~-r--------------------+-~-------------------<~~S~W~IT~C~H~-----C' 9
N
SHUNT
SURGE
ARRESTERS

SERIES
SURGE
ARRESTER

2 3
Regulating a three-phase, four-wire. multigrounded wye circuit with three regulators.

Figure 2483. (Continued)

Regulator applications showing arrester connection requirements.

232

SWITCHGEAR
Reclosers, sectionalizers, breakers, switches, and other
switchgear also require surge protecion. Arrester application
to these devices involves the same considerations of short
lead lengths and ground interconnections as for transformers.
In general, for complete protection against lightning-
produced surges, arresters are recommended for the source
side and load side of each phase of each device. If only one
arrester is to be used per recloser phase, it should be
installed on the source side. A lightning surge on the source
side could flash over the source-side bushing and cause a
system line-to-ground fault, which would have to be cleared
by the backup device. Minimum clearing time is critical in
such a case to try to insure that no permanent equipment
damage occurs; however, because the fault will be near the
end of the backup device's zone of protection, it probably will
take a long time to clear, which could result in permanent
equipment damage. An arrester on the source side with min-
imum lead length would handle the surge itself and clear the
power-frequency follow current. If the load-side bushing is
arced over by lightning from the load side, the recloser will
function normally to interrupt and clear the resulting power-
frequency follow current.
When reclosers or circuit breakers are used in substations,
typically station- or intermediate-class arresters on other
equipment will protect the source side of each phase; therefore,
only one arrester per phase on the load side may be necessary.
In applications involving three-phase devices, such as
reclosers, it is very tempting to connect the neutral terminals
of the three arresters on one side of the device together by a
single wire, which may not allow the arrester isolators to
operate properly As noted previously, the neutral connection
must be such that an isolator can move an adequate distance
after operating to facilitate isolation of a failed arrester from
the circuit.
83
CAPACITORS
This application also requires consideration of the previously
discussed factors such as short leads and ground intercon-
nection.
Surge arresters are recommended for all capacitor instal-
lations, regardless of size. It may be possible to avoid the use
of arresters on large, unswitched, grounded-wye banks, since
these banks are not easily charged to dangerous voltages by
lightning surges; however, as was noted in the discussion of
overvoltages of system origin in Section 81, high voltages
can occur on one capacitor bank due to the switching of
another. Given the variety of capacitor-bank arrangements
that may occur on a distribution system, it is advisable to
apply arresters at all banks.
For switched capacitor banks, the highest energy condition
arresters are likely to see, is the restrike of the capacitor-
bank switch when deenergizing the line, but this should be a
rare and abnormal occurrence. For most typical bank sizes
mounted on poles, distribution-class arresters can dissipate
the energy associated with a single restrike. Multiple switch
restrikes, however, are likely to lead to arrester failure. For
larger substation banks, station class arresters are typically
used.
To minimize spurious fuse blowings on capacitor banks,
arresters are typically applied on the source side of fuse
cutouts and capacitor switches.
233
B. Overvoltage Protection
3. SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATIONS AND OTHER PROTECTION DETAILS
Substation Protection
Because the focus of this manual is distribution systems, this
section on substation overvoltage protection is brief. Its purpose
is to provide an understanding of the differences in overvoltage
protection in going from distribution feeders to the substation.
The primary reason for the differences is that the relatively
few pieces of equipment in substations are both quite expensive
and highly important from a reliability standpoint. In applying
surge arresters, the basic principles regarding the determination
of the voltage rating and maintaining margins of protection in
insulation coordination are still used. However, because the
substation has higher fault-current duties than those out on
the feeder, the arresters are quite often intermediate or station
types to assure the best possible protective characteristics
and to provide pressure-relief capabilities.
Surge arresters are applied directly at the bushings of
power transformers. Generally, large substations and all
transformers above 138 kV utilize station-class arresters.
Otherwise, either intermediate or station class are used.
Distribution arresters are used only on small transformers -
typically single-phase units and three-phase units below
1500 kVA.
Often the arresters applied for transformer protection also
protect the substation's circuit breakers and reclosers. The
effect of the separation distance must be taken into account,
234
however, to determine if the margin of protection is adequate.
If it is, the switchgear can be considered to be protected
when in the closed position. For protection when it is in the
open position, arresters may be applied to the line side of
each device. In some applications at higher voltages, rod gaps
are employed on the line side or breakers at a significantly
lower cost than for arresters. However, the protection quality
is poorer, and it is difficult to set the correct gap spacing so
that gaps will flash over when the breaker is open, and yet
will not flash over - allowing the bus-connected arresters to
operate - when the breaker is closed. In some cases, it is
determined through evaluation that the probability of getting
a high enough surge to cause a problem when the breaker is
in the open position is very low, and thus no protection is used.
The justification is that, if the breaker is open, its disconnects
are also open. The only problem arises when a lightning
strike causes a flashover of the line and the line breaker
operates to interrupt the resulting fault current. If the stroke
has only one component, the surge is transmitted to the station
before the breaker opens, and the busconnected arrester can
protect the breaker. However, if the stroke has more than one
component, the succeeding surge(s) may catch the breaker
in the process of opening, or in the open position.
 83

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Page
Arrester Function and Selection
193 Distribution characteristics of system voltage .. ...... . .... ... ... .... ............... ....... ...... .... 214
293 Line-to-ground voltages on theoretical wye system with no ground resistance ............. ................215
383 Line-to-ground voltages on wye system with ground resistance ...... . ....... .. . , ......... ............. 215
483 Line-to-ground voltages on ungrounded system .... ... ........... .. ................................216
583 Insulation coordination: equipment withstand voltage compared with surge arrester
protective characteristics .............. . ..... . ....... . ............ ........... . . .. ............. 218
Arrester Location and Connection
683 Surge arrester separated from transformer by length of conductor 221
783 Voltages occurring on circuit of Figure 683 as result of lightning-stroke discharge by arrester 221
Underground Circuit Protection
883 Underground distribution cable system .................................. .............. . . ......... 224
983 UD circuit protection with arrester at riser pole .. . ..... .. . . ... . . . .. .. . . . . ... .. . .... ..... .. ... . .. .... 224
1083 UD circuit protection with arresters at riser pole and open end ...... . .......... ........................ 225
11 83 UD circuit with scout protection scheme . .. .................... .. ...................... ..... ...... 225
1283 UD circuit protection with arrester at each transformer ........................ .. ........ .... ......... 226
Distribution Apparatus Protection
1383 Transformer protection without arrester interconnection ............. . ............ . ..... .... ..... .... .227
1483 Transformer protection with solid arrester interconnection on source side of primary fuse link .. ... . .. ... .. . . .227
1583 Transformer protection with arrester interconnection through gaps . .......... . .................. .... .. . .227
1683 Arrester application on grounded-wye system ........................................... . .. ....... .228
1783 Arrester application on delta system . ............... . ..... .... ..... . ................. ....... ..... 228
1883 Arrester connection on load side of primary fuse link ............. .. .......... ... ....... ........... .. 229
1983 System with arrester-protected transformer on fused tap .................................. ......... .. 229
2083 Distribution transformer equipped with primary and secondary arresters . . .... .. .. . . ... . .. ..... ......... .230
2183 Secondary surge current paths for distribution transformer with secondary arrester ... .. . ..... .... ... ...... 230
2283 Voltage regulator equipped with low-voltage and normally rated arresters . ........... . ...... . ... .. ....... 231
2383 Regulator applications showing arrester connection requirements .... .. ........... .. ...... .... ......... 231
TABLE Page
Arrester Function and Selection
183 Commonly applied surge arrester ratings .......... . ............ ... ......... .. . ..... .... . .. ..... .. 217
283 Bases for calculating protection margins provided by MOV arresters .......... .. ..... . ............... ... 219
383 Protective characteristics of MOV arresters ......... . ............ . ....................... ..... ..... 219
Arrester Location and Connection
583 Lead-wire voltage produced in different lead-wire lengths by various lightning-current magnitudes
and waveshapes ......................................... .. .... . ........ ....... . ....... . ... 221
693 Advantages and disadvantages of connecting arrester on source side and load side of transformer fuse ...... . .229

235
236

4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR
A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
An Introduction
This section is the overvoltage equivalent of Section A4,
which summarizes overcurrent protection for a complete system.
Using the identical system as in A4, with the over-current
protection equipment selected in the previous exercise
included here as 'givens' the discussion focuses on the principal
considerations and steps involved in determining and satisfying
overvoltage protection requirements at critical points on the
system. Many of the basic facts utilized (equipment Blls,
arrester discharge voltages, etc.) are typically part of the
manufacturers' ratings.
The objective is to choose the proper surge arrester ratings
and locations based on sound engineering judgment and
guidelines, with the final step being evaluation of the margins
of protection. Using easily understood terms, the exercise
demonstrates how surge arresters work together with - are
coordinated with - the insulation characteristics of conduc-
tors and equipment throughout the system in protecting
against overvoltages. Analyses involving traveling wave
Table of Contents, Page 169
Section B
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
reflections, lightning discharge voltages, and shielding coverage
are not included, as these are beyond the scope of the manual.
Because the subject of overvoltage protection does not
lend itself to the kinds of individual exercises invoMng different
types of equipment found in the overcurrent application sections,
the following system summary provides the first opportunity
to demonstrate, with examples, just how arrester application
is accomplished. The specific selections for the demonstration
system obviously do not include all available varieties and
locations, but each component of the system will be provided
a safe margin of protection within the indicated parameters. If
the reader, as suggested in the introduction to Section A4,
has tried varying the parameters of the system as an addi-
tional overcurrent exercise, that altered system should be
examined also from the standpoint of overvoltage protection.
237
B. Overvoltage Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Preliminary Considerations
REVIEW OF PRINCIPLES
The basic points expressed previously regarding the surge
arrester's role in overvoltage protection are valid in all appli-
cations. While serving as "a protective device for limiting voltage
on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge current," an
arrester must perform as follows:
• Withstand the continuous power-frequency voltage for
which it is intended to operate.
• Discharge any transient energy from the system in the
form of current, while preventing the voltage across equipment
on the line from becoming excessive.
• Return to a full insulating state after functioning and be in
readiness for the next overvoltage occurrence.
With proper selection and application, surge arresters will
perform all of these functions satisfactorily on distribution
systems. Protection of overhead lines as well as equipment
on the system will be covered in the following examples,
which use as a basis for discussion the same relatively simple
radial system introduced in the summary of overcurrent
protection.
Surge protection of an overhead line may be designed
either to prevent flashovers as a result of lightning strikes or
- as historically has been the case - to allow flashovers to
occur in a controlled manner and, if power current develops,
rely on reclosers or circuit breakers to prevent permanent
outages. However, the growing sensitivity of loads to system
disturbances may cause protection philosophy to shift more
towards the prevention of flashovers, which could entail a
more widespread use of shield wires on distribution systems.
An alternative practice in use today is to apply surge
arresters on all three phases (rather than on the top conduc-
tor only) to eliminate flashovers at poles having arresters and
to reduce the total number of flashovers. When so protected,
the struck conductor acts like a shield wire. A voltage is
induced on the neighboring conductors and predischarge
currents can flow between conductors.
Surge protection of equipment on the distribution system is
achieved primarily by the application of distribution-class
arresters. Since such arresters are used in great numbers, it is
not feasible to make a separate application study each time an
arrester is to be applied for the protection of, for example, a
pole-type transformer Thus, distribution class arresters are
generally selected for use anywhere within a distribution system.

UJ...)J

jr
~I
\:§71
I

TYPE4E

-
220A
140A

I
LEGEND
TYPEGW I
448A
I
~
----3PHASE 40K
- - - - - 2PHASE GROUP
I
- - - - - 1 PHASE \§7 FUSED I
/1 NODE NUMBER I
2~A MAX. LOAD CURRENT 1800-KVAR I
~:
~ POLE-MOUNTED
~ NAX. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT I
~ MIN. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT ~ 19 y CAPACITOR BANK
\l!IJ I !7
\§
0 GENERATOR
13 UJ...)J
rYYY\
local OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

0 RECLOSER
@ SECTIONALIZER
~

-lf...
FUSE
SURGE

Figure 184.
Demonstration system for study of overvoltage protection.
238

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND DATA
Although ~orne of the factors are not directly applicable, the
data requ1red for an overcurrent protection study will provide
most of what is needed for an overvoltage protection study. In
addition, the voltage, BIL, and {for transformers) chopped-wave
withstand (CWW) ratings of the equipment to be protected
must be known.
Let us ~tart, then, by reviewing the final system diagram
from Sect1on A4, the summary of overcurrent protection for a
complete system. Reproduced here as Figure 1 84, it shows
all overcurrent protection equipment in place and identified
as to type and basic rating. As in the overcurrent exercise
distribution transformers are located at Nodes 5 and 7. Mar~
complete equipment data and details of line construction are
listed below; other information needed for arrester selection
and to perform the insulation coordination will be introduced
at appropriate points in the discussion.
Line Construction (See Figure 284)
3-phase horizontal construction with 4-ft phase spacing.
30-ft pole with 3.5-ft spacing between center phase and
ground conductor. Class 55-5 insulator (pin type)
11 )li"
20"
Figure 284.
Overhead line configuration.
84
Equipment Ratings
1 800 kvar Group-Fused Capacitor Bank
Unit rating: 14.4 kV, 300 kvar. BIL: 125 kV.
Type WVE Recloser and Type 4E Recloser
Voltage rating: 24.9 kV. BIL: 150 kV.
Type GW Sectionalizer
Voltage rating: 34.5 kV. BIL: 150 kV.
Distribution Transformers
250 kVA, three-phase.
Voltage rating: 24.9 kV. BIL: 150 kV. CWW: 175 kV.
Our analysis of overvoltage protection requirements for
this system will begin with the overhead line, and then proceed
to the requirements for overcurrent protection devices (reclosers
and sectionalizers), capacitors, and distribution transformers.
The 10 MVA transformer will not be addressed, since it is not
distribution-class equipment and presumably will be protected
by arresters at the substation.
239
B. Overvoltage Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Surge Arrester Selections and Applications

OVERHEAD LINE PROTECTION
The overhead line configuration is shown in Figure 284.
Although the information that will be obtained is not essential
for arrester selection in this case, calculation of the phase-to-
ground insulation withstand of the pole-top structure will
contribute to understanding of the total overvoltage protection
scheme for the system while also serving as an exercise of
potential value in other situations. Some of the conditions
requiring arrester selection by calculation are discussed in
Section 83 under "Arrester Function and Selection."
Recall from the discussion of overhead line insulation in
Section 82 that the critical impulse flashover (CFO) level of the
pin-type insulator is 150 kV BIL. To calculate the insulation
withstand, a 0.9 multiplier is used for porcelain, based on the
assumption of 90 percent of the CFO as conservative. Also, the
recommended design CFO value for wood is 100 kV per foot,
and for air, 200 kV per foot. (In the calculations, the length or
distance for wood and air is stated in inches divided by 12.)
Both paths must be considered.
• First path: porcelain insulator withstand= 0.9 (150 kV)
= 135 kV
wood withstand 100 kV (20/12} = 167 kV
DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
Reclosers and Sectionalizer
Since the two reclosers and the sectionalizer have the same
voltage and BIL ratings, their arrester requirements should
coincide so far as protective characteristics are concerned,
although the location and number of arresters may differ, as
will be discussed below.
The circuit conditions that resulted in our choice of the 18 kV
distribution-class MOV arrester from Table 483 apply also for
distribution equipment, pending a check on the margin of
protection such an arrester will provide. The margin of protection
for reclosers and sectionalizers, as discussed in Section 83,
is calculated (see Table 283} as follows:
Margin of Protection 2 = Equipment BIL -1
(MP ) Arrester Discharge Voltage
2
From Table 483, it can be seen that the maximum
discharge voltage for an 18 kV arrester in response to a 10 kA
surge is 60 kV. (Typical surge currents are 10 kA, 20 kA, and
30 kA.) Substituting 60 kV into the MP2 equation with the
recloser and sectionalizer BIL of 150 kV yields the following:

The earlier discussion also points out that wood can be
modeled electrically as a resistor in parallel with a capacitor,
and that porcelain can be modeled as a capacitor. Thus, the
effects are not additive. If the wood length is enough to produce
a withstand greater than the insulator, as the case here, the
wood alone determines the insulation level. Therefore, the
first-path insulation withstand is 167 kV.
• Second path: air withstand = 200 kV {11.175 + 11.25 +
20}/12 = 707 kV
MP 2 = 150 -1 =1.5=150%
60
This is considerably above the ANSI recommended minimum
margin of 20 percent for MOV surge arresters, but it does not
include an allowance for the effect of voltage drop on the
arrester connecting lead wires, for which it is common practice
to add a value of 1.6 kV to 2.0 kV per foot of connecting leads
to the arrester discharge voltage. If we assume a typical lead
length of five feet and assume 1.8 kV per foot,

The lower withstand of the two paths is 167 kV, which must
MP 2 = 150 -1=1.17=117%
be used in determining the insulation coordination margin.
60 + (5 X 1.8)
The two-phase and single-phase lines of this example would
have the same withstand, because the ground conductor
Having confirmed a 117% margin of protection, let us look now
position would always be located at the same distance below
at the number of arresters required and their recommended
a phase conductor.
connections and locations (Figure 384).
In this case, with no special system conditions to consider,
To assure complete protection for reclosers and sectionalizers,
arrester selection may be based on the recommendation for
the most common practice is for arresters to be connected
a 24.9 kV multigrounded system in Table 183 in Section 83.
from line terminals to ground on both source side and load
The appropriate listing, which allows for the highest expected
side of the equipment. However, series-coil reclosers and
operating voltage on such a system, indicates that an 18 kV
sectionalizers often have internal bypass gap assemblies, in
arrester should be used. A good choice, taking advantage of
which case arresters may be applied on the source side only.
recent developments in arrester technology, is the distribution-
In this example, the Type 4E recloser employs a series coil
class metal-oxide varistor arrester whose protective charac-
with an internal bypass assembly and thus requires a surge
teristics are listed in Table 483. Note that all characteristics of
arrester only on the source side. The Type WVE electronic
the 18 kV arrester are well below the 167 kV withstand level
recloser and Type GW electronic sectionalizer do not have
arrived at by the above calculations, thus confirming correctness
series coils, so arresters must be placed on both source and
of the selection.
load side of both devices.
In accordance with the guidelines for overhead line protection
discussed in Section 83, it is generally recommended that
arresters be placed on all three phases every 1200 feet.
Methods are available for determining optimum arrester location
based on lightning-stroke predischarge voltage and wave
propagation; however, such considerations are beyond the
scope of this manual.

240
 84

OH LINE:
ARRESTERS ON
ALL 3 PHASES TYPE 4E

-
220A
EVERY 1200 FT
/2
71A~
-
140A 105A

~
~ /3

Figure 384.
Protection of reclosers and sectionalizer. (Arresters for overhead line protection, indicated in note, are not shown.)

Distribution Transformers The margins of protection are obviously well above the
Oil-filled transformers exhibit increased insulation strength in recommended minimums. Unless there is a high-surge-capa-
the short-time area. This withstand capability is expressed by bility fuse link utilized or a high available fault current, the
the chopped-wave withstand (CWW), which is no less than arresters will be installed on the source side rather than the
1.15 times the transformers full-wave withstand. The CWW load side of the transformer primary fuses (Figure 484), but
rating corresponds to the transformer's ability to withstand recall that there are advantages and disadvantages to both
close-in lightning strokes and the accompanying backflash, locations, as summarized in Table 683.
while the BIL rating corresponds to the transformer's ability to
withstand strokes at a distance down the line. Therefore, UJ..)J
there are two margins of protection to be considered for the fYYY"\
~:/5
distribution transformers at Nodes 5 and 7: MP1 and MP2, as
shown graphically in Figure 583 in Section 83. Both margins
should be 20 percent or better.
Again, choose the 18 kV MOV arrester, pending examination
of the margins of protection it will provide. From Table 483,
®!I lfl.,.
the maximum equivalent front-of-wave protection level is 66 kV,
I
and the maximum discharge voltage at 10 kA is 60 kV. From I
the manufacturer's ratings, the transformer CWW is 175 kV I
and the BIL is 150 kV. Substituting these values into the MP1
and MP2 formulas (from Table 283) yields:

MP
1
= Chopped Wave Withstand _1 /8
Equivalent Front-of-Wave Protection Level

175
= 66 - 1 =1.65 =165%
I
I
MP2 = BIL -1 I
Arrester Discharge Voltage I
~ 40K
GROUP I
=1 ;g - = 1 1.5 = 150% \§7 FUSED I
I
Assuming five-foot arrester leads decreases the MP2
1800-KVAR
POLE-MOUNTED
L.....
I -
margin to:

MP2 = 60 + 150
(5 X 1.8) - 1 = 1.17 = 117%
/9
Y CAPACITOR BANK

@ •L
I-=
u..uJ-
fYYT\
Figure 484.
Protection of distribution transformers.
B. Overvoltage Protection
4. SUMMARY OF PROTECTION FOR A COMPLETE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Surge Arrester Selections and Applications (Continued)

Capacitor Bank
Surge arresters should be used on all capacitor banks and,
as discussed in Section 83, should be installed with leads as
short as possible and connected to ground. For a switched
bank, the highest energy condition arresters are likely to see
is the restrike of the capacitor bank switch when deenergizing
the line, but this is a rare occurrence. For most typical bank
sizes mounted on poles, as in this example, distribution-class
arresters can dissipate the energy associated with a single
restrike.
The selection here also is the 18 kV MOV arrester. Calculate
the margin of protection as before, using the capacitor-bank
BIL rating of 125 kV.
MP2 = BIL -1
Arrester Discharge Voltage
Allowing for five-foot arrester leads at 1.8 kV/ft modifies the
margin to:
MP2 = 60 + ~~~ 1.8) - 1 =.81 =81%
The 81 percent margin of protection, while less than for the
other applications cited, is still well above the recommended
minimum of 20 percent.
To minimize spurious fuse blowings on the capacitor, the
arrester should be located on the source side of the fuse
cutout (Figure 584).
SUMMARY
The system is now protected, using a minimum number of
arresters (Figure 6B4).1n addition to protecting equipment on
the system, attention has been given to keeping momentary

=1 ;g - = 1 1.08 =108%
interruptions to a minimum without the use of shield wires.
The fact that the same type and rating of distribution-class
arrester has been used for all the applications is not unusual, as
the standard recommendation for a particular type of system
may often serve a variety of needs, particularly if the system
is relatively simple as was the case here. Table 184 summarizes
the margins of protection for all of the distribution equipment
protected by arresters.
For more complicated systems or those operating at higher
voltages, the engineer may want to conduct a rigorous analysis
involving the probability of direct lightning strokes, exact arrester
discharge voltages based upon lead length, arrester location
on overhead lines based upon traveling wave reflections, or
increased protection afforded by shielding.

TABLE 184
Summary of Distribution-Equipment Overvoltage
!8
Protection
Arrester Protection Margin
Equipment BIL cww MP2 MP2
(kV) (kV) w/o leads with leads MP1
% % %
I WVE Recloser 150 150 117
I 4E Recloser 150 150 117
GW Sectionalizer 150 150 117
I Transformers 150 175 150 117 165
I
~
Capacitor Bank 125 108 81
I
~ I
I
1800-KVAR
~ POLE-MOUNTED
I
i9 y CAPACITOR BANK
®il- l
I !7
UJ..JJ"
fYYYl
-

Figure 584.
Protection of capacitor bank.

242
 84

UJJJ
rYYY'\

®f? I
I
~

HO UNE: I

40A

I
LEGEND I
I
- - - - 3PHASE
2 PHASE ~ I
I
1 PHASE ~ I
NODE \IUL-1BER
I
MAX. LOAD CURRENT 1800-KVAR
NAX. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
MIN. SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

GENERATOR
~
~ /3
~
!9 I POLE-MOUNTED
y CAPACITOR BANK
®j!
rYYY'\
OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

RECLOSER

SECTIONALIZER

FUSE

SUFiGE ARRESTER

Figure 684.
Demonstration system with all surge arresters in place or noted for protection lines and equipment against overvoltage.
Table 1 84 summarizes margins of protection for distribution equipment.

243
244
 Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

245
 Table of Contents
Page
Introduction ..................................247
1. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL LOADS
Basic Protection Requirements ....................249
System Disturbances and Their Effects ..............249
Deviations in Voltage and
Other Basic System Conditions ................249
Frequency Deviations .........................251
Harmonics ..................................252
Shared Responsibility ...........................252
2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH DISPERSED
STORAGE AND GENERATION
How DSG Affects Distribution-System Operation ......253
DSG-Utility Interconnection and
Monitoring Practices ..........................254
Recommendations for Relaying Functions .........254
Typical Protection Schemes ....................255
246
Page
Specific Protection Problems ......................257
Nuisance Fuse Blowing ........................257
Coordination and Reclosing Practices ............258
Islanding ...................................259
Equipment Overload ..........................259
Resonant Overvoltages ........................260
Harmonics ...... : ...........................260
Fluctuating Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Four Principal Rules for DSG Protection .............260
3. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH
AUTOMATED DISTRIBUTION
Adaptability of Present-Day Switchgear .............261
Loadbreak Switch for
Automated Distribution Systems .................261
Application with Reclosers .....................262
Conversion to Automation Blends Old and New .......262
INDEX OF FIGURES AND TABLES ................263
•••
REFERENCES AND CREDITS ....................264

An Introduction
The subjects in this section have been separated from the
main overcurrent and overvoltage discussions because, as the
title implies, they involve considerations that are not necessarily
of universal interest to readers of the manual. Also, the separate
treatment helps avoid repetition, since both overcurrents and
overvoltages are of concern in coping with the effects of
industrial loads and in protecting systems with dispersed
generation.
Because automated distribution is a highly dynamic subject,
the discussion here consists of a single example of the use
Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS
of special equipment on automated systems while emphasizing
that existing switchgear is readily adaptable to the requirements
of automation. The reader is encouraged to seek current
information on special equipment from reliable industry sources.
Please remember that the protection principles and proce-
dures covered in detail in Sections A and B are applicable to
all of the conditions discussed here. Any special precautions
or additions are clearly identified.
247
248
 Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

1. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL LOADS

BASIC PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS
The application of circuit protection at a substation with
industrial loads follows the same basic rules as at other utility
locations: to protect all circuits and equipment from abnormal
electric disturbances. When this is not attainable, the goal is
to minimize the effects. The primary purpose of substation
protection, therefore, is to protect the main utility circuit from
the effects of faults between the utility circuit breaker and
service entrance equipment. Faults on the feeder should be
cleared quickly, so that other consumers served from the
source bus will not be affected. There also, of course, must
be adequate protection at the industrial service entrance,
and the utility's protection scheme should provide back-up to
this equipment for further assurance that a disturbance within
the plant will not affect other customers on the utility system.
Figure 1C1 diagrams a protection scheme in which the utility's
circuit breaker provides primary protection to the main utility
circuit and serves as back-up to the breaker or interrupter at
the plant's service entrance. (Not all schemes will include the
breaker labeled "Utility," and ownership of the "Plant" breaker
will vary.) Each feeder within the plant is protected so that
problem areas can be isolated to minimize their effects on
production.
Deviations In Voltage and
Other Basic System Conditions
Electric power service to an industrial load must be able to
meet the normal peak power demands, and to do so wl'!h
minimum deviations in both voltage and frequency It aso
should be relatively free from voltage surges or cistortioo,
must maintain normal phase rotation in three-phase systems,
and must not subject loads to single phasing.
Voltage deviations and loss of voltage can vary considerably
in duration, depending on the type of disturbance and the
method used to restore service. Such disturbances are very
unpredictable and can cause either a small voltage dip or a
permanent fault resulting in isolation of part of the system.
HIGH VOLTAGE UTILITY SOURCE
UTILITY CIRCUIT BREAKER
UTILITY COMPANY
t
--------

SYSTEM DISTURBANCES AND THEIR EFFECTS

+
PLANT
PLANT CIRCUIT BREAKER
System disturbances are usually transient in nature and are OR FUSED INTERRUPTER
caused by short circuits. Although service may actually or in
essence be continuous, the resulting dip in voltage
may affect the operation of certain equipment. When the
disturbance is severe enough to cause tripping of the circuit
breaker and subsequent reclosing to restore power, this is
termed an outage, and the effects on equipment can be
much more severe. Complete stoppage of processes may MAIN BUS PLANT UTILIZATION \Ql.JAGE
occur that result in loss of production and considerable loss
to the industrial.
To provide some understanding of the effects of utility system
disturbances on industrial loads and of various related limitations FEEDER
and concerns, several tables are presented here from BREAKER
ANSI/IEEE Standard 242-1986, Recommended Practice for
Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems- a volume often identified as "the IEEE buff PLANT FEEDERS
book." Table 1C1 lists the service deviation tolerances for
load and control equipment, Table 2C1 identifies typical caus- Figure 1C1.
es of some of the most common disturbances, and Table 3C1 Typical protection scheme for utility 'Ieeder .-.:1 induslrial
lists the minimum times required for restoration of service plant.
after loss of voltage and some of the precautions that should
be taken. It is suggested that the tables be studied in detail,
as the following text covers, in general terms, just a few
points of particular interest.

249
C. Special System Considerations
1. EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL LOADS (Continued)

TABLE 1C1
Electric Service Deviation Tolerances for Load-and-Control Equipment
Voltage
Distortion:
Device Voltage Level* Frequency Comment
Harmonic
Content
Alarms, systems operating on loss Variable - -
of voltage
Capacitors for power factor
correction +10% to -110% .. +0% to -iOO%
Communication equipment ±5%t Variable -
Computers, data processing +1/~ Hz to
equipment ±10% for 1 eyelet 5% -1 /2Hz
Contactors, motor starters
Alternating-current coil burnout +10% to -15% - -
Alternating-current coil dropout+ -30% to -40% for 2 cycles - -
Direct-current coil dropout -30% to -40% for 5 to
10 cycles
Electronic tubes ±5% Variable -
Lighting
Fluorescent -10% - Uncertain starts, reduced life.
-25% - - Lamp will extinguish.
Incandescent +18% - 10% of normal life.
Mercurv vapor -50% for 2 cvcles - - Lamp will extinauish.
Motors, standard induction(i) ±10% - ±5% Sum of absolute values of
voltage and frequency
deviation shall be no greater
than ±10%.
Resistance loads furnaces heaters Variable - -
Solenoids, shut-off valves for gas or
oil-fired furnaces, magnetic chucks,
-30% to -40% for 112 cycle - -
brakes, clutches
Transformers +5% with rated kVA s0.80 PF - Voltage deviations apply at
+ 10% with no load rated frequency. If frequency
drops, voltage limits must
reduce proportionally.
Inverters (gaseous, thyristor) +5% with full load 2% ±2Hz Firing circuits and transformers
+ 10% with no load general!( determine toler-
-1 0% transient ances. I supply voltage is
+5%, transformer loading
must be reduced by 5%.
Rectifiers
Diode (gaseous) +5% with full load Sensitive® - If supplrc voltage is +5%, trans-
+ 10% with no load former oading must be
-1 0% transient reduced by 5%.
Diode (solid state) ±10% Sensitive® - Some rectifier s~tems are
rated by NEMA 3 for voltage
deviation of +5% to -1 0%.
Phase controlled ±5% with full load 2% ±2Hz Firing circuits and transformers
(gaseous, thyristor) + 10% with no load ~enerally determine tolerances.
-1 0% transient f supply voltage is +5%,
transformer loading must
be reduced by 5%.
Generators ±5% Sensitive\Y -5% Voltage tolerance is generally
a function of ~enerator design.
Surge protecttve devices
should be applied at generator
terminals.

. Turbines (steam) - - -1%

..
It tS assumed that properly selected llghtntng arresters and surge protecttve eqwpment are tnstelled throughout the system. Devtatton tolerance 1s conttnuous
unless specified. Percent 110ltage balance (100 X maximum voltage deviation from average volte~e)/average 110ltage.
•• capacitor ratings are based on a nominal voltage distortion caused by overexcited transformers. Silicone-controlled-rectifier phase-controlled loads may cause
additional and excessive distortion.
! Voltage tolerances may not be applicable for equipment with integral power supply or 110ltege regulator.
+ This type of contactor is not recommended where trip-outs due to voltage dips are undesirable.
<D Phase voltages should be balanced as closely as can be read on the usual commercial voltmeter.
<ll Presence of harmonics may raise or lower direct output IIOitage, balance between phases, or balance between rectllier units operating in parallel. Systems with
rectifiers or Inverters may contain harmonics that cause nonsellent pole generator overheating. Generator load reduction may be required as a function of the
number of phases in the rectifier system as follows: 24 phases - no reduction; 12 phases - 8% reduction; 6 phases - 10% reduction.
®NEMA MG1·1978, Motors and Generators.

250
 C1
Frequency Deviations
Deviations in frequency from the nominal system value may
be undesirable for some loads, particularly computers.
However, frequency deviation usually is associated with
some other system problem and a drop in system voltage. It
usually indicates that the total load connected to the power
source is greater than the capability of the system to supply
the load.

TABLE 2C1
Electric Power-System Disturbances
Disturbance Duration Effect on System Typical Cause•
Voltage level Steady ±10% voltage Normal ~stem voltage variation resulting
change from loa changes.
Voltage swing 10 cycles to ±30% voltage Motor starting, shock loads, furnace loads,
5min welders, planers, chippers, roughing drives.
Voltage transients* Up to 30 +100% to -50% voltage Remote system faults, switching surges
cycles lightning strokes, capacitor switching.**
Voltage flicker Variable Voltage variations Repetitive voltage swings or .transients.
Voltage loss A 1 s maximum Down to 0% voltage Power transmission s~tem or distribution
system faults, networ system faults.t
Voltage loss B 1 min maximum Down to 0% voltage Power system faults or equipment failure
requiring reclosing or resvnchronizing operation.t
Voltage loss C Extended -1 00% voltage Permanent power system faults, equipment failure,
accidental opening of power circuit breaker.
Voltage wave-shape Variable Fundamental or harmonic Arcing faults, ferroresonance, switching,
distortion, harmonics, voltage up to +200% transients, transformer, iron core reactor or
noise ballast magnetizing requirements, controlled
rectifiers, commutators, arc discharge, fluorescent
lamps, motors.
Voltage unbalance Steady Up to 10% voltage variation among Single-phase or unbalanced loads on three-
phases of three-phase svstem phase system. .
Single phasing Extended Down to 0% voltage on one Open conductor, switching with single-pole
phase of three-phase system devices, fuse blowing, circuit breaker or
contactor failure.
Power direction Variable Change of flow of current Supply system faults, loss of transmissloo
change, short circuits or power. lines, synchronizing power surges, switching.
Frequency change Variable +1 to-2Hz Loss of generation or utility supply line.
* It is assumed that properly selected lightning arresters and surge protective equipment are installed throughout the system.
•• Some types of switching transients may be amplified by coincident resonance of power-factor capacitors and transformer inductances at the swildling ~
t Disturbance may be in either the utility or consumer system. Disturbance may be isolated in 3 to 30 cycles by circuit breakers or 35 cycles by netwcn: ~
after which serv1ce may be restored to disturbance-free portion of system.

251
B. Overvolta Protection
1. FUNDA NTALS AND THEORY

Harmonics SHARED RESPONSIBILITY

In this case, the disturbance on the system and related problems
may originate within the industrial plant, as a result of harmonic
voltages or waveshape distortions. Voltage levels at the
industrial loads can appear to be normal, and yet there may
be severe overheating of the generator or interference with
communication or signal systems. Harmonic voltages can be
amplified if power-factor capacitors are used within an indus-
trial plant. The shunt capacitance and source inductance
form a parallel circuit that is an extremely high impedance at
a specific frequency, and often this frequency coincides with
harmonic current generated by some load, such as rectifiers
or static motor drives. If supply transformers are not required,
harmonics can produce interference at the utility substation.
It is important that the utility take into consideration the char-
acteristics and limitations of the industrial loads it is serving,
and equally important that the industrial customer be familiar
with and understand the protection schemes for both the sub-
station and the supply lines. The utility not only must protect
its own system but also do everything possible, including
consultation as necessary and the mutual establishment of
standards, to provide quality service, with a minimum of inter-
ruptions, to the industrial. To accomplish this the utility and
the industrial must install circuit protection for their respective
systems that is appropriate to the physical arrangement, ~he
equipment and processes to be protected, and th~ serv1?e
continuity needed. If there is doubt as to how an mdus~nal
system and various loads will behave as a result of poss1ble
system disturbances, a study should be conducted.

TABLE 3C1
Restoration of Service after Loss of Voltage
Minimum Time to Comments
Method Restore Service
Re-energize circuit*
Automatic reclosing after temporary fault 25 to 70 cycles If motor loads exist that support plant voltage after loss
of system voltage, then reclosing must be delayed either
Remote-controlled reclosing Up to 1 min for a definite time or until residual plant voltage has
of circuit breakers or switches decayed to less than 25% of normal, or as recommended
bh manufacturer to prevent dama~e to motors. Reclosing
Manual or remote-controlled Up to 1 hr or longer s ould be in accordance with AN I C50.41-1982
reclosing after manual isolation of cause (i.e., the impressed voltage should not exceed 1.33 V/Hz
of disturbance; replacement of fuses of rated value):
Transfer incoming line to alternate International time delay may eliminate unnecessary
power sourcet transfer under some conditions.
Automatic transfer Up to 30 cycles
Manual transfer Up to 30 min
Start generators in consumer system Variable Standby generation maybe sufficient to supply
emergency or critical loads.
• Reclosing must include resynchronizlng 11 consumer generators are operating 1n parallel With utility system.
t May include transfer of emergency lighting and loads to a battery source or engme-dnven generators. ..
CAUTION: Do not apply automatic or remote reclosing on circuits consisting of cables or transformers where recloslng will relnit1ate the permanent faults
associated with such equipment.

252

2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH
DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION
An increasing number of customer-owned generators is
being connected to distribution systems as a result of the
Public Utility Regulator Policies Act (PURPA) of 1978. When
the capacity of such dispersed storage and generation (DSG)
becomes significant compared to the feeder load capacity,
several operating problems may arise. Some of the concerns
are:
1. Safety of utility personnel.
2. Short-circuit currents and coordination of overcurrent
protective devices.
3. Overvoltages.
4. Islanding (the ability of a DSG facility to continue to
provide power to some loads after being isolated from the
utility).
5. Harmonics.
6. Fluctuating generation.
These concerns encompass both normal operating conditions
and fault conditions, and in some cases the utility and DSG
owner may approach them from different, or even conflicting,
points of view. Both perspectives should be given attention,
of course, in establishing criteria for DSG facilities and operation.
HOW DSG AFFECTS DISTRIBUTION-SYSTEM
OPERATION
Conventional distribution-system protection schemes and
devices are designed for application on a radial system, with
power flowing only in one direction and the substation trans-
former serving as the system's only source of power. These
characteristics permit isolation of a fault by interrupting the
circuit at only one point. The closer to the cause of the abnormal
condition the circuit is interrupted, the fewer customers will
be affected, which means that service interruption can be
minimized by careful selection and coordination of protective
devices throughout the distribution system.
The addition of dispersed generation changes the distribution
system from a passive one to an active one. That is, power
may flow in more than one direction, with loads being supplied
by more than one power source as shown in Figure 1C2. This
of course complicates the basic role of electric utilities, which
is to supply safe and reliable electric power to their cus-
tomers. Historically, it has been relatively easy to accomplish
this, since utilities have had complete control over the gener-
ation, transmission, and distribution of electric power. With
the addition of dispersed storage and generation devices,
however, utilities no longer can exercise total control over all
aspects of system operation, but they can and do take steps,
such as the establishment of minimum interconnection
requirements, to assure that the dispersed sources of electric
power will not adversely affect their systems. These require-
ments must satisfy utilities' criteria regarding personnel safety,
service continuity, and service quality.
Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS
UTILiiY p
~~~----r---------~--------~--
1
Itp 1
~
LOAD
LOAO
DSG
Figure 1C2.
Utility distribution system with DSG.
Personnel safety is of particular concern. During scheduled
maintenance and repair as well as during emergencies, utilities
need to isolate or deenergize appropriate portions of the circuit.
To assure that this is done, they must know the location of all
the power sources in their system and have visible and lockable
breaks to isolate them.
To accommodate DSG, many utilities have made changes
in their distribution practices: for example, not allowing the
use of single-phase protective devices between the utility
transformer and three-phase DSG. Also, recognizing the
need for more time for DSG breakers to operate after a fault
(up to one second), utilities may use longer reclosing intervals.
One condition sometimes overlooked by utilities is the
possibility of resonant overvoltages and the high-energy
discharge capability required from arresters for this condtion.
As discussed below under "Resonant Overvoltages,' station-
class arresters may be required for connections irnlotving
generators 100 kW or larger.
In the utility-DSG relationship, protection must be rec4>ro-
cal. The utility system and other loads must be protected
against the adverse effects of any undesirable coocil:ions on
the DSG side, and the DSG facility must be protected against
any damage from the utility (Reference 1). As staled earlier,
problems can occur during normaJ operation or t:Uing faults.
The following discussions will ~ protection of the
utility system from the DSG, altflot.9l DSG concerns wtl be
mentioned when appropriate. FirSt, we will 1ake a liook at
some of the current DSG-uliity inlercol•ledion and monioring
practices, and then examine speciic proEction problems and
recommended solutions.
253
C. Special System Considerations
2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEM WITH DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION (Continued)

TABLE 1C2
Utility Requirements for Connection of DSG to Distribution System
DSG Type and Rating (All 1 and 3 Phase)
Minimum Requirements* 10kW 100kW 1 MW
·10kW -1 MW
·100 kW
Visible Disconnect - I s T I s T I s T
Dedicated Transformer (at or below 480 V) - - - I s T I s T I s T
Sense Feeder/Fault Outage - - - I s T I s T I s T
Overvoltage (59) - - I s T I s T I s T
Undervoltage (27) -- - I s T I s T I s T
Neg. Phase Sequence IN (46) - - - - - - - I s T
Zero Sequence IN
Directional Overcurrent (67)
- - - - - - - -- - - -
-
-
Overcurrent (50/51) - I s T I s T I s T
Neutral Ground CurrenVGround Fault (50G/51G) - - - - - - I s T I s T
Overfrequency (81/0) - - - s s T - s T
Underfrequency (81/U) - s T - s T - s T - s T
Voltage Restraint Overcurrent (51 V)
Anti-lslandin!) Mean
- -
- -
I s
-
T
-
I
-
s
-
T
-
I
I
s
s
T
T
Power Directional Relay (32) - s - - s - s - s
Power Factor Correction - - - I I - -
Synchronizing (man/auto) (25) - s s s -- - s
Phase Sequence (47) - s - - s - I s I s T
Block Close of DSG Into Dead Feeder - s - - s - - s T I s T
Specify Grade of Relay Equipment
Sense Current Unbalance (60)
- - -
- -
I s
-
T I
I
s
s
T
T
I
I
s
s
T
T
Communications/Telemetry - - - - - - - - I s T
I - Induction generators S- Synchronous generators T- Inverters
• Standard device function numbers are in parentheses; see Table 3C2.

DSG·UTILITY INTERCONNECTION AND Recommendations for Relaying Functions

MONITORING PRACTICES The relay functions recommended for most three-phase DSG
The normal practice in protecting the distribution system from installations - that is, the conditions and characteristics that
DSG facilities is to provide for sensing one or two parameters must be continuously monitored to assure detection of faults
as primary protection and one or more backup parameters as and other abnormalities - are:
secondary protection in case the primary protection malfunc- • Overcurrent.
tions. These requirements vary from utility to utility, and only • Unbalanced voltage.
typical configurations will be discussed here. • Undervoltage/overvoltage.
Protection requirements vary also with the size and type of • Over/under frequency.
DSG device, and the point of connection with the utility. • Synchronism check (for synchronous generators).
Typical size breakpoints for protection requirements are: The monitored conditions and what such relaying accom-
• Below 10 kW. plishes in DSG protective schemes are summarized in Table
• 10 kW to 100 kW. 2C2. With the foot-noted exceptions, the table applies to
• 100 kW to 1 MW. single-phase as well as three-phase generators.
• Above 1 MW.
Table 1C2 shows typical utility-mandated minimum require- TABLE 2C2
ments for connection of the distribution system with DSG Recommended Protective Relay Functions for DSG
facilities involving various sizes of induction and synchronous Installations
generators and inverters. This information is based on the (Single-Phase and Three-Phase Except As Noted)
interface requirements of 17 utilities. Protective Function
Monitored Condition
In general, utility specifications cover all the equipment
needed for fault detection, including possible redundancy, as Overvoltage/Undervoltage Detect Faults
Prevent Accidental
a safeguard, with both voltage sensing and current sensing. Energization of Utility Line
Unbalanced Voltage* Detect Faults and
Abnormal Load Conditions
Over/Under Frequency* Detect Islanding Conditions
Overcurrent Detect Overload, Internal
Faults, and External Faults
(If Generator Supplies Fault
Current)
Synchronism Verifies Frequency, Phase
Angle, or Voltage to Permit
Paralleling of Synchronous
Generator and System
• Small, single-phase generators do not need unbalance detection. Also, 11
feeder penetration is low, islanding should not be a problem with single-
phase generators, so there is no need lor frequency relays.

254
 C2

Typical Protection Schemes A typical protection scheme for a medium-size generator

In general, utility requirements are the least stringent for
installations involving small generators (below 10 kW), unless
penetration is considerable on a single feeder. A typical min-
imum protection configuration is shown in Figure 2C2. The
conditions/characteristics being monitored are current, by
means of current-sensing molded-case breakers, undervoltage
(27), and overvoltage (59). (Note: Circled numbers in the
figures and in Table 1C2 are standard identifications for
protective devices and characteristics as listed in ANSI/IEEE
037.2-1979. The identifications used in this section are listed
in Table 3C2.)
(between 11 and 99 kW) is shown in Figure 3C2. Note that
some schemes may include a utility breaker, indicated by bro-
ken lines, for duplication of protection and to provide a means for
disconnection. The monitored conditions are negative-
sequence voltage (47), generatorovercurrent (50/51), under-
voltage (27), overvoltage (59), and frequency (81). Table 2C2
shows the potential abnormalities and the characteristics
being monitored for their detection. If the generator is synchro-
nous, a synchronizing relay (25) will be used together with a
second set of PTs on the generator side of breaker 2. With
medium generators, some utilities allow the use of molded-case
breakers for overcurrent protection, as in the small-generator
example (Figure 2C2}, instead of circuit breakers with CT's

~~>--------r:c--
and relays.
For large generators (usually between 100 kW and 1 MW)
the protection requirements may be extensive like the ones
SOURCE shown in Figure 4C2. This scheme not only provides generator
protection but also protects the system. Protection redundancy
assures removal of the generator under various abnormal
conditions. For example, a fault on the utility side of the
dedicated transformer may be detected by the time-overcur-
rent devices (51 /51 N), the undervoltage relay (27), and the
reverse-power relay (32).

UTI LilY

~~~--------_-1~_--um__ Lt_lY_________

I I BREAKER
~

GENERATOR

Figure 2C2.
Minimum protection scheme for a distribution system
with DSG.

TABLE 3C2 LOAD

Standard Device or Relay Identifications*
Number I Function or Monitored Condition
25 Synchronism Check
27 Undervoltage
32 Directional Power
40 Field Failure GENERATOR
46 Reverse Phase Current
47 Phase Sequence Voltage Figure 3C2.
50 Instantaneous Overcurrent Typical DSG protection scheme for a medium-size
51 Time-Delay Overcurrent
generator.
59 Overvoltage
60 Current Balance
67 Directional Overcurrent
81 Frequency
87 Differential Protective
..
* Part1al hst1ng from ANSI-IEEE C37.2-1979

255
C. Special System Considerations
2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEM WITH DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION (Continued)

DEDICATED
TRANSFORMER
I PT

LOADS

* REQUIRED BY UTILITY

Figure 4C2.
Typical DSG protection requirements for a large generation facility.

256
 C2
SPECIFIC PROTECTION PROBLEMS In Figure 6C2, plots of J2t vs. time for a 12.47 kV feeder
As stated previously, the addition of dispersed electric power with three different sizes of dispersed synchronous genernlofs
sources to a distribution system affects utility operation during (100, 1000, and 2000 kW), and a 100 T fuse iink. are
both normal and abnormal conditions. Following are discussions compared with the plot for a 12.47 kV feeder without <ispersed
of some of the specific and most common problems and generation. The available fault current is 2500 amperes.
recommended solutions to those problems. Figure 7C2 makes the same comparisons, assuming 125()
amperes of fault current.
Nuisance Fuse Blowing
Because most distribution systems are radial, their protection A FEEDER WITHOUT DISPERSED GENERATORS
schemes take advantage of the fact that current flows only in (2500 A OF FAULT CURRENT AVAILABLE)
B FEEDER WITH 100 kW GENERATOR
one direction, from the source (substation) towards the fault C FEEDER WITH 1000 kW GENERATOR
(Figure 5C2[A]). The protective devices are time-current D FEEDER WITH 2000 kW GENERATOR
coordinated so that the device closest to the fault is the one 1.5
called upon to operate first and isolate the fault. With fault-
supporting DSG connected to the system, however, faults will D
have additional short-circuit current contributions from the
c
B
substation that may affect the coordination (Figure 52C[B]).
z 1.0
X

0
UTILITY SOURCE CONTRIBUTION ~
g
~~~-----~n b
;i 0.5
u:

(A)

SOURCE CONTRIBUTION
* ~

50 100 150
TIME FROM INSTANT OF FAULT (ms)
200

Figure 6C2.
I2t for three-phase faults on three sizes of synchronous
GENERATOR machines and with available fault current of 2500
CURRENT
CONTRIBUTION
amperes.

A FEEDER WITHOUT DISPERSED GENERATORS

(1250 A OF FAULT CURRENT AVAILABLE)
B FEEDER WITH 100 kW GENERATOR
C FEEDER WITH 1000 kW GENERATOR
D FEEDER WITH 2000 kW GENERATOR
Figure 5C2. 0.4
Short-circuit current contributions during faults for a D
utility alone, and for utility with DSG.

Investigators have made analyses to determine the additional z

0
energy a fuse on the distribution system would experience ~ 0.2
due to the dispersed sources (Reference 1). Instead of using
the traditional time-current characteristic (TCC) approach, 9b
they used the amount of energy accumulated in the fuse for :::>
11:0.1
a given time - the reason being the wide variation in current
contributions of the rotating machines during the first cycles. ~
This energy, often expressed as I2t, is mathematically I2t = J' i2dt.
50 100 1150 ::!IX
TIME FROM INStt.NT ~ FHll ('Dims;

Figure 7C2.
I2t for three-phase fautts on three sizes ol SJ!Ddllr1011101L11S
machines and with available fault cwreRI: af12SO
amperes.

257
C. Special System Considerations
2. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION (Continued)

The fuse I2t characteristic is nearly constant for the time
period considered; melting time is determined from the inter-
section of the fuse I2t withstand curve and the current I2t
curve. As can be seen, nuisance fuse blowing is likely to
occur on feeders with 1000 kW of dispersed generation. The
1000 kW of generating capacity does not have to be
concentrated in one site but can be spread over the feeder.
If the generators are connected to the utility through a
grounded-wye/delta transformer (wye to utility), they would
contribute to a single-line-to-ground fault. This type of installation
affects the fuse melting time enormously, with the generator
contributing only a portion of the extra energy and the rest of
it coming from the transformer. It is likely that this transformer
will remain energized when the generator is out of service.
Figure 8C2 shows the I2t for a single-line-to-ground fault on
three sizes of synchronous generators connected through a
grounded-wye/delta transformer.
A. D FEEDER WITH 100 kW GENERATOR
B. E FEEDER WITH 1000 kW GENERATOR
C, F FEEDER WITH 2000 kW GENERATOR
A, B, C DISPERSED GENERATOR DE-ENERGIZED
AND TRANSFORMER ENERGIZED
D, E, F BOTH DISPERSED GENERATOR AND
TRANSFORMER ENERGIZED
2.5
~ 2.0
~ and react to it, the temporary fault will not be isolated and will
z 1.5
X
0
~
g 1.0
~
~
:::;)
~ 0.5
';;:
~
Figure 8C2.
J2t for a single-line-to-ground fault on three sizes of
synchronous machines.
PROTECTION CHOICES
The problem of nuisance fuse blowing can be solved by
properly coordinating the protective devices to take into
consideration the infeed caused by the generator. This can
be accomplished by changing fuse sizes or selecting a faster
recloser (or relay) setting for the initial trip operation. Also, the
total fault-current interrupting capability of the fuse should be
verified.
The utility should either be prepared to handle the grounding
transformer effect in its protection scheme or should avoid
the grounded-wye/delta connection for DSG (Reference 2).
Coordination and Reclosing Practices
Because most distribution-system faults are temporary, utilities
rely on automatic circuit reclosers or reclosing circuit breakers
to allow such faults to clear themselves and thus avoid
unnecessary isolation of the faulted portion from the rest of
the feeder. One of the requisites for this system to work is
that the feeder be radial, but of course the addition of DSG
devices to the distribution system makes it a loop system.
Failure to disconnect the DSG before the first utility reclosing
may result either in temporary faults not clearing because of
infeed from the DSG, or in damage to DSG devices and utility
equipment.
In normal utility practice, when there is a fault a protective
device opens and recloses two or three times so that the fault
will either clear itself or become isolated on a relatively small
portion of the system. To achieve this a combination of fast
and delayed curves is used on relay/ breaker combinations or
reclosers. For a temporary fault on the system shown in
Figure 9C2, the recloser will open on a fast curve to clear the
F fault, and if the DSG protective devices do not sense the fault
appear to be permanent. The recloser will then operate on a
E
delayed curve, allowing the fuse to blow.
PROTECTION CHOICES
The problem of generator infeed making a temporary fault
appear permanent can be solved by having a fast, reliable
method of detecting fault conditions at the utility/generator
interface, such as voltage sensing or current sensing. If
islanding is a possibility, the utility's reclosing scheme should
be modified in order to block reclosing when voltage is pres-
ent on the load side of the breaker.
The elapsed time between the first opening and the first
reclosing operation is usually between one-half and two sec-
onds. This time span should be enough if the DSG protective
devices are able to detect the fault and function properly. This
may not always be the case, however, and utility engineers
should make a judgment based on specific DSG characteristics,
including the number of dispersed facilities on a feeder, their
size and location and their protective equipment. It is recom-
mended that utilities using half-second intervals for the first
reclosing extend them on feeders with DSG devices.

RECLOSER
/
SOURCE GENERATOR
CONTRIBUTION CONTRIBUTION

Figure 9C2.
Short-circuit current contributions during temporary faults.

258

Islanding
"Islanding" is the ability of a DSG facility to provide power to
some loads after being isolated from the utility. A requisite for
islanding is that the DSG be capable of self-excitation, such
as with a synchronous generator or a self-commutated
inverter. Line-commutated inverters and induction machines
are not capable of self-excitation, although a power-factor
capacitor bank can provide the reactive power for excitation
of such equipment and support islanding at least for a short
period of time.
The utility must be concerned about the possible
consequences of islanding if there is a chance of its going
undetected by the protective devices. Personnel safety and
quality of service (voltage level and frequency) are the main
reasons for concern. Islanding alone is not a problem, pro-
vided the DSG facility is reconnected to the distribution system
only after utility service has been restored and synchronization
verified. Another concern is that reclosing of the utility breaker
may damage DSG devices.
PROTECTION CHOICES
The ideal protection scheme should have a communication
link between the utility relays and the DSG device to avoid
islanding: that is, when the utility substation switching device
is opened, the DSG will also be disconnected, even if the
DSG relays do not detect the islanding situation. In practice,
however, such communications equipment may not be feasi-
ble, and in lieu of it, voltage and frequency sensing are used
to detect islanding. When the generator output does not
match the load at the instant of isolation, both voltage and
frequency or speed, will vary significantly enough to warrant
isolation of the DSG in a short period of time.
In theory- and the argument can be made that it may happen
- there could be cases where neither voltage nor frequency
change fast enough to be reliably detected.
~~~--------------s-ea_u_e_Nr~-e-vo_l_~_G_e___
(A)
I= ·~ = 0.67 p.u.
· or
67%
(B)
Figure 1OC2.
Effect of zero-sequence YOftage on grounded-wyefdetta DSG transfoma' Ia*.
C2
Because of this possibility, to avoid damage !hat I1"'IIJl1 be
caused by closing out of phase, the utility shlOUid blo::X
reclosing if voltage is present on the load side of lhe ~
device.
Equipment Overload
DSG devices connected through delta/delta transforrr:ers
tend to force the unfaulted phase voltage to 1.73 per ll1il dLrirlg
single-line-to-ground faults. For this reason, some utii:tJies
require that the generator be connected through an ~~
grounded transformer.
There could be high zero-sequence currents present in the
grounded-wye/delta bank under normal loading if the gener-
ator and its transformer are small with respect to the capaci-
ty of the feeder. For example, Figure 1OC2(A) shows a bank
of three-percent-impedance distribution transformers and a
zero-sequence voltage of two percent at the transformer con-
nection point. As indicated in Figure 10C2(B), the circulating
current in the bank would be 67 percent of the transformer
rated current, which may result in overheating of the trans-
former when added to the transformer load current.
PROTECTION CHOICES
One way to solve the grounded-wye/delta transformer problem
is to use a grounding impedance as shown in Figure 1OC2(C).
This impedance will look high to the system for faults but low
from the generator. The reactance of this device should be
such that the Xo to X1 ratio at the high-voltage terminals of
the generator transformer is at least 3.0 with the generator
and transformer isolated from the distribution system. The
single-line-to-ground fault-current contribution from the DSG
with the grounding impedance will be almost the same as
when the transformer is connected delta/delta.
2%ZERO
. . I,..3.
b.
DSG
259
C. Special System Considerations
2. PRCJTECTION O F SYSTEMS WITH DISPERSED STORAGE AND GENERATION (Contrnued)
Resonant Overvoltages
Another DSG effect of concern to the utility is resonant over-
voltages resulting from the isolation of a synchronous generator
with some capacitance (power-factor capacitors or line
capacitance) during a single-line-to-ground fault. The circuit
in Figure 11 C2 shows a situation in which resonance can be
developed between the generator impedance and the capac-
itor bank. If the voltage is allowed to rise unconstrained, it will
result in insulation damage.
UTILITY
~~
T tive in achieving that goal. Also, the regulator is subjected to
DSG
Figure 11C2.
Circuit condition conductive to resonance during a
slngl&-lin&-to-ground fault.
PROTECTION CHOICES
Some investigators (Reference 1) have found that conven-
tional sensing is not fast enough to avoid equipment damage in
the situation just described, and that surge arresters are needed
to protect against resonant over-voltages. They recommend
arrester protection on both primary and secondary sides,
with arresters sized to absorb the energy in the circuit for as
much as ten cycles. Small generators may be adequately
protected with distribution-class arresters. However, because
of the energy requirements, generators 100 kW and above
may require station-class arresters.
Harmonics
DSG devices are sometimes connected to the utility system
through solid-state power converters, whose characteristics
are such that they result in substantial harmonics on the utility
side. Harmonic currents flowing in the system cause voltage
drops that distort the 60 Hz line voltage, and the magnitude
of these currents is largely influenced by the frequency char-
acteristics of the feeder.
Harmonic current magnification also may occur as a result
of resonance when small capacitor banks are placed on DSG
devices. For this reason, the utility must be cautious before
requiring power-factor correction to DSGs that are large VAR
consumers, unless harmonic filters are part of the power-
factor correction scheme.
PROTECTION CHOICES
A simple harmonic filter is a series resonant combination of an
inductor and a capacitor tuned at a particular frequency. One
of the problems with the application of filters is that they not
only absorb the harmonic current from the nearby source but
also from other parts of the distribution system. Therefore, filter
design should be carefully tailored to the particular DSG
installation.
Regardless of the source of harmonics, a single suppres-
sion scheme is difficult to design for distribution feeders
260
because of all the possible loading conditions. For a better
understanding of this highly complex subject, please refer to
the discussion of harmonics under "Overvoltages of System
Origin" in Section 81.
Fluctuating Generation
Another problem that may be experienced on distribution
systems with a large penetration of DSG devices is fluctuating
generation, such as that produced by wind generators during
gusting conditions and by photovoltaic devices due to clouds.
The circuit used in a studied case involving fluctuating gen-
eration at a wind farm (Reference 1) is shown in Figure 12C2.
Here a voltage regulator is connected at the feeder midpoint
to keep the voltage at the end of the feeder relatively con-
stant, but investigation revealed that the regulator is ineffec-
an excessive number of operations in a short period of time,
resulting in maintenance problems.
I~-~- u>-------11!;----f
Figure 12C2.
Gusting at a wind generation facility may cause
fluctuation in gereration output.
PROTECTION CHOICES
The ideal - but not necessarily the most practical - solution
to this problem is an automated system that will detect the
undesirable conditions and either limit the maximum output
of the DSG until the fluctuations cease or disconnect the DSG.
In lieu of this, the solution is to use a dedicated feeder for the
wind farm. Since the main distribution system is inherently
stiff enough to resist the fluctuations, only the loads on the
feeder itself will be affected.
FOUR PRINCIPAL RULES FOR DSG PROTECTION
While some specific problems will obviously require special
consideration, the main requirements for adequate protection
of distribution systems with DSG facilities can be summarized
in these four rules:
1. Do not use single-phase interrupting devices between a
three-phase generator and the utility transformer.
2. Locate interrupting devices between the DSG and feeder
capacitor banks to minimize concerns regarding reso-
nance and self-excitation of induction generators.
3. Recoordinate branch fuses with upline reclosers if the total
DSG generating capacity on a feeder exceeds 1000 kW.
4. Check for harmonic distortion if the DSG is a lin~ommutated
inverter. Power-factor-correction capacitors may be needed
and may be applied in conjunction with a harmonic filter.
This somewhat simplified summary presupposes that the
interconnection requirements and transformer recommendations
discussed above have been satisfied.

3. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH
AUTOMATED DISTRIBUTION
In relating automation to system protection, the area of
concern is overcurrent protection, since surge arresters, the
principal means of achieving overvoltage protection, are
essentially passive devices that function only in response to
excessive voltage and therefore cannot themselves be
subjected to controls. The overcurrent devices of interest
include all types of switchgear, such as breakers, reclosers,
sectionalizers, and switches. Fusing equipment, on the other
hand, is not applicable to automated systems because of the
manual attention it requires.
ADAPTABILITY OF PRESENT-DAY SWITCHGEAR
Since the focus here is on distribution-system protection, we
will not discuss such aspects of automation as master controls
and methods of communication (radio, powerline carrier, ripple,
telephone, etc.). These do not affect the basic principles of
distribution protection, which apply regardless of the degree
or method of automation. The switchgear devices discussed
in Section A as well as other switching devices can all be
used, with presumably enhanced effectiveness as a result of
properly designed automation.
As the component that actually does the work of fault inter-
ruption and isolation in overcurrent protection, switch-gear
plays an important role in automated systems. Conventional
switchgear is readily adaptable to automation, because the
requirements generally involve a capability most of these
devices already contain: that of being remotely tripped and
closed. However with control equipment becoming more ver-
satile to satisfy increasingly more complex system operating
requirements, it is obvious that switchgear capabilities must
also expand. To fully utilize present and future control equip-
ment, switchgear is being called upon to provide more than
basic remote trip-and-close operations.
For example, recently Introduced microprocessor controls
for reclosers and other switchgear are capable of performing
a variety of arithmetic, logic, and timing functions. Dispersed
throughout a system with communication to and from a sub-
station master computer, such controls, utilizing system soft-
ware in concert with similar controls on voltage regulators
and capacitor banks, can help provide a readily modified and
expandable system with a high degree of automation.
Section C
SPECIAL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS
LOADBREAK SWITCH FOR AUTOMATED
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Regardless of the specifics of system design, most switching
operations on automated systems are generally for the purpose
of achieving fault isolation or circuit reconfiguration. Tests and
experimental installations of systems using automated
switchgear control have shown a common need for line current
information (fault presence), often during the absence of aux-
iliary power. One switchgear device that has been developed
in response to this need is the McGraw-Edison Type F loadbreak
switch. It is discussed below to demonstrate how a specially
designed device can be blended with conventional fault-
protection operations to provide effective system operation
under supervisory or automated control.
The three-phase, gang-operated, loadbreak switch -
designed for operation on supervisory-controlled or automated
distribution systems - is shown in Figure 1C3. It employs
vacuum interruption, with the three-pole interrupter structure
enclosed in an oil-filled tank and coupled to a stored-energy
spring operating mechanism. Electrical ratings are listed in
Table 1C3.
Two salient features equip this device to provide the
switching operations needed on an automated distribution
feeder:
• A fault-sensing-and-indicating system permits the system
control to recognize the passage of fault-level current.
• Energy stored for multiple switching operations pennits
tripping and closing without the presence of auxiliary
power.
TABLE 1C3
Ratings of Loadbreak Switch for Automated Distribution
Systems
Nominal Voltage ........... . ..... . ........34.5 kV
Rated Maximum Voltage ............. . ... . .38.0 kV
Continuous Current .. . ..... . ...............600 A
Loadbreak Current ........ . ...............600 A
Momentary Current, Asymmetrical (RMS) ... 25000 A
Masking Current, Asymmetrical (RMS) ..... 25000 A
F"lgUJ"8 1C3.
I...Lwb .... ..-ell tar ""'• A 11 on aubr rte dl distriM.Jtion
systems.
261
C. Special System Considerations
3. PROTECTION OF SYSTEMS WITH AUTOMATED DISTRIBUTION (Continued)

Application with Reclosers

Using switches with fault-indication capability along with
fault-interrupting reclosers, an automated radial feeder can
function as follows for rapid fault isolation and to minimize the
extent of the outage:
F
1. During normal operating conditions, all reclosers, section-
alizers, and switches are closed and are sensing line )(
current (Figure 2C3).

Figure 5C3.
System control commands switch 81 to open and
recloser B to close.

With this method of operation, utilizing fault-sensing load-

break switches in conjunction with reclosers, service is
restored to the unfaulted sections in minutes - perhaps
Figure2C3. seconds - rather than the longer time required to travel to the
Radial feeder with all reclosers and switches closed. area, locate the fault, and then open the proper switch.

CONVERSION TO AUTOMATION BLENDS

2. When a persistent fault occurs at F, recloser B operates to OLDANDNEW
lockout, clearing the fault (Figure 3C3).
As the example just cited illustrates, extending sophisticated
controls - or even full automation - to distribution systems
does not involve wholesale replacement of existing switchgear.
Special equipment can be applied with great effectiveness in
conjunction with conventional reclosers and breakers. The
F three-phase loadbreak switch and other devices with charac-
teristics and capabilities particularly suited to automated sys-
tems are available and will be further expanded as needs are
identified and addressed. This is an extremely dynamic subject
Figure 3C3. that requires up-to-the-minute examination of information
Fault occurs at F and is cleared by recloser B. from reliable industry sources.
One area receiving considerable attention is the use of
3. Feeder control recognizes that recloser B is open and microprocessor controls with existing breakers, reclosers,
interrogates switch 81 (Figure 4C3). sectionalizers, and switches. The controls need not necessarily
be limited to protection-related functions, but rather - along
with similar controls at voltage regulators, capacitor banks,
etc.- can serve as components in a data-acquisition complex
that generates the information needed for automated control
of all aspects of power distribution, based on continuous
F
monitoring of conditions throughout the system.
It must be remembered, however, that the basic principles
of overcurrent protection, including all the requirements for
SYSTEM INTERROGATES YES
SWITCHB1 ~.;;;.;....-.._. coordinating protection devices installed in series, still apply.
Please refer to the appropriate subjects in Section A.
Figure 4C3.
Fault indicator in switch 81 responds to system
interrogation.

4. Because switch 81 indicates a fault, control recognizes

that the fault must lie beyond switch B 1, and opens B 1 to
remove the faulted portion from the feeder (Figure 5C3).
Recloser B is then closed to restore service up to 81.

262
 C1, C2, C3

Index of Figures and Tables

FIGURE Page
Effects of Industrial Loads
1C1 Typical protection scheme for utility feeder and industrial plant ................. .. ......................249
Protection of Systems with Dispersed Storage and Generation
1C2 Utility distribution system with DSG ... ... . ...... . .. . . ... ... ................ . . .. .. .... .... . ...... .253
2C2 Minimum protection scheme for a distribution system with DSG .. . ..... . ........... . .................. .255
3C2 Typical DSG protection scheme for a medium-size generator . ... . ..... ... . . .. .. .. .......... ...... . .. . .255
4C2 Typical DSG protection requirements for a large generation facility . ..... .. . ......... . .... . .......... . ... 256
5C2 Short-circuit current contributions during faults for a utility alone, and for utility with DSG .... . ...... . ........257
6C2 I2t for three-phase faults on three sizes of synchronous machines and with
available fault current of 2500 amperes . . ........................................ . .............. 257
7C2 I2t for three-phase faults on three sizes of synchronous machines and with
available fault current of 1250 amperes . . . .. ......... . .. . .... . . .. ..... . . . ... .. ... . ........ . .....257
8C2 I2t for a single-line-to-ground fault on three sizes of synchronous machines ...............................258
9C2 Short-circuit current contributions during temporary faults ...... . ...... . ..... ............. .............258
10C2 Effect of zero-sequence voltage on grounded-wye/delta DSG transformer bank . .. . .. . ..... . . ..... . ........259
11C2 Circuit conditions conducive to resonance during a single line-to-ground fault .. . ... . .... ..... .......... ...260
12C2 Gusting at a wind generation facility may cause fluctuation in generation output ................ ....... ....260
Protection of Systems with Automated Distribution
1C3 Loadbreak switch for automated distribution-system application .... .. . .................................261
2C3 Radial feeder with all reclosers and switches closed . ... .. ... . ..... . . . ...... . .... ... . ... . . .. . . ... .. . .262
3C3 Fault occurs at F and is cleared by recloser 8 ......... . ........................................ ....262
4C3 Fault indicator in switch 81 responds to system interrogation ......................... .. .. . . . ..........262
5C3 System control commands switch 81 to open and recloser B to close . . . . . . . . . ..........................262
TABLE Page
Effects of Industrial Loads
1C1 Electric service deviation tolerances for load-and-control equipment .............. . .. . . . ........ ....... 250
2C1 Electric power-system disturbances .................................. . .... .... .. ..... . ... . .. •.•• 251
3C1 Restoration of service after loss of voltage ....................................... .. ...... ...••.••• 252
Protection of Systems with Dispersed Storage and Generation
1C2 Utility requirements for connection of DSG to distribution system ........................ •.•••• ____ ••• - .254
2C2 Recommended protective relay functions for DSG installations ................... . .. . . .. _••••• ____ •• _• .254
3C2 Standard device or relay identifications ......... .. ......................... .... ...••••••••••••••• .255
Protection of Systems with Automated Distribution
1C3 Ratings of loadbreak switch for automated distribution systems ..... .......... . . .•. _•• __ •••••••••• _••• .261

263
 REFERENCES AND CREDITS
To identify sources indicated by reference numbers in the
text, please refer to the corresponding number under the
appropriate section heading below. The list also includes
material that has provided background and guidance in the
Section A: Overcurrent Protection
1. Edith Clarke, Circuit Analysis of AC Power
Systems, Vol. I, John Wiley and Sons,
NewYork, 1943.
2. Edith Clarke, Circuit Analysis of AC Power
Systems, Vol. II, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1950.
3. C. F. Wagner and R. D. Evans,
Symmetrical Components, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, 1933.
4. W. D. Stevenson, Jr., Elements of Power
System Analysis, Fourth Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1982.
5. Electrical Transmission and Distribution
Reference Book, Westin~ house Electric
Corporation, Fourth Edit1on, 1964; Eighth
Printing.
6. R. A. Wylie, G. G. Auer, and R. C. Ender,
"Digital Calculation of Sequence
Impedances and Fault Currents for Radial
Primary Distribution Circuits," AlEE
Transactions, Part Ill: Power Apparatus
and Systems, Vol. 79, February 1961,
Pages 1264-1277.
7. Edison Electric Institute and the Bell
Telephone System, Engineering Reports
of the Joint Subcommittee on
Development and Research, Vol. II,
Report No. 14.
8. Edison Electric Institute and the Bell
Telephone System, Engineering Reports
of the Joint Subcommittee on
Development and Research, Vol. IV,
Report No. 37.
9. Rome Cable UD Technical Manual, Third
Edition, Rome Cable Co.
10. IEEE Power Group, Conference Record
(69C1-PWR) and Conference Record
Supplement (6901-PWR) for the Special
Technical Conference on Underground
Distribution, Anaheim, California, May
12-16, 1969.
11. S. Ramo and J. R. Whinnery, Fields and
Waves in Modem Radio, Second Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1953.
12. L. F Blume, G. Camilli, A. Boyajian, and
V. M. Montsinger, Transforrnsr Engineering,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1938.
13. Edison Electric Institute and the Bell
Telephone System, Engineering Reports
of the Joint Subcommittee on
Development and Research, Vol. IV,
Report No. 39.
14. IEEE Committee Report, "Application of
Protective Relays and Devices to
Distribution Circuits;• IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems,
October 1964, Pages 1034-1 042.
15. Rural Electrification Administration bulletin
61-2, Guide for MakiflfJ a Sectionalizing
Study on Rural Electric Systems, March
1958.
16. E. A. Guillemin, Introductory Circuit
Theory, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1953.
17. C. R. Clinkenbeard, "Asymmetry," Part I,
The Line, McGraw-Edison Power Systems,
First Quarter 1971; Part II, The Line,
Second Quarter 1971.
18. E. T. B. Gross and R. L. Kuntzendorf,
"Current Asymmetry in Resistance-
Reactance Circuits," AlEE Transactions,
264
preparation of this manual but which has not been formally
linked by number to specific portions of the text. References
fully acknowledged at the time of usage are not included.
Part Ill, Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. 79, December 1960, Pages 897-900.
19. E. T. Gross and B. Thapar, "Current
Asymmetry in Resistance-Reactance
Circuits - II;' AlEE Transactions, Part Ill,
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 80,
December 1961, Pages 800-803.
20. American National Standards Institute,
037.04-1964, Rating Structure for AC
High-Voltage Circuit Breakers.
21. American National Standards Institute,
037.60-1968, Requirements for
Automatic Circuit Reclosers for
Alternating Current Systems, and
C37.60a-i971 supplement to above.
22. W. A. Lewis and P D. Tuttle, "The
Resistance and Reactance of Aluminum
Conductors, Steel Reinforced;' AlEE
Transactions, Part Ill, Power Apparatus
and Systems, Vol. 77, Pages 1189-1215.
23. D. R. Smith and J. L. Barger, "Impedance
and Circulating Current Calculations for
UD Multiwire Concentric Neutral Circuits;•
IEEE Conference Record of 1971
Conference on Underground Distribution,
September 27 October 1, 1971,
Detroit, Michigan, Pages 130-138.
24. ANSI/IEEE Standard 141-1986,
Recommended Practice for Electric
Power Distribution for Industrial Plants
(IEEE Red Book).
25. "Application and Coordination of
Reclosers, Sectionalizers, and Fusas,"
IEEE Tutorial Course, Publication No.
80EH0157-8-PWR.
Section B. Overvoltage Protection
1. K. Berger, "Lightning-Current Parameters
of Upward Strokes Measured at Monte
San Salvatore," Lugano, C. E.
Transaction 7358, from Bulletin SEVNSE
69, Pages 353-359, April 1978.
2. K. Berger, R. B. Anderson, and H.
Kroninger, "Parameters of Lightning
Flashes," Electra No. 41, July 1975, Pages
23-27.
3. M. A. Sargent, "The Frequency
Distribution of Current Magnitudes of
Lightning Strokes to Tall Structures;•
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
and Systems, Volume PAS 91,
July/August 1972, Pages 2224-2229.
4. Electrical Transmission and Distribution
Reference Book, Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, Fourth Edition, 1964; Eighth
Printing.
5. H. R. Armstrong, H. 0. Stoelting, and E. F.
Veverka, "Impulse Studies on Distribution
Line Construction," IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-
86, No.2, February 1967, Pages 206-
214.
6. M. Darveniza, G. T Umbourn, and S. A.
Prentice, "Line Desi~n and Electrical
Properties of Wood, IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.
PAS-86, No. 11, November 1967, Pages
1344-1967.
7. R. E. Owen and C. R. Clinkenbeard,
"Surge Protection of UD Cable Systems,
Part I: Cable Attenuation and Protection
Restraints," IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Volume PAS 97,
Pages 1319-1327, July/August 1978.
8. S. S. Kershaw, G. I. Gaibrois, and K. B.
Stump, "Applying Metal-Oxide Surge
Arresters on Distribution Systems."
Presented at IEEE-PES Winter Power
Meeting 88 WM 032-5, New York, NY,
1988; accepted for IEEE Transactions.
9. American National Standards Institute,
062.2-1981, Guide for the Application of
lhllve- Type Surge Arresters for
Alternating-Current Systems.
10. Electrical Distribution Systems
Engineering Handbook, Ebasco
Services, Inc., Electrical World Magazine,
McGraw-Hill Publications Co., New York
(Vol. 3, Chapter 12, Section E656, Page
312).
11. "Investigations and Evaluation of
Lightnin~ Protective Methods for
Distribution Circuits, Part 1: Model Study
and Analysis;• Task Force Report, IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, August 1969.
12. "Investigations and Evaluation of
Lightnin~ Protective Methods for
Distribution Circuits, Part II: Application
and Evaluation," Task Force Report,
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
and Systems, August 1969.
13. "Surge Protection of Cable-Connected
Distribution Equipment on Underground
Systems;• IEEE Transactions, Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-89,
No.2, February 1970.
14. R. C. Dugan, S. S. Kershaw, and S. D.
Smith, "Protecting Distribution
Transformers from Low-Side Current
Surges." Presented at IEEE/PES
Transmission and Distribution
Conference 89 TD 401-1, New
Orleans, LA, April 1989; accepted for
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery.
Section c. Special System
Considerations
1. R. C. Dugan, "Protection of Electric
Distribution Systems with Dispersed
Storage and Generation (DSG) and
Devices," ORNUCon-123, September
1983.
2. H. B-L Lee, S. E. Chase, and R. C.
Dugan, "Overvoltage Considerations for
Interconnecting Dispersed Generators
with Wve-Grounded Distribution Feeder,"
IEEE transactions on Power Apparatus
and Systems, December 1984, Pages
3587-3594.
3. D.A. Gonzalez, 'Electrical Distribution
Protection Problems with the
Interconnection of Small Dispersed
Generation Devices." Presented at the
Pennsylvania Electric Association Fall
Conference, Hershey, PA, September 16,
1986.