Index

Sl. Subject
No.
1. Terminology
2. Recycling of farm wastes
3. Preparation of vermi compost
4. Study of cropping scheme
5. Preparation of cropping scheme for dry land situations
6. Preparation of cropping scheme for irrigated situations
7. Integrated farming system
8. 8 study of degraded lands

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EX. 1 TERMINOLOGY Date :

1 Arable farming : Land is tilled with a view to raise crops OR

farming system that involves the production
of crops requiring tillage.
2 Crop rotation : It is the repetitive cultivation of ordered
successions of crops (or crops & fallow) on
the same land. One cycle often takes
several seasons or years to complete.
3 Cropping pattern : Proportion of area under various crops at a
point of time in a unit area OR Yearly
sequence and spatial arrangements of crops
and fallow, on a given area.
4 Cropping Scheme : A plan according to which crops are raised
on individual plots of a farm with an object of
getting the maximum returns from each crop
without impairing the fertility of the soil is
known as cropping scheme.
5 Cropping system : Order in which the crops are cultivated on a
piece of land over a fixed period and their
interaction with farm resources and other
farm enterprises and available technology
which determine their make-up.
6 Cropping intensity : It is the ratio between total cropped area and
actual net cultivated area expressed in
percentage.
Total cropped area in a year
C.I. = ----------------------------------- X 100
Net cultivated area
It does not consider the length of growing
periods in crops.
7 Diversified farming : A farm on which no single product or source
of income equals as much as 50% of the
total receipt and on such farm the farmer
depends on several sources of income.
8 Enterprise : Any farm activity for which a separate
economic analysis is feasible and
meaningful, e.g. a single crop, a crop
mixture, the raising of animals, etc.

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9 Dry farming : The practice of crop production entirely with
rain water received during the crop season
or on conserved soil moisture in low rainfall
(< 800 mm) areas of arid and semi-arid
climate and the crops may face mild to very
severe moisture stress during their life-cycle.
10 Double cropping : Growing two crops per year in sequence.
11 Farming system : Entire complex of development,
management and allocation of resources as
well as decisions and activities which, within
an operational farm unit or combination of
units, results in agricultural production and
the processing and marketing of the
products.
12 Inter cropping : It refers to growing of two or more generally
dissimilar crops simultaneously on the same
piece of land, base crop necessarily in
distinct row arrangement.
13 Irrigated farming : It is most successful, valuable and desirable
kind of farming which requires judicious and
sound cropping scheme and efficient
management.
14 Mixed cropping : Growing of two or more crops
simultaneously on the same piece of land
without any definite row arrangement.
15 Mixed farming : It is a type of farming under which crop
production is combined with live-stock
raising.
16 Mono cropping : A cropping system in which the same crop is
(mono culture) grown year after year in the same field.
17 Multiple cropping : Growing two or more crops consecutively on
the same field in the same year.
18 Specialized farming : A farm on which a single source contributes
50% or more of the total production or
monetary receipt (comparable equivalent) in
one year.
19 Ratoon cropping : The cultivation of an additional crop form the
re-growth of stubbles of previous main crop

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 after its harvest, thereby avoiding reseeding
or replanting such as in sugarcane, sorghum
fodder grasses etc.
20 Relay cropping : Seeding or planting of succeeding crop after
flowering and before the harvest of the
standing crop. It is analogous to a relay race
where one crop hands over the land to the
next crop in quick succession.
21 Sequential cropping : Growing two or more crops in sequence on
same field per year. The succeeding crop is
planted after the preceding crop has been
harvested.
22 Sole cropping: : A crop grown in pure stand at optimum
population (spacing).
23 Ranch farming : Live-stock grazes the natural vegetation.
Ranch land is not utilized by tilling or raising
crops.
24 Strip cropping : Growing soil- conserving and soil-depleting
crops in alternate strips running
perpendicular to the slope of the land or to
the direction of prevailing winds for the
purpose of reducing erosion.
25 Strip intercropping : Growing two or more crops simultaneously
in different strips wide enough to permit
independent cultivation but narrow enough
for the crop to interact agronomically.
26 Sustainable : Sustainable agriculture is the use of farming
Agriculture systems and practices which maintain or
enhance the economic viability of agricultural
production; the natural resource base; and
other ecosystems which are influenced by
agricultural activities

Teacher’s Signature : ____________

-$-$-$-

4
Ex. 2 RECYCLING OF FARM WASTES Date :

Farm wastes can now be considered to include cattle-shed wastes such

as cattle and buffalo dung and urine, other livestock and human excreta, crop
wastes of cereals, pulses and oilseeds. Stalk of corn, cotton, tobacco,
sugarcane trash and agro-industries by products such as oil-cakes, paddy
husk and bran, bagasse, press mud, fruit and vegetables wastes etc.

Estimates of agricultural waste availability suggest that the average

value for crop wastes is 350 mt and that of animal wastes it is 650 Mt. hence
around 1000 mt of agricultural wastes are available in the country. Recycling
of wastes in agriculture brings in the much needed organic and mineral matter
to the soils. Since most recyclable wastes are organic, they directly add
organic matter and the plant nutrients contained in it. Now a day more efficient
and versatile recycling processes and technologies have become available
which if applied on the required scale can bring recyclable wastes in to the
main stream of farm input management strategies.

Benefits of proper recycling:

1. Provides a cost effective means of supplying organic matter and

essential plant nutrients
2. Improving soil physical, chemical & biological properties
3. Reducing their accumulation at or near the sites of production
4. Reducing health hazards
5. Providing employment and income to many
6. Enhancing environment quality which includes the quality of human life,
not just water, fish and tree
7. Illustrates in a positive and solid manner that man is not just a waste
generator but also its wise utilizer / manager.

Significance of Recycling:
Each year substantial quantity of plant nutrients are removed from soil
by crop harvesting. In India, for example, the harvested crops have been
removing 9-10 million tonnes more N, P 2O5 and K2O every year than the total
additions through fertilizers. Thus, the balance of nutrients has to be met
through organic sources. In this context recycling of organic wastes /by

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products becomes vital for returning back at least a part of plant nutrients
drawn from soil for maintaining humus and the soil productivity.
Methods of recycling of farm wastes:
1. Incorporation (ploughed in the soil)
2. Burring
3. Surface mulching
4. Composting

1. Incorporation :
Incorporation of maize, rice, sorghum and wheat straw in soil during the
preceding kharif season has beneficial effect was found on physical, chemical
and biological properties of soil. Farm wastes of different sorts can be
ploughed in the soil (0-20 cm layer). The adoption of mechanized farming in
many advanced country has resulted in living a sizable amount of crop
straw/stalk in field after harvesting. In mechanized harvesting by use of
combine nearly 50 per cent of residues are left in the field. After harvesting of
cotton, Sugarcane, sorghum etc. use of rotavator implements directly adding
small peace of crop residues in the soil.

2. Burning :
Large quantity of cotton, pigeon pea, castor stalk and sugarcane trash
are available and many farmers presently burn them in the field. It is not
advisable practices. Burning increases the losses of N, C, S and possibly
some other nutrients due to volatilization and results in unfavorable soil
condition. Burning releases Ca, Mg, and K from residues but increases the
potential loss due to leaching and erosion.

3. Surface mulching :
This is a unique and simple method particularly for recycling. Although
decomposition of mulch is a slow process, its biomass and C/N ratio during
the course of one crop season is appreciably reduced and this facilities its
incorporation in next season at a low cost. The experiments have shown that
straw mulch have beneficial effect on moisture conservation, erosion control,
weed control, on fluctuation of temperature, population of beneficial soil micro
flora which ultimately result in increased yield of crops.
4. Composting :
Compost is the stabilized and sanitized product of composting which is
beneficial to plant growth. It is estimated that the organic waste available in

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India can supply about 7.1, 3.0 and 7.6 million tonnes of N, P 2O5 and K2O,
respectively. These organics therefore, need to be recycled and put to
productive use. In view f these facts greater attention is being paid in
developing composting technology.

Table : Nutrient value of different crop residues

S. Crop residue Nutrient content (%)
N. N P2O5 K 2O
1 Rice 0.61 0.18 1.38
2 Wheat 0.48 0.16 1.18
3 Sorghum 0.52 0.23 1.34
4 Maize 0.52 0.18 1.35
5 Pearl millet 0.45 0.16 1.14
6 Barley 0.52 0.18 1.30
7 Finger millet 1.00 0.20 1.00
8 Sugarcane 0.40 0.18 1.28
9 Lantana 2.50 0.25 1.40

Principles of composting :

Compost making includes three important and vital scientific principles viz;
(1) The narrowing down of the carbon: nitrogen ratio to a satisfactory level
(10:1 or 12:1),
(2) The total destruction of harmful pathogens and weed seeds ensured by
high temperature evolved during decomposition
(3) Stabilization.

Essential requirements for composting :

1. Bulky organic refuse such as stubbles, cotton stalk, tur stalks,

groundnut shells, weeds, leaves, dust bin refuse, etc.
2. A suitable starter: Cattle dung, urine, night soil, sewage, urea, rock
phosphate or any other readily available nitrogenous substance. The
mixture should contain 1 to 1.25 % N on dry weight basis (i.e., C:N-
30:1). Microbial cultures also hasten decomposition process.
3. Addition of enough water to keep the moisture content of the material at
a level around 50 per cent.

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 4. Presence of sufficient supply of air, especially in the initial stages of
decomposition.
Methods of composting :
Although utilizing crop wastes in crop production is know from the
earliest times, systematic work on composting was initiated only in the
beginning of this century. In India, Howard and wad (1931) at Indore and
Fowler (1933) at Bangalore have done some pioneering work. Composting is
done either in aerobic condition or in anaerobic condition. Some methods
involve both conditions. The advantage of aerobic system is that it is fast but it
requires moistening and frequent turning.

i. Indore method :
Waste materials are mixed well and properly moistened with dung or
night soil slurry and built up in to heaps of 4 to 6m length, 1m width and 1m
height or put in to a pit of 30’ x 5’x3’ with sloping sides. In the later method
charging of a 30 pit is done in sections of 5’ with first section being vacant to
facilitate mixing. Periodical turnings are given to aerate and mix materials.
Water is added if needed. Under this aerobic process losses of organic matter
and nitrogen are to the extent of 40 to 50% of the initial levels. The average
composition of manure has been found to be 0.8% N, 0.3% P2O5 and 1.5 K2O.

ii. Windrow method :

Karnataka Compost Development Corporation Ltd., Bangalore
established in 1975-76 developed a system of composting of city garbage
(Venkatachalaiah, 1996). From the garbage plastics, glass, rubber and debris
are separated. The heaps are arranged as windrows and under aerobic
decomposition ‘BIOAGRO’ compost is produced (with compositions 0.5 to
0.9% NPK). Neem cake, rock phosphate and gypsum are also added in small
quantities to produce ‘BIOAGRORICH’ compost.

iii. NADEP compost :

It was developed by Narayan Deo Rao Panthary Pande of Pusad village
in Maharashtra. Farm wastes are mixed with 30 times dung slurry and clay
soil for composting. It is similar to hip method of composting but is done in
brick lined enclosures (10-15’ x 4’x3’) provided with air holes on all sides.
Compos is ready within 4 to 6 months. The disadvantage is the requirement of
large proportion of soil which at times difficulties to get it is also opinioned that

8
the quality of compost becomes poor. Moreover, it involves lot of labour and
materials in building the tanks.

iv. Coimbtore method of composting :

In pits 4m x 2m x 1m residue are filled to a thickness of about 15cm in
the pit uniformly (Ramaswami, 1997). Over this layer, cow dung slurry is
sprinkled to a thickness of about 5cm. Above this layer bone meal/rock
phosphate at the rate of 1 kg is spread. This process of residue, cow dung
slurry and bone meal is spread. This process of residue, cow dung slurry and
bone meal is repeated till the height reaches 0.5m above the ground level.
Then the material is covered with mud plaster to prevent entry of rain water.
After 4-5 weeks, the material is turned and aerobic process is allowed. The
compost will be ready within five months. Application of cow dung slurry
enhances the rate of biodegradation. The application of bone meal/rock
phosphate helps to cover the N loss from composting pit and at the same time
adds P to composting material. The losses of N could be reduced to about
40% by incorporation of mussorie rock phosphate @ 10% of compostable
material (Kapoor et. al., 1996).

v. Bangalore process :
Acharya C.N.(1939) has developed a method for composting of town
refuse and night soil in pits. It involves heat fermentation which helps in
effective disposal of offensive wastes. The refuse and night soil are spread in
alternate layers of 15 cm and 5 cm until the pit is filled 30 cm above ground
level. Each layer of night soil should be immediately covered over with refuse
and the top layer at the end of each day should be covered with thin layer of
earth (5 cm). The initial decomposition is aerobic for a period of 2-3 weeks.
During this initial aerobic decomposition, a high temperature (60-50o C) is
attained which helps to destroy harmful pathogens, fly maggots, weed seeds
and also completely removes disagreeable odours. Then the entire mass is
pressed down and mud plastered. After this the decomposition proceeds on
anaerobic lines and the manure becomes ready in 5-6 months.

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Recent development in composting :
i. Japanese method of composting :
In this method instead of pits composting is carried out in a enclosure of
18’-30’ x 3’-4’ x 2.5-3.0’ (height) above the ground. The structure may be of
granite slabs or any other locally available material. The bottom of the
structure is sealed to avoid drainage loss of nutrients. That apart, the method
facilitates easy turning of the materials and avoids temperature exceeding 65-
70oC (Shivashankar, 1996).
The organic wastes are spread in the enclosure layer by layer leaving
about 2’ at one side of the structure to facilitate turning.
The bottom layer should be of hard materials viz., coconut shells,
leaves, fibrous material, tender tree barks or pieces of wood, ash, etc. The
height should be 10-15 cm.
The next layer (10-15 cm) should be of dried leaves, grasses, residues,
groundnut haulms etc. These two layers being hard and dry absorb moisture
and nutrients leached from the top. Over this layer spread cow dung urine and
biogas slurry singly or mixed. A small quantity of soil and ash can also be
spread over this layer.
In the third layer, Dhaincha, Sasbenia and crop residues rich in nitrogen
are added to about 10-15 cm thickness.
The fourth layer should contain organic wastes rich in phosphorus
(roots of green manures, Acalypha, rock phosphate, etc.) and potash
(Calatropis, Datura, weeds, residues of tomato and tobacco, ash, poultry
wastes, etc.). Over this layer of 10-15 cm spread two to three buckets of cow
dung and biogas slurry to wet the contents.
Carbon rich materials like straw, Stover, etc., can be cut in t pieces of 4-
5 cm and mixed with available green biomass. This forms the fifth layer.
The sixth layer should exclusively contain 20-30 cm of cow dung. Over
this old compost powder, tank silt or soil and ash in small quantity are to be
added.
During filling microbial cultures can be sprinkled on each layer. Care is
to be taken to maintain moisture around 65 per cent and temperature below
60oC. It is necessary to turn the sets after 15 days after filling for the first time
and at monthly interval thereafter. Addition of lime can hasten decomposing
hard materials. To enrich compost 50 to 100 kg of rock phosphate per 100 kg
of compost can be added along with some left over oilcakes during last turning
of the compost.

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ii. Synthetic compost :
Here the nitrogen requirement of microorganisms is partially or
completely met with addition of inorganic compounds like ammonium Sulphate
and urea. This is particularly useful in areas where organic source of N in the
farm of dung/urine is limiting. The basic principles of C/N ratio can be applied
in synthetic composting and nitrogenous fertilizers can be applied to reduce
the ratio to about 30-50% and then allowed to decompose. The material to be
composted in spread out in layers in a heap or pit and sufficiently moistened.
This is sprinkled with the fertilizer solution and Lime- superphosphate may be
added to fortify the phosphorus content of the manure. The manure becomes
ready for application in about to six months.
iii. Sugarcane trash composting :
Ramaswami (1977) from TNAU, Coimbatore, detailed the procedure as
follows. One ton of sugarcane trash is taken and chopped into pieces of size
8-10cm. It is to be divided into 10 lots each weighing 100 kg. Composting is
done on a raised shady place. First lot (weighing 100 kg) has to be spread
forming a rectangle of 5x3m. One bottle of Pleurotus sajor-caju spawn is to be
sprinkled uniformly on the bed. Watering is to be done to bring moisture
percentage to around 60% (50 L of water). Over this, the second layer of
another 100 kg of trash is to be spread. Sprinkle 1 kg urea uniformly over this
bed and follow it with watering. Over this, the third lot of 100kg of chopped
sugarcane trash has to be spread and one bottle of Trichoderma viride is to be
sprinkled followed by watering.
This type of Sandwiching is to be repeated until the entire lots were
utilized. On the top most layers, 250 kg of tank silt it to be spread in order to
give a compacting to the bed. Once in four days watering (100 l) of bed is to
be carried out. On 20th and 30th days of composting a complete turning along
with watering is to be done. Thus for composting 1 tonne of sugarcane trash,
3 spawn bottles of Pleurotus sajor-caju, 2 bottles of Trichoderma viiride and 5
kg of urea are required.
After four weeks a high quality compost having the NPK contents of
0.70, 0.25 and 0.70 per cents respectively could be obtained with an organic
carbon content of 17% and C:N ratio of 24. The volume reduction will be up to
50% and weight loss is by 27%. The cost-benefit ratio of this technique is 1.2
apart from safe disposal of sugarcane trash.
iv. Biodegradation of weeds :
Weeds like Ipomea, Water hyacinth, parthenium, cassia, etc. produce
large biomass and rob valuable nutrients from environment. Being rich in

11
nutrients these weeds serve as good biomass for composting. Water hyacinth
has 1.19% N, 0.12% P, 0.12% P, 0.36% K and 55.8% organic carbon. It can
act as a good amendment for conserving nitrogen in poultry manure, which is
present as uric acid that is readily hydrolyzed to NH3 and CO2 and lost through
volatilization, water hyacinth and poultry dropping are to be mixed in 1:2 ratio
(Sandhya Rani and Ramaswami, 1996). To this mixture add rock phosphate
along with composite culture of Trichoderma viride and Pleurotus sajor-caju.
The composting is done under aerobic condition under light cover of
polyethylene sheet for the first 30 days. Then the cover is removed and
composting is allowed under aerobic conditions with constant stirring of
compost and sprinkling of water. At the end of 60 th day high quality friable
compost having 2.42% N, 2% P and 1.3% K and 19.5% organic carbon with a
C:N ratio of 9.79 could be obtained.

Value addition in crop residues :

1. Crop residue is collected and made into bundles (of about 3-5 kg each,
based on convenience of dipping these lots in soaking solution) and tied
up in plastic net
2. 150-200 liters soaking solution is prepared by using Urea (0.3-0.5%),
Rock phosphate or Bone meal (1-2%), Oil cake (1%), Kitchen waste water
(1%), Vermiwash (1%), Activator fungus (@108 propagules /spores), N-
fixing Azotobacter (50 ml/kg with 107 cell/ml), P-solubiliser (50 ml/kg with
107 cell/ml), Gypsum (1%) and Pressmud (1%).

3. Bundles of crop residues are dipped in soaking solution for 30-45

minutes.

4. After soaking for 30-45 minutes in soaking solution, bundles are allowed
for draining and the drippings are collected on a polythene sheet/tarpaulin
sheet. The dripping solution is further sprayed on the crop residues.

5. Moistened and value added crop residues are allowed to stay on the
polythene or tarpaulin sheet (in the form of heap) for overnight. Keep it
covered by plastic/or polythene. It will help minimize losses due to
evaporation or protect from additional moisture due to rain, if any. Next day
collect value added crop residues and incorporate in the soil, 15-20 days
before sowing.

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Teacher’s Signature : ____________

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Ex. 3 PREPARATION OF VERMI COMPOST Date :

Vermicompost is a method of making compost with the use of

earthworms, which generally live in soil eat bio- mass and excrete it in
digested form(Casting). This compost is generally called vermicompost or
vermicompost. It provides the viral macro elements such as nitrogen (0.74%),
P2O5 (0.97%), K2O (0.45%) and Ca Mg and Micro elements such and Fe, Mo,
Zn, Cu, etc.

Benefits of vermicompost :

1. When added to clay soil loosens the soil and provides the passage for
the entry of air.
2. The mucus associated with the cast being hygroscopic absorbs water
and prevents water logging and improves water holding capacity.
3. In the vermicompost, some of the secretions of worms and the
associated microbes act as growth promoter along with other nutrients.
4. If improves physical, chemical and biological properties of soil in the
long run on repeated application.
5. The organic carbon in vermicompost releases the nutrients slowly and
steadily in to the system and enables the plant to absorb these
nutrients.
6. The multifarious effects of vermicompost influence the growth and yield
of crops.
7. Earthworm can minimize the pollution hazards caused by organic waste
by enhancing waste degradation.

Methods of vermicompost :
In general, following are the three methods of Vermicomposting under
field conditions.
1. Vermicomposting of wastes in field pits
2. Vermicomposting of wastes in ground heap
3. Vermicomposting of wastes in large structures
Vermicomposting of organic wastes in field:

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1 Pits : It is preferable to go for optimum sized ground pits and
10 x 11 x 0.5 m (L x W x D) can be effective size of
each Vermicomposting bed. Series of such beds are to
be prepared at one place.
2 Ground : Instead of opening of pits, vermicomposting can be
Heaps taken up in ground heaps. Dome shaped beds (with
organic wastes) are prepared and vermicomposting is
taken up. Optimum size of ground heaps may be series
of heaps of dimensions 5.0 x 1.0 x 1.0 m (L x W x H).
3 Composting : Vermicomposting is taken up in large structures such as
in large series of rectangular brick columns, comment tanks,
structures stone block etc., which are filled with organic wastes
and composting is taken up.

Each of these three methods has got advantages as well as limitations.

For e.g. in (ii) and (iii) these would not be any mixing of soil with vermicompost
unlike pit system, less incidence of natural enemies. But they need frequent
watering (more of labour) compared to pit system. Similarly in places water is
scarce (less rainfall tracts), pit system is good which in high rainfall areas (ii)
and (iii) are advantageous as there would be proper drainage.

Steps: These are irrespective of methods :

i. Selection of site: It should be preferably black soil or other areas with

less of termite and red ant activity, pH should be between 6 to 8.
ii. Collection of wastes and sorting: For field composting, raw materials
are needed in large quantities. The waste available should be sorted in
to degradable and non-degradable (be rejected).

iii. Pre-treatment of waste: For e. g

(a) Lignin rich residues : Chopping and subjecting to lignin
degrading fungi and later to vermibeds.
(b) Crop stalks and Dumping it in layers sandwiched with
stubbles garden soil followed with watering for 10
days to make the material soft and
acceptable to worm.

(c) Agro-industrial 3:1 proportion and later subjecting it

wastes for wormicomposting
iv. Insecticidal treatment to site : Treating the area as well as beds (in

14
 case of pit system) with chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 3.0 ml/ liter to reduce
the problem of ants, termites and ground beetles.

v. Filling of beds with organic wastes: Wastes are to be filled in the

manner given below and each layer should be made wet while filling
and continuously watered for next 10 days. In heaping and composting
in special structures, the waste is to be dumped serially as done in
pits.
th
7 layer A thick layer if mulch with cereal straw (Top of bed)
th
6 layer A layer of fine soil (Black/garden soil) (Top of bed)
th
5 layer Dung/FYM/Biogas sludge (Top of bed)
th
4 layer Green succulent leafy material (Top of bed)
rd
3 layer Dry crop residues (Top of bed)
nd
2 layer Dung/FYM/Biogas spent sludge (Top of bed)
st
1 layer Coconut coir waste/ sugarcane trash etc. (Bottom of bed)

Excepting 3rd and 4th layer (which is the material to be degraded) each layer
should be 3 to 4 inch thick so that the bed material is raised above the ground
level. Sufficient quantity of dry and green wastes is to be used in the beds.

vi. Introduction of worms in to beds : The optimum number of worms to be

introduced is 100 No./m length of the bed. The species of earthworms
that are being used currently for compost production world wide are
Eisenia Foetida, Eudirlus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus, Lumbricus
rubellus etc.
vii. Provision of optimum bed moisture and temperature:
Bed moisture: By watering at regular intervals to maintain moisture of
60 to 80% till harvest of compost Temperature requirement for optimal
results is 20-30oC. by-thatching (during summer)
viii. Monitoring for activity of natural enemies and earthworms and
management of enemies with botanicals.
Promising products: Leaf dust of neem, Acorus calamus rhizome dust,
neem cake etc
ix. Harvesting of vermicompost and storage : Around 90 days after release
of worms, the beds would be ready for harvest.
Stop watering 7 days prior to harvest so that worms settle at the bottom
layer. Collect the compost, shade dry for 12 hours and bag it in fertilizer
bags for storage.
x. Harvest of worm bio-mass: The worms are to be collected and used for
subsequent vermicomposting.

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Teacher’s Signature : ____________

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Ex. 4 Study of cropping scheme

Objectives :-1. To know the importance of the cropping scheme.

2. To study cropping scheme for different situations.
3. To study characteristics of good cropping scheme.
Definition of cropping scheme:
It is a plan according to which crops are grown on individual plots of
farm during a given period with the object to obtain maximum returns from
each crop without impairing soil fertility.
Cropping pattern –
Means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a
unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops
and fallow in an area.
Principles of cropping scheme:
Following points should be considered while preparing cropping scheme
for a farm.
1. Area under building and layout: - Proportionate area is allocated for
various buildings and layouts.
If the farm area is of 50ha or less, than 8-10 per cent and if the farm is
more than 50 hectares then 5 per cent of the total farm area should be
allocated for buildings and layouts.
2. Number of plots: The number of plots should be either equal or multiple
to the duration of rotation, if the total duration of rotation is five years, then
the number of plots must be 5, 10, 15 or 20.
i) Selection of the crops: Selection of crops generally depends upon
the situation of the farm, which is necessary for getting more profit.
The area allocated for various crops should be on the basis of net
cultivated area.
ii) Near a City: Farm near a city then 60 percent area for vegetable
crops, 10-15 percent fodder crops and remaining area other crops.
iii) Near a Sugar factory: 60 percent area under sugarcane, vegetables
and grain crops on remaining area.

16
iv) Near a canning factory: On 60 percent area vegetables like peas,
tomato and on remaining area orchards should be preferred.
v) Near a Vanaspati Factory: The Farmer should grow oilseed crops.
e.g. groundnut, sunflower, etc.,

17
 vi)Near a Dairy Farm: If farm near to dairy, the farmer should grow
fodder crops. 10-15 percent area under oilseeds and pulses to meet
the concentrate with fodder.
vii) Near a cold storage: Cultivate the crops like, potatoes, onions etc.
which required cooling facility.
viii) Near a highway or railway station: If farm near to the highway,
railway station perishable crops like vegetables, etc., should be grown.
Cropping scheme which can make the best use of available
resources without wastage should be adopted.
At least one leguminous crop should be included in crop rotation for
maintaining soil fertility and physio-chemical properties.
Advantages of cropping scheme :

1. It provides more uniform and well balanced produce and feed for
livestock.
2. Better conservation of soil and efficient use of power and quipments are
possible.
3. Economy and uniform distribution of labour can be arranged.
4. Provide a more uniform business turn over form year to year.
5. It will give a clear idea of previous, present and future crops with area
and field numbers. This will help a new comer in his work.
6. It will also give an idea about the trials conducted on the farm.
Characteristics of good cropping Scheme: -
1. It should be prepared well in advance of the sowing season
2. It should be based on climate, soil, irrigation facilities and market.
3. The plan should be flexible so as to set aside a smaller fraction of the
broad programme in favour of minor changes to unforeseen situation
created by weather and market conditions.
4. It should include some of the crops which give quick return. As a rule,
major part of working capital should be obtained out of the daily sale
produce of vegetables, other crops etc.
5. It should provide for raising those crops which can more cheaply
be produced on the farm than purchased.
6. It should provide for the diversity of farming for improving soil quality, better
utilization of cattle, human labor, equipments etc. and at the same

18
 time, offer considerable variety of produce for sale and home consumption
and abundance of roughages for cattle.
7. The area under each crop should approximately the same year after
year unless price variation or other cause for acreage of the change.
8. The relative claim for acreage of the competing crops should be
considered e.g. whether it would be profitable to devote more area under
Bt cotton than that of tobacco and vice versa.
9. There should be as many fields as there are years in crop rotation.
10. The rotation should be planned around the most profitable crops.
11. It should have leguminous crops in its crop rotation.
Assignment: Collect the information about your native village and situation of
farm. Enlist the farm resources available for cultivation of crops.

19
 Ex. 5 : Preparation of cropping scheme for dry land situations

Objectives : 1. To take the efficient utilization of available moisture

2. To fulfill the requirement of food and fodder
3. To conserve the fertility with the inclusion of pulse crops.
Definition: Dry land agriculture means crops totally grown as the rainwater
without any irrigation facilities.
Dry land farming: Growing the crops in the areas where the rainfall received
in between 750 to 1150 mm per annum. Failure of crops is rare. These areas
equivalents to the semi arid region.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific distinguished dry land agriculture mainly in to two categories. Dry land
and rainfed farming. The distinguishing features of these two types of farming
are below.
While preparation of cropping scheme under dry land area, points to
be considered are as under:-
i) Consider the resources such as land, labour, rainfall etc.
ii) Soil type available for crop cultivation.
iii) Climatic condition in that locality.
iv) Food grain requirement
v) Fodder requirement (If cattle unit with the farmer)
vi) Short duration crops should be selected.
vii) Include legume in crop sequence

Sr. Constituent Dry land farming Rainfed farming

No.
1. Rainfall (mm) < 800 >800
2. Moisture Shortage Enough
availability to crop
3. Growing < 200 >200
season(days)
4. Growing regions Arid & semiarid as well Humid and sub-
as up lands of sub- humid region.
humid and humid
region.
5. Cropping system Single crop inter - Intercropping –or –
cropping double cropping
6. Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion.

20
Problems of crop production in dry farming:
Dry farming areas are characterized by very low and highly variable and
uncertain yields, crop failures are common. These are due to following
causes:–
 Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall.
 Late onset and early cessation of rains.
 Prolonged dry spell during the crop period.
 Low moisture retention capacity
 Low fertility of soils.

Prepare the cropping scheme for two years with given information:
1. Total area of the farm is 8 ha
2. 1.0 ha area under roads, buildings, shed etc.,
3. Net area under cultivation is 7.0 ha.
4. Kharif crops are raised on rain water and rabi
crops under residual moisture and protective
irrigation.
4. Soil type: medium to deep.

Cropping Scheme for the First Year

Plot No. Area (ha) Crop Total area under crops (ha)
1 1.0 Pearl millet 1.0
2 1.0 Castor 1.0
3 1.0 Greengram 1.0
4 1.0 Pearl millet 1.0
5 1.0 Clusterbean 1.0
6 1.0 Groundnut 1.0
7. 0.5 Sorghum Fodder 0.5
8. 0.5 Rajka Bajri 0.5
Total 7.0 7.0

21
Cropping Scheme for the Second Year
Plot No. Area (ha) Crop Total area under crops (ha)

1 1.0 Castor 1.0

2 1.0 Greengram 1.0

3 1.0 Pearl millet 1.0

4 1.0 Sorghum Fodder 1.0

5 1.0 Green manuring 1.0

6 1.0 Pearl millet 1.0

7. 0.5 Sesamum 0.5

8. 0.5 Cowpea 0.5

Total 7.0 7.0

7.0
Cropping = -------- X 100 = 100 %
Intensity
7.0

22
 Ex. No. 6 : Preparation of cropping scheme for irrigated Situations.

Objectives: 1. To study efficient utilization of available resources

2. To maintain the fertility of soil.
3. To increase the income of the farm.
Intensive cultivation is possible when irrigation water is available for
different crops as land is limited and necessary to meet the needs of food
grains of increasing population.

Intensive Cropping:
Process of growing of a number of crops on the same piece of land
during a given period of time.

Example:
Exercise :
Prepare cropping scheme (for 2 years) under irrigated condition from given
information
• Farm near the City (Deesa)
• Net area for cultivation = 5.00 ha
• Farmer has milch animals
• Soil : loamy Sand
• Area under farm structure = 00 ha

Cropping Scheme for the First Year

Plot Area Kharif Area Rabi Area Summer RI
No. (ha)
A 1.0 Groundnut 1.0 Potato 1.0 Pearl millet 300
B 1.0 Castor -- -- 1.0 Greengram 200
C 1.0 Pearl millet 1.0 Mustard 1.0 Water melon 300
D 1.0 Clusterbean 1.0 Potato 1.0 Lucerne 300
E 1.0 Sorghum 1.0 Mustard 1.0 Fallow 200
Fodder
Total 5.0 5.0 4.0 260

• Total cropped area = 5+5+4 = 14 ha

• Cropping Intensity (C.I): It is the ratio of total cropped area to net

23
 cultivated area multiplied by 100. It is represented in percentage

Total cropped area (ha)

\ CI = -------------------------------- X 100
Net cultivated area (ha)

14
= ------ X 100
5
= 280 %
Cropping Scheme for the Second Year
Plot Area Kharif Area Rabi Area Summer RI
No. (ha)

A 1.0 Castor -- -- 1.0 Lucerne 200

B 1.0 Sorghum 1.0 Mustard 1.0 Chilli 300
Fodder

C 1.0 Sesamum 1.0 Wheat 1.0 Clusterbean 300

D 1.0 Greengram 1.0 Potato 1.0 Pearl millet 300

E 1.0 Groundnut 1.0 Potato 1.0 Pearl millet 300

Total 5.0 5.0 5.0 280

• Total cropped area = 5+5+5 = 15 ha

• Cropping Intensity (C.I): It is the ratio of total cropped area to net
cultivated area multiplied by 100. It is represented in percentage
Total cropped area (ha)
\ CI = -------------------------------- X 100
Net cultivated area (ha)

15
= ------ X 100
5
= 300 %

24
Rotational Intensity:
It is calculated with the helps of following formula
No. of crops growing in rotation X 100
RI = ---------------------------------------------------
Duration of the rotation (in years).
This can be explained by the following example
Pearl millet – Potato – Green gram – 1 year.
Castor – – 1 year
No. of crops grown in rotation
Rotational Intensity = ---------------------------------------------- X 100
Duration of rotation (in year)
5
RI = ------- X 100 = 250%
2

Rotational Intensity
Plot Crop sequence RI (%)
No.

A G.nut-Potato-Pearl millet-Castor- 5/2 X100 250

Lucerne
B Castor-Greengram-Sorghum(F)- 5/2 X100 250
Mustard-Chilli

C Paerl millet-Mustard-Water melon- 6/2 100 300

sesamum-wheat-Clusterbean
D Clusterbean-Potato-Lucerne- 6/2 100 300
Greengram-Potato-Pearl millet

E Sorghum(F)-Mustard-Groundnut-Potao- 5/2 X100 250

Pearl millet
Rotational Intensity of Farm (1350/5) 270

Home Work :
Prepare a Cropping scheme for irrigated area for two years for any one
taluka:
Vijapur/Patan/Prantij/Siddhpur/Unjha/Deesa/Saraswati/Amirgadh
/Himmatnagar.

25
 Ex. 7: INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM Date :

At present, the farmers concentrate mainly on crop production which is

subjected to a high degree of uncertainty in income and employment to the
farmers. In this contest, it is imperative to evolve suitable strategy for
augmenting the income of a farm.
The future of Indian agriculture depends on the development of
appropriate farming system for farmers. Restricting the use of purchase input
in farming could be achieved through multiple cropping and diversified farming
including animal husbandry, forestry, sericulture etc. Increasing food supply
with limited natural resources is a daunting challenge to the scientific
community.
Integration of various agricultural enterprises viz., cropping, animal
husbandry, fishery, forestry etc. have great potentialities in the agricultural
economy. These enterprises not only supplement the income of the farmers
but also help in increasing the family labour employment.
The integrated farming system approach introduces a change in the
farming techniques for maximum production in the cropping pattern and takes
care of optimal utilization of resources. The farm wastes are better recycled
for productive purposes in the integrated system.
A judicious mix of agricultural enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery,
fishery, sericulture etc. suited to the given agro-climatic conditions and socio-
economic status of the farmers would bring prosperity in the farming.

Farming system
It represent an appropriate combination of farm enterprises viz.,
cropping system, live stock, poultry, fishes and the means available to the
farmers to raise them for increasing profitability.
Integrated Farming System
It is defined as the system of farming on particular farm which include
crop production, raising live stock, poultry, fishes, bee keeping etc to sustain
and satisfy as many needs of the farm as possible. Cropping system is an
important component of a farming system.
Integrated Farming system
It is defined as biologically integrated farming system which integrate
natural resources and regulation mechanism into farming activities to achieve
maximum replacement of off farm inputs; secure sustainable production of
high quality of food and other products through ecologically preferred

26
technologies; sustain farm income; eliminate or reduce source of present
environment pollution generated by the agriculture, and sustain the multiple
function of agriculture (IOBC, 1993)

Objectives of IFS :
• To identify existing farming system in specific area and assess their
relative viability.
• To formulate farming system models involving main and allied
enterprises for different farming situation.
• To ensure optimum utilization and conservation of available
resources and effective recycling of farm residue within system.
• To maintain sustainable production system without damaging resource
base/ environment.
• To raise overall profitability of farm household by complementary
enterprises with each other.

Advantages of Integrated Farming System

1. Higher productivity : Higher food production to equate the demand of
the exploding population of our nation.
2. Higher profitability : Increase farm income through proper residue
recycling and allied components.
3. Sustainable soil fertility and productivity through organic waste
recycling.
4. Balanced Food : Integration of allied activities will result in the
availability of nutritious food enriched with protein, carbohydrate, fat,
minerals and vitamins.
5. Pollution free environment : Integrated farming will help in
environmental protection through effective recycling of waste from
animal activities like piggery, poultry and pigeon rearing.
6. Reduced production cost of components through input recycling from
the byproducts of allied enterprises.
7. Regular and stable income through the sale of products like egg, milk,
mushroom, vegetables, honey and silkworm cocoons from the linked
activities in integrated farming.
8. Solve energy crisis : Inclusion of biogas & agro forestry in integrated
farming system will solve the prognosticated energy crisis.
9. Solve fodder crisis : Cultivation of fodder crops as intercropping and as
border cropping will result in the availability of adequate nutritious

27
 fodder for animal components like milch cow, goat / sheep, pig and
rabbit.
10 Solve timber and fuel wood crisis : Firewood and construction wood
Requirements could be met from the agroforestry system without
affecting the natural forest.
11.Reduce soil degradation : Avoidance of soil loss through erosion by
agro-forestry and proper cultivation of each part of land by integrated
farming.
12.Generation of regular employment for the farm family members of small
and marginal farmers.
13.Increase literacy : The farmers who adopt IFS get expertise in each
and every aspects of individual component in long range adoption.
This will help the farmers to face any challenge in their activity.
14.Provide opportunity for agriculture oriented industries : Once the
produce of different components linked in IFS are increased to
commercial level, it leads to the development of allied industries for
preserving the by-products.
15.Improves the standard of living of farmers.

Components of Integrated Farming System

Crops, livestock, birds and trees are the major components of any IFS.
1. Crop may have subsystem like monocrop, mixed/intercrop, multi-tier
crops of cereals, legumes (pulses), oilseeds, vegetables, forage etc.
2. Livestock components may be milch cow, goat, sheep, poultry, bees.
duckery, aquaculture, mushroom cultivation,
3. Tree components may include timer, fuel, fodder and fruit trees.
4. Miscellaneous enterprises like sericulture, lacculture can also be
included in a farming system.

Factors affecting choice of enterprises

• Soil and climatic feature of an area of locality
• Resources available with the farmers
• Present level of utilization of resources
• Return Income from existing farming system
• Economics of proposed integrated farming system
• Farmers managerial skill
• Social custom prevailing in the location

28
Factors to be considered

The following factors have to be considered while selecting IFS in

rainfed areas;
Soil types, rainfall and its distribution and length of growing season are the
major factors that decide the selection of suitable annual crops, trees and
livestock components. The needs and resource base of the farmers also
decides the selection of IFS components in any farm.

According to soil type we can select suitable crops and other enterprises.

Cereals : Bajra, sorghum

Pulses : Greengram, blackgram, redgram, chickpea,
clusterbean
Oilseeds : Groundnut, castor, sesame
FIbre : Cotton
Fodder : Fodder sorghum, rajka bajri, Stylosanthus hamata
Tree species : Neem, ber, Simarouba, Acacia tortilis, Salvadora,
Prosophis cineraria, Dulbergia sisoo
Live stock : Goat, sheep, cow, buffalo, pig, rabbit
Birds : Poultry

Agronomic approaches for increasing overall productivity and

sustainability of IFS :

Various agronomic approaches for increasing the overall productivity and

sustainability of IFS are;
1. Adoption of improved cropping system according to the rainfall and soil
moisture availability.
2. Selection of suitable grain crop species, tree species that supply
pods/leaves for a longer period or throughout the year.
3. The surplus fodder leaves, crop residues etc. during the rainy season
should be preserved as silage/hay for lean season (summer).

IFS under Irrigated Condition :

Irrigated condition is the farming situation where sufficient water is

available for growing of diverse crops and for fodder production which can

29
 be utilized for feeding to livestock. Hence, IFS under irrigated condition
provide ample opportunities for making sustainable resource use for
ensuring higher yield and income of the farming system as whole.

Table : Comparison of different alternatives of mixed farming system

with each other for Sardarkrushinagar (North Gujarat)
Sr Alternatives
No Unit A Unit B Unit C Unit D Unit E
Particulars Arable 3 Buff 6 Buff 9 Buff 12 Buff
farming C 75% C 50% C 25% D.F 100%
F 25% F 50% F 75%
1. Land allotted 2.0 ha 2.0 ha 2.0 ha 2.0 ha 2.0 ha
2. Total cost 35230 88613 134768 193319 228973
a.Comm Crop 35230 29984 17615 12074 -
b.Dairy - 50412 100422 156137 197112
3. Gross receipt 57861 139955 219985 297872 331004
a.Comm Crop 57861 51818 28929 26759 -
b Dairy - 88137 191056 271113 331004
4. Net return 22631 51342 85217 104553 102031
5. Input output ratio 1:1.59 1:1.58 1:1.63 1:1.54 1:1.45

Six Mehasani buffaloes with two ha of land with 50 per cent commercial
and 50 per cent fodder crops gave maximum input output ratio.

Teacher’s Signature : ____________

-$-$-$-

30
 Ex.: 8 Study of degraded lands

Objectives: 1. To Study different types Soil degradation

2. To study the different measures of soil improvement.

Sustainable utilization of land resources

Land is a finite nonrenewable natural resource comprising of three vital
components namely soil, water and vegetation. India’s share in land resources
of the world is only 2 per cent on which 18 per cent of the world’s population
and 15 per cent of world’s livestock survive. Reported geographical area of
India (328.7 m ha) can be broadly grouped into three sectors:
 Agricultural sector (59.27%) consisting of net cultivated area, current
fallows, other fallows and cultivable wastes.
 Ecological sector (33.56%) comprising forests, miscellaneous, barren
and uncultivable wastes.
 Nonagricultural sector (7.17%) includes lands under nonagricultural
uses.

Soil Degradation is posing a potential threat to ecological balance and

sustainability of livelihood systems of people due to indiscriminate use of land,
water and other natural resources.
Soil degradation
Global assessment of soil degradation (GLASOD) defines soil
degradation as a process that describes human induced phenomena that
lower the current and/or future capacity of soil to support human life.
According to FAO (1979), soil degradation is a process that lowers the current
and/or the potential capability of soil to produce (quantitatively and/or
qualitatively) goods or services.
The committee constituted by the Planning Commission, India in 1987
defined degraded land as wasteland which can be brought under vegetative
cover with reasonable effort and which is currently underutilized land which is
deteriorating for lack of appropriate water and soil management or on account
of natural causes.

Causes for degradation

Five causes for soil/land degradation are:
 Removal of vegetative cover through agricultural clearing.
 Decrease in land cover through removal of vegetation for fuel wood,
fencing etc,

31
  Overgrazing by livestock leading to decrease in vegetative cover and
trampling of soil.
 Agricultural activities like cultivation in steep slopes, farming without soil
conservation measures, improper irrigation and use of heavy machinery
and
 Soil contamination with pollutants such as waste discharges and misuse
of agrochemicals.

Kinds of degradation
Soil degradation is an outcome of depletive human activities and their
interaction with natural environment. Processes of soil degradation are the
mechanisms responsible for the decline in soil quality. There are three
principal types of degradation: physical, chemical and biological. Each of
these types has different process.

SOIL DEGRADATION

Physical Chemical Biological

Compaction laterisation Erosion Fertility Elemental Decline in Reduction

in
And and and imbalance Soil organic micro
And
Crusting desertification depletion matter macro
fauna

Wind Water Acidification Sodification Toxic

Erosion erosion Compounds
An area of about 187 m ha, representing almost 57 per cent of total
geographical area of the country has been affected by various land
degradation problems, induced largely by human interventions. Water
erosion is the major problem in about 13.8 m ha (4.2 %). Physical
degradation is a problem in about 11.6 m ha (3.5 %)of the total area.
Management of physical degradation
Among the physical degradation processes, soil erosion is the major
process responsible for soil degradation. Water erosion is relatively more
important in semiarid regions and wind erosion in arid regions.
Recommended soil conservation measures are:

32
Agronomic measures:
 Preference to erosion resisting crops such as legumes and other ground
smothering crops.
 Tillage practices to improve water intake into the soil and reduce surface
runoff.
 Contour cultivation (ploughing, sowing and intercultivation across the
slope),
 Strip cropping of erosion resisting and erosion permitting grain crops
 Inclusion of erosion resisting crops in cropping systems, and
 Application of heavy doses of bulky organic manures including mulching

Mechanical measures
-Contour bunds and graded bunds,
-Bench terraces and half moon terraces,
-Contour trenching,
-Gully control,
-Grassed water ways, and
-Watershed approach.

Forestry measures
-Establishing perennial trees and grasses, and
-Agro forestry.
Wind erosion
 Minimum tillage with rough soil surface,
 Stubble mulching,
 Strip cropping,
 Cover crops,
 Mulching and
 Windbreaks and shelterbelts.
Significance of the recommended agronomic practices in reducing soil
erosion for sustainable agriculture has been well established. However, the
farmers, due to practical and economic problems, are not adopting some of
the recommend practices. For instance, growing erosion-resisting crops, cover
crops and strip cropping remained as recommendation only since the farmers
are more interested on remuneration crops than recommended crops for

33
minimizing erosion. Other recommended practices such as contour cultivation,
application of bulky organic manures etc are common for both recommended
and farmer interested crops. As such, there is immense scope for minimizing
soil degradation by adopting such practices.
Bunding and terracing are the most widely adopted mechanical
measures in soil and water conservation programme. Bunding is not
recommended on slopes steeper than 8.0 per cent. Bench terracing is usually
recommended up to slopes of 15.0 per cent. In special cases like Nilgiri hills
and Himachal Pradesh, bench terracing is done up to 33 per cent slope.
Agroforestry has become popular as a useful land use system on
slopes in the recent past. Growing trees along with agricultural crops satisfy
multipurpose needs of the farmers. Grasses are perhaps the best friends of
soil conservationists. Farmers may not accept to devote entire land for
growing grass to conserve soil. At least, grassing the waterways can bring
down the erosion considerably. Cropping, based on land capability along with
implementable agronomic and mechanical measures of soil conservation has
great potential for sustainable land use systems.
Watershed development and management aims at optimizing integrated
use of land, water and vegetation in an area for providing an answer to
alleviate drought, prevent soil erosion, improve water availability and increase
food, fodder, fuel and fiber on sustained basis. Soil conservation is enmeshed
with crop management and alternate land use systems for increasing and
stabilizing food production and income. Soil and water conservation measures
are given priority when the primary objective of watershed is crop production.

Compaction, crusting and sealing

Compaction is usually caused by the use of heavy farm machinery.
Crusting and sealing, however, results from the impact of rain drop if the soil
cover is not well protected. Soil compaction and sealing inhibit water
infiltration into the soil and the exchange of gases between the soil and
atmosphere. Small seeded crops, grasses and vegetables are particularly
sensitive to soil crusting. Measures to minimize the adverse effect include:
 Addition of large quantities of bulky organic manures to improve soil
aggregation,
 Application of sand to improve soil physical conditions for increasing
water infiltration into the soil.

34
  Adverse effect of soil crusting, immediately after seeding, can be
minimized considerably by dragging a heavy thorny branch over the soil
surface or by working a light spike tooth harrow over the soil surface
without disturbing the germinating seed, and
 If water is available, a light irrigation can overcome the crust problem
leading to optimum seed germination.

Management of chemical degradation

Salt affected soil, acid soils and waterlogged soils are the result of
chemical degradation under different ecosystems. Unless the chemical
degradation is checked, the area under chemically degraded soils increase
year after year and much of the productive soil area will be converted into
barren land.
 Threat to sustainability of land resources,
 Decrease in farm production due to abandoned cropped area, and
 Decline in resource productivity and cutback in resource use.

Reclamation methods of salt affected soils are broadly grouped into three:
physical and hydrotechnical amelioration, biological amelioration and chemical
amelioration.
Physical amelioration: Management options include:
 Mechanical deep ploughing and sub soiling to improve water infiltration
into soil
 Sand application up to 50 t ha-1 to improve water and air permeability.
 Profile inversion if subsurface soil horizons contain gypsum, and
 Leaching with good quality water and draining the profile to remove
excess soluble salts constitutes hydrothermal process of physical
amelioration.
Biological amelioration: Improvement in microbial activity by the addition of
organic residues can greatly contribute to reclamation of salt affected soils.
 Biological activity can be stimulated by simply allowing a grass cover to
develop, through afforestation or by adding organic material,
 Addition of bulky organic manures / organic materials improves water
infiltration and release of carbon dioxide during decomposition, and
 In calcareous soils, the carbon dioxide brings in the soluble calcium for
exchange reaction to replace sodium in the soil exchange complex.

35
Chemical amelioration: Reclamation of alkali/sodic soils requires
neutralization of alkalinity and replacement of most of sodium ions from the
soil exchange complex by more favorable calcium ions. Materials for
amelioration include:
 Soluble calcium salts such as calcium chloride or gypsum
 Acidifying materials like sulphur, iron sulphate, iron pyrites, sulphuric
acid etc for solublising insoluble native soil calcium, and
 Waste materials such as phosphogypsum, flyash, steel plant rejects
etc.
In actual practice, the reclamation can be made much more effective and
speedy by combining the various ameliorative methods, since the interaction
between them brings in more spectacular results than when they are applied
singly.

Crops, cropping systems and management practices for salt affected

soils
Barley and wheat crops appear to be a reasonably good choice for
sodic soils during rabi. For kharif, pearl millet could be considered as possible
alternative to rice. Improved cultivars of sorghum, safflower, sunflower and
taramera did not appear to have economic yield potential on partly reclaimed
soils. Three native grasses Sporobulus diander, Diplachne fusca and
Cynodon doctylon have remarkable potential for establishment and growth in
sodic soils (pH 9.5 to 10.0). There promising cultivate grasses Panicum
antidotale (blue panic), Brachiaria mutica (paragrass) and chloris gayana
(Rhode’s grass) are also performing well on sodic soils.

Rice based cropping systems are more suitable and promising than other
systems on problem soils. Rice – wheat or rice – berseem for about three
years and diversification of the cropping system afterwards appears to be
ideal under several situations. Inclusion of a green manure crop in the system
leads to sustainable production under several situations aged seedlings for
transplantation with 4 – 5 seedlings per hill appear optimum for adequate
stand establishment. In general, around 20 per cent higher dose of fertilizer
than the recommended leads to near optimum yields.
Amelioration acid soils
Soil survey estimates indicate that 95 per cent soils of Assam and 30
per cent geographical area of Jammu and Kashmir are acidic. About 80 per

36
cent of soils in Orissa, 88 per cent in Kerala, 45 per cent in Karnataka and 20
per cent in Maharashtra are acidic. In Andhra Pradesh, about 40,000 ha are
acidic soils.
Management of acid soils should aim at improving the production
potential of the soil by either addition of amendments or by manipulation of
agricultural practices to obtain optimum yield. Management options include:
 Rice should be major crop of acid soils as it has greater degree of
tolerance to acidity (pH 5 to 6).
 Application of lime as an amendment to neutralize the exchangeable
AI3+ to a certain extent is effective.
 Legumes, cotton, maize, sorghum, wheat and linseed respond to lime
application, and
 Tree species such as Albizia, Erythrina, Sesbania, Alnus nepalensis
and Gmeliana arborea in silvipastoral agroforestry system are effective
in ameliorating acidic soils.
On the basis of responses to liming, three groups of upland crops have been
recognized as indicated below:
High responsive group: Pigeon pea, soybean, cotton
Medium responsive group: Gram, peas, lentil, groundnut, maize, sorghum.
Low or no response group: Rice, small millets, mustard.

Amelioration of waterlogged soils

Water logging is also a common feature in low-lying areas throughout the
country, especially if the soils are relatively heavy, due to accumulation of
runoff. Management practices for such waterlogged areas include:
 Land grading to maximize water infiltration into the soil and to minimize
surface runoff accumulating in low lying areas.
 Provision of an effective open drainage system to divert runoff entering
the low-lying areas
 Grassing the drainage courses for improving functioning the open
drains, and
Rice and finger millet may be preferred for waterlogged soils.

37
 Management of biological degradation
The physical and chemical properties of soil depend on soil organic
matter. Activities of soil microorganisms, most of CEC and aggregate stability
depends on soil organic matter. Organic matter makes the soil a living
dynamic system that supports all life on this planet. Plant, animal and
microbial materials are the primary sources of soil organic matter. The
amounts added depend on climatic conditions and vegetation system. Forest
systems add larger and more amounts of organic matter to the soil than
grassland systems, which in turn, provide greater amounts than crop
production systems.
Decline in soil organic matter
Arid and semiarid climates are not conducive to build up of soil organic matter.
Decline in soil organic matter is largely attributed to:
 Intensive cultivation, which stimulates decomposition of soil organic
matter.
 Excessive dependence on inorganic fertilizers and neglect of adequate
input of FYM and other bulky organic manures, and
 Copping systems aimed at yield advantage and neglect of soil organic
matter build up.

Reduction in soil macro and micro fauna.

The soil is teeming with million of organisms both animals
(fauna) and plants (flora) which make it a dynamic system. They are divided
into macro (seen by unaided eye) and microorganisms (seen only after
magnification). Plants largely include roots of higher plants, algae, fungi,
actinomycetes and bacterial. Animals largely include insects, ants, beetles,
millipedes mites, earthworms, nematodes, protozoa etc. The number of
organisms varies greatly depending on food supply, moisture, temperature,
physical condition and reaction of the soil. These organisms are associated
with soil formation and a number of transformations facilitating the availability
of nutrients to plants. But for the activities of these organisms in soil and life
on the earth would come to a halt, as all available plant nutrient elements
would have ended up locked in the organic debris, disrupting the nutrient
cycle.

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 Biological processes are central to the soil fertility and productivity and
sustainability of agro-ecosystem. Crop production practices affecting the
population and activity of soil organism are:
 Tillage practices such as deep and excessive ploughing leads to rapid
loss of soil organic matter and hence reduction in the population of soil
organisms. Change in soil physical properties due to puddling has
similar adverse effect on soil organisms.
 Cropping systems such as cereal – cereal or non legume – non legume
results in reduced population of soil organisms. Legume – cereal
systems aids in build up due to improvement in soil organic matter.
 Bulky organic manures and green manures aids in soil organisms build
up due to improvement in soil organic matter.
 Application of fertilizers may increase the microbial activity due to
addition of organic matter through improvement in root growth.
However, continuous use of inorganic fertilizers without regular addition
of bulky organic manures suppresses their activity.
 Integrated nutrient management systems are conductive to the
multiplication of microbes and their activity.
 Plant protection chemicals may temporarily inhibit the activity of soil
microbes. They multiply rapidly to degrade the chemicals to avoid soil
pollution with chemicals, and
Agroforestry and organic farming systems create ideal soil conditions for
multiplication and activity of soil organisms.

Teacher’s Signature:______________

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