DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139

Battery Source Resistance

EVEREADY [Failed] DURACELL [Fresh]

9.58 Volts Open Circuit 9.28 Volts Open Circuit

2.4 Volts with a 1kȍ load resistor 9.20 Volts with a 1kȍ load resistor
I = 2.4 mA I = 9.2 mA
RS RS

+ +
2.4 mA 9.2 mA
9.58 V 1k : 2.4 V 9.28 V 1k : 9.2 V

- -

9.58V  2.4V 9.28V  9.2V

Rs 3kȍ Rs 8.7ȍ
2.4 mA 9.2 mA

9.58V 9.28V
Isc 3.2mA Isc 1.07A
3kȍ 8.7ȍ

3.2mA 3k :
1.1 A 8.7:

Battery Source Resistance 1 of 1 08/14/06

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139

COMPENSATE YOUR ‘SCOPE PROBES!

If you don’t, you won’t get accurate voltage measurements on the oscilloscope; they won’t agree
with the value displayed on your function generator!

1. To compensate your probes, hook the probe tip on to the metal terminal labeled “Probe
Comp = 5V Ȇ”, [or similar] located at the bottom of the right half of most ‘scopes. Adjust your
horizontal sweep until you can see 2 or 3 cycles of the square wave displayed horizontally.

2. Your display will probably look like either the second or third diagram below; if it looks like the
top diagram you need go no further.

CORRECTLY COMPENSATED

PROBE UNDERCOMPENSATED

PROBE OVERCOMPENSATED

3. Obtain a non-metallic screwdriver, or at least a plastic one with just a metal tip, and inserting
it into the screw slot on the probe, gently adjust the screw until the waveform looks “square” as
in the top figure above.

Oscilloscope input
10X Probe
One tenth of signal
(1 Vp-p) at input
9 MW

10 Vp-p x pF
Signal
1 MW
20 pF
Probe compensation adjustment

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Ron Roscoe 1 2/3/2006

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139

Low-Pass Filter Basics [Integrator]

1
V2  j XC j ZC 1
Av
R V1 R   j XC 1 j ZCR  1
R
V2 j ZC
V1 C
1
Av
sCR  1

AV (dB)

0
-3dB

slope = -6 dB / octave
slope = -20 dB / decade

log f
fHI or f-3dB

Degrees

PHASE LAG
0o

-45o

-90o

log f
fHI or f-3dB

Low-Pass Filter Basics 1 of 1 08/14/06

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139

High-Pass Filter Basics [Differentiator]

V2 R j ZCR s CR
C Av
V1 1 j ZCR  1 s CR  1
R
V1 R V2 j ZC

AV (dB)

0
-3dB
slope = 6 dB / octave
slope = 20 dB / decade

log f
fLO or f-3dB

Degrees

90o PHASE LEAD

45o

0o

-45o

log f
fLO or f-3dB

High-Pass Filter Basics 1 of 1 08/14/06

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139

Transformer Derivation [for voltage step-UP transformer]

V1 V2 R2

1:n
For a perfect [lossless] transformer, the power in the primary will equal the power in the
secondary. Therefore:

V1 I 1 V2 I 2

substituting for the current, where R1 = the secondary resistance as reflected to the primary:

V1 V2
V1 V2
R1 R2

2 2
V1 V2
R1 R2

V12 R2
R1
V22

but V2 nV1
V12 R2 V12 R2
R1
nV1 2 n 2V12
so
R2
R1
n2

Transformer Derivation 1 of 1 9/09/02

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 f1 = 426.4 kHz
f2 = 483.6 kHz

70% BW = 57.2kHz

I
fr

0 f 455kHz
Low Q current curve

100 %
90 %
Lower fco Upper fco
80 %
f1 = 450 kHz f2 = 460 kHz
70 % BW = 10 kHz
60 %
50 %
40 %
30 %
20 %
10 % fr

0 f 455kHz
High Q current curve

Bandwidth for high- and low- Q series circuit.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 Frequency Effect Phase

+j
Max

e XL
Increasing

ct anc
a
t i ve re f L
uc 2π R
Ind X L =
0
Min Frequency
(Also called baseline)
-j
Effect of frequency on inductive reactance.

+j
Max
Increasing OHMS

XC XC R
Capacitive reactance

1
XC =
2πfC
Min 0 -j
Frequency
(Also called baseline)
Effect of frequency on capacitive reactance.

+j
Max XC = XL XL
XC
XL
X
XC R
fr
Min
0 F
Increasing
-j
Relationship between XL and XC as frequency
increases.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
Eout

Q = 200

Q = 50
Q = 100

Frequency
f0
Frequency curve of single LC tuned circuit.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 H max

1
H max
2

0 wc1 w0 wc2 w

General bandpass and amplitude response.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 Characteristic curves Constant voltage input Constant current input
Curve Voltage output Current output Voltage output Current output
no. into open circuit into short circuit into open circuit into short circuit

vi vo vi vo vi io ii vo ii io ii io
1

+ jωT 1 + jωT jωT jωT

R 1+ jωT R
1+ jωT 1+ jωT 1+ jωT
3 4

dB 0 vi vo vi vo vi io ii vo ii io ii io
Frequency 2
5 6
1 2 1 1 1 1 1
R
1+ jωT R 1+ jωT 1+ jωT 1+ jωT
-

vi io ii vo
3

1 1+ jωT 1+ jωT
R
R jωT jωT

5 4 vi io ii vo
+90o
1 4 1 (1+ jωT) R (1+ jωT)
R

f0
5 vi io ii vo

3 2
jωC jωL
-90o
6

vi io ii vo
6

1 1
jωL jωC

Diagrams, transfer function, and frequency responses for basic circuits

consisting of a resistor, capacitor, and/or inductor.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 Sawtooth
V Vn

A
Vn = nπ
(a) A t

f
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5

Square
V Vn

2A
Vn = nπ (n ODD)
(b) A t

f
f1 f3 f5

Sin2
Vn
V
4A 1
Vn = π
4n2 - 1
A
(c) t
f
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5

Triangle

V Vn

4A
Vn = (n ODD)
(nπ)2
(d) A t

f
f1 f3 f5

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 Amplitude

Time

Cycle
4 1 1
PR = π
3 5
1
0

3
-10
Response DB

5
7
9
-20 11
13
15
17 19

-30
100 200 400 800 1000 2000
Frequency in cycles per second
A rectangular wave, the equation of the wave, and the spectrum for a fundamental frequency
of 100 cycles, that is, t = 1/100 second for a complete cycle.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 Amplitude

Time

Cycle
8 1 1
PR = cos wt + cos 3 wt + cos 5 wt -----
p2 9 25
1
0

-10

3
-20
Response DB

5
-30
7
9
-40 11
13
15
17
-50 19

-60
100 200 400 800 1000 2000
Frequency in cycles per second
A triangular wave, the equation of the wave, and the spectrum for a fundamental frequency
of 100 cycles, that is, t = 1/100 second for a complete cycle.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Downloaded on [DD Month YYYY].
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139

Impedance/Admittance Notation

1
Z
R 1 1
XL j ZL L   j ZC
R j ZL
1 C
XC 1 1 1 1
j ZC Y ; BL ; BC ; G
Z XL XC R
1
Z R  j ZL  1 ª 1 º
j ZC Y G  j ZC G  j «ZC 
j ZL ¬ ZL »¼
ª 1 º
Z R  j «ZL  Y G  j >B C  B L @
¬ ZC »¼
Z R  j >X L  X C @
______________________________________________

OHM’s LAW: R L C
V I R ; V I Z;
ª 1 º
V I« ; V Y I
¬ Y »¼

1
Where does the 2 or come from in –3dB point calculations?
2

+j
R
2

L
2 1/

o
-R 45 R VS R VOUT

-j

Impedance-Admittance Notation 1 of 1 09/05/06

Cite as: Ron Roscoe, course materials for 6.101 Introductory Analog Electronics Laboratory, Spring 2007.
MIT OpenCourseWare (http://ocw.mit.edu/), Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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