Eating Behaviors 14 (2013) 137–144

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Eating Behaviors

Weight pressures in sport: Examining the factor structure and

incremental validity of the weight pressures in sport — Females
Justine J. Reel a,⁎, Trent A. Petrie b, 1, Sonya SooHoo a, Carlin M. Anderson c
a
Department of Health Promotion and Education, 250 S. 1850 E. Rm 200, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
b
Department of Psychology, University of North Texas, 1150 Union Circle, #311280, Denton, TX 76203, USA
c
Premier Sport Psychology, 155 S. Wabasha St., Suite 110, Saint Paul, MN 55107, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Due to pressures within the sport environment, such as from coaches, teammates, uniforms and judges, female
Received 17 July 2012 athletes may develop unhealthy eating practices to lose weight or change their body size/shape to become more
Received in revised form 12 November 2012 competitive and meet societal and sport-related physique ideals. However, up until the development of the
Accepted 15 January 2013
Weight Pressures in Sport for Females (WPS-F; Reel, SooHoo, Petrie, Greenleaf, & Carter, 2010) there was no
Available online 4 February 2013
way to quantify sport-specific weight pressures with female athletes. In this study, the psychometric properties
Keywords:
of the scale were further examined using a sample of 414 female collegiate athletes. Sample 1 [n=207; M=
Disordered eating 19.27 years; SD=1.16] and Sample 2 [n=207; M =19.19 years; SD=1.66] participants were of a similar age
Weight pressures and were used for exploratory and confirmatory analyses respectively. A two factor structure was confirmed
Body image and it was established that the scale was unique from general sociocultural pressures that all women experience,
Female athletes predicting female athletes' internalization, body dissatisfaction, dietary intent, and bulimic symptomatology.
Eating disorders Specifically, the following factors, Coach and Sport Pressures about Weight (Factor 1) and Pressures Regarding
Gymnasts Appearance and Performance (Factor 2), were found to have strong internal consistency and the emerging reli-
able and valid WPS-F has practical implications for screening and identifying weight-related sport pressures
within female athletes. WPS-F can also serve to educate sport professionals about environmental pressures so
that disordered eating and body image disturbances can be prevented.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction female athletes could be classified as symptomatic/subclinical, whereas

Female athletes experience pressure to change their body weight,
shape or size to meet a perceived athletic ideal (De Bruin, Oudejans,
Bakker, & Woertman, 2011; Thompson & Sherman, 2010). Furthermore,
perceiving one's body as larger than the prescribed athletic ideal is asso-
ciated with restrictive eating and disordered eating behaviors among
female athletes (Haase, 2011). Disordered eating is a problem that
significant numbers of female athletes experience (Greenleaf, Petrie,
Reel, & Carter, 2010), and the unique pressures in the sport environ-
ment that athletes experience from coaches, teammates, uniforms,
and judges likely contribute to this elevated rate.
Disordered eating among female athletes can range from subclinical
behaviors (i.e., engaging in unhealthy weight control methods that
do not meet clinical criteria) to diagnosable clinical eating disorders
(i.e., Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, Eating Disorder Not Otherwise
Specified) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). More than 25% of
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 801 581 3481.
E-mail addresses: Justine.Reel@hsc.utah.edu (J.J. Reel), Trent.Petrie@unt.edu
(T.A. Petrie), sonyasoohoo@gmail.com (S. SooHoo),
canderson@PremierSportPsychology.com (C.M. Anderson).
1
Tel.: +1 940 565 4718.
2% to 7% of female athletes met the diagnostic criteria for clinical eating
disorders in recent studies (e.g., Greenleaf, Petrie, Carter, & Reel, 2009;
Reel, SooHoo, Doetsch, Carter, & Petrie, 2007; Sanford-Martens et al.,
2005). For example, Greenleaf et al. (2009) found that 25.5% of female
collegiate athletes sampled from 3 universities and 16 sports exhibited
disordered eating symptoms: 7.8% engaged in binge eating, 15.5%
exercised to burn calories, 15.6% dieted/fasted, and fewer than 3% of
the sample reported vomiting, or using diuretics or laxatives. Only 2%
of these female athletes were classified with a clinical eating disorder.
More recently, Anderson and Petrie (2012) reported that 26.1% of their
sample of female collegiate gymnasts, swimmers and divers displayed
subclinical eating disordered symptoms; while 6.3% met criteria for clin-
ical eating disorders, which included sub-threshold bulimia nervosa
(76.9%), non-binging bulimia (15.4%), and binge eating disorder (7.7%).
Although each sport presents a unique set of demands related to
body weight, shape and size, sports that emphasize thinness, muscular-
ity or a particular physique (e.g., gymnastics, figure skating) may be at
even a greater risk for disordered eating and body image disturbances
because there may be more direct appearance-, body-, or weight-
focused demands and pressures during training and competition
(Anderson, Petrie, & Neumann, 2012; Thompson & Sherman, 2010).
For example, Smolak, Murnen, and Ruble (2000) found that female

1471-0153/$ – see front matter. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.01.003
138 J.J. Reel et al. / Eating Behaviors 14 (2013) 137–144
athletes in esthetic sports (e.g., figure skating) in which performance
success is based on a particular “look” had significantly higher levels of
disordered eating than either non-athletes or athletes in ball-game
sports. Furthermore, Torstveit, Rosenvinge, and Sundgot-Borgen (2008)
found that a higher number of female elite athletes in sports that empha-
sized a lean build (i.e., leanness-demand sports) (46.7%) met the criteria
for clinical eating disorders than athletes in non-leanness sports (19.8%)
or controls (21.4%). Regarding body image concerns, competitive syn-
chronized swimmers reported significantly higher levels of body dissat-
isfaction than athletes in non-leanness demand sports or non-athlete
controls (Ferrand, Magnan, Rouveix, & Filaire, 2007). Therefore, although
female athletes from any sport may potentially experience weight pres-
sures and could be vulnerable to develop disordered eating patterns,
certain sports present an even greater risk due to a heightened focus
on appearance as it relates to performance success, such as evaluation
by judges and competing uniforms that reveal all perceived bodily flaws.
1.1. Types and sources of weight pressures for female athletes
There are numerous unique pressures within the sport environment
that may contribute to the development of disordered eating attitudes
and behaviors, including: the revealing nature of the team uniform,
the perception of performance advantages gained at a certain weight
or body size/shape, weight requirements and weigh-ins, comments
from coaches, teammates, and judges, and attainment of an esthetic
ideal that may resonate with judges and lead to higher scores
(Anderson et al., 2012; Reel, 2012; Reel et al., 2010). Despite experienc-
ing such pressures, only some female athletes will develop disordered
eating attitudes and behaviors, a fact acknowledged by Petrie and
Greenleaf (2012) in their etiological model of eating disorders among
athletes. They not only identified both general sociocultural pressures
(e.g., media) and sport-specific pressures about body, weight, and
appearance as key risk factors in the development of body image
concerns and disordered eating behaviors among female athletes,
but also recognized that psychological and personality factors, for
example, may moderate the influence of these pressures, increasing
(or decreasing) athletes' risk. Once researchers are able to identify and
validly measure the unique pressures within the sport environment,
they then will be able to examine why certain athletes are affected
more strongly by these pressures than are others.
Revealing team uniforms are thought to contribute to feelings of
increased self-consciousness and negative body image across college
athletes and dancers (Reel, 2012). For example, over half of college
female cheerleaders (54%) mentioned that revealing team uniforms cre-
ated feelings of body-consciousness (Reel & Gill, 1996), and cheerleaders
who wore more revealing uniforms that displayed midriffs were more
likely to experience body image dissatisfaction than cheerleaders with
more modest uniforms (Torres-McGehee, in press). This uniform pres-
sure also was identified by 45% of college female swimmers who said
that tight, form-fitting swim suits were a source of body dissatisfaction
(Reel & Gill, 2001). Almost all (99%) in a sample of college female dancers
experienced negative body image and feelings of self-consciousness
from costumes that failed to hide perceived bodily flaws and admitted
that costumes that were perceived to make them appear unattractive
were a performance distraction (Reel, SooHoo, Gill, & Jamieson, 2005).
Perceived performance benefits also may serve as a reason for
athletes across sports to change their body weight, size or shape (Reel,
2012). Competitive collegiate female swimmers (42%) reported a
perceived performance advantage associated with weight loss (Reel &
Gill, 2001), and adolescent female swimmers emphasized the need
for a “swimmer's body” (i.e., thin and lean with broad shoulders) to
perform at their best (Porter, Morrow, & Reel, 2012). College female
dancers expressed feeling the pressure to portray long and thin bodily
lines during performances rather than attain a particular body weight
(Reel et al., 2005). Interestingly, all dancers (100%) reported mirrors
being a weight pressure during training, whereas 97% stated that
being lighter was a performance advantage. Among cheerleaders,
particularly those who believed the flyer position (i.e., cheerleader
who is thrown in the air by a base) was more prestigious than being a
base, there was an association between lighter weight and better
performance. In fact, gaining weight could jeopardize a cheerleader's
flyer status (SooHoo, Reel, & Pearce, 2011; Torres-McGehee, in press).
Ski jumpers, rowers and equestrian athletes also have reported believ-
ing that they needed to keep weight low to excel in their sports
(e.g., Sherman & Thompson, 2009; Torres-McGehee, Monsma, Gay,
Minton, & Mady-Foster, 2011).
Although many athletes have reported changing their weight to
improve performance, others may do so simply to meet formal weight
requirements and pass weigh-ins throughout the season (Reel, 2012).
For example, female college cheerleaders (54%) faced a maximum
weight limit (e.g., 115 lb or less) that was usually not based on height
or frame in order to be eligible to try-out for the squad. These women
(40%) also were subjected to weekly weigh-ins to monitor weight loss
and weight gain because they were expected to lose additional weight
throughout the competitive season (Reel & Gill, 1996, 1998). Athletes
in weight class sports (e.g., boxing, wrestling) also are subjected to
weigh-ins and the pressure to “make weight” to remain competitive
(Sherman & Thompson, 2009).
Weight, body, and appearance pressures also emanate from certain
influential individuals (e.g., coaches, teammates, judges) within the
sport environment (Reel, 2012). Adolescent and adult female competi-
tive swimmers reported that coaches encouraged them to lose weight,
increase upper body muscularity and strive to look like a “triangle”
(Howells & Grogan, 2012). Female college cheerleaders (70%) identified
the coach as the most salient weight pressure (Reel & Gill, 1996). For
gymnasts, 44% reported receiving negative comments about their bod-
ies from coaches and 71% of those gymnasts were more likely to feel
they should lose weight than those who had not received a negative
body comment (Kerr, Berman, & De Souza, 2006). Over half (57%) of
college dancers reported that their choreographer noticed weight
gains or losses and selected the thinnest dancers for the most important
performance roles (Reel et al., 2005). Greenleaf (2004) found that in
addition to coaches being a source of weight pressure, over half of
college synchronized skaters thought that appearance and weight was
important to judges (64%) and teammates (54.7%).
Furthermore, Reel et al. (2010) investigated a sample of college
female athletes (N = 204) with an average age of 20.16 years (SD=
1.31) from three universities that represented 17 sports. Sports includ-
ed both leanness and non-leanness demand sports and athletes repre-
sented all years of school. Researchers discovered in this study that
teammates noticing weight-gain represented the most frequently
reported weight pressure (37%), followed by the importance of body
weight and appearance from friends outside of sport (36%). When sep-
arated by sport, cheerleaders (100%), cross country runners (100%), di-
vers (100%) and gymnasts (80%) were most likely to report teammates
as a source of pressure about body and weight. High school (42%) and
college (30%) female cheerleaders said that having a stunt partner no-
tice weight changes was a source of pressure to them (Reel & Gill,
1996, 1998). In a longitudinal study, Anderson et al. (2012) confirmed
that weight and appearance pressures from coaches and teammates
that female athletes experience at the beginning of a season predicted
increases in body dissatisfaction over the course of the season. Female
athletes may experience unique pressures regarding body, weight and
appearance from various sources within the sport environment and
such pressures are associated with increases in disordered eating atti-
tudes and behaviors. Thus, it becomes essential that researchers have
an accurate way to assess such pressures.
1.2. Assessment of weight pressures in sport
Although earlier studies have examined weight pressures within
select groups of athletes (e.g., Reel & Gill, 1996, 1998, 2001), there
 J.J. Reel et al. / Eating Behaviors 14 (2013) 137–144
has been no established questionnaire to quantify the unique pres-
sures experienced within the sport environment by female athletes.
To address this limitation, Reel et al. (2010) developed the Weight
Pressures in Sport scale for Females (WPS-F) to measure pressures
that female athletes may experience from teammates, coaches, and
others regarding weight, body size and shape, and appearance.
Since the publication of this initial paper, no study has examined
the scale to test further its psychometric properties, including its
factor structure and validity.
In their sample of female collegiate athletes, Reel et al. used explor-
atory procedures to identify four factors: 1) Weight Pressures from
Coach/Teammates/Sport (e.g., weight pressures associated with com-
ments from coach and teammates); 2) Self-consciousness of Weight
and Appearance (e.g., uniform as a weight pressure); 3) Importance of
Weight and Appearance (e.g., importance of weight and appearance
to family and friends); and 4) Weight Limit (e.g., weight requirements
for sport). They also established the factor's internal consistency reli-
abilities, but provided only scant information about the factors' validity.
Although this study represented an important initial step to accurately
measure pressures within the sport environment, it was limited in
that they were unable to confirm the factor structure and did not exam-
ine the sport pressure factors in relation general sociocultural pressures
about weight and appearance to determine if the sport pressures added
anything unique to the understanding of body image concerns and
disordered eating within female athletes.
Until the development of the Weight Pressures in Sport scale for
female athletes (WPS-F; Reel et al., 2010), there was no systematic
way to assess the pressures that athletes experience. Since its inception,
no other study has examined the scale's psychometric properties, in
particular comparing it to a general measure of sociocultural pressures
about weight and appearance. Thus, in this study, we test the WPS-F's
psychometric properties, including its factor structure and its validity
relative to a general measure of pressures.
Thus, given that only one previous study (i.e., Reel et al., 2010) has
attempted to identify and quantify the unique pressures that athletes
experience about their bodies and weight from within their sport, the
first goal of the current study was to test the factor structure of this
measure the WPS-F, in an independent sample of female collegiate
athletes. Taking this approach would allow for the determination of
what underlying factors best explained the weight and body pressures
that female athletes experience within the sport environment.
The second goal of the study was to examine the internal consisten-
cy, reliability, and convergent and concurrent validity of the WPS-F
factors. In their sociocultural model of eating disorders among athletes,
Petrie and Greenleaf (2012) suggested that pressures concerning
weight, dieting, and body size or shape within the sport environment
would be associated with greater internalization, more body dissatisfac-
tion, stronger intent to restrict caloric intake, and higher levels of bulim-
ic symptomatology, which are the constructs examined in this study.
The third goal of the study was to determine the incremental validity
of the WPS-F factors in relation to those disordered eating and body
image outcomes. Petrie and Greenleaf (2012) hypothesized that pres-
sures within the sport environment were unique and distinct from the
general ones experienced through the media. If true, the sport-related
pressures regarding weight and body that female athletes experience
would account for unique variance in these outcomes beyond that
explained by a measure of sociocultural pressures.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants included 414 NCAA, Division-I, female collegiate gym-
nasts (n = 280; 20 programs) and swimmers and divers (n = 134; 6
programs) drawn from 26 different universities that were located with-
in all regions of the U.S. participated. The athletes were matched on BMI,
139
and then grouped into Sample 1 (n = 207; which was used in the
exploratory factor analysis) and Sample 2 (n =207; which was used
in the confirmatory factor analysis). Comparison of the two samples
across all of the study measures revealed no significant between
group differences (p > .05).
For Sample 1, mean age was 19.27 years (SD = 1.16); the majority
were White, Non-Hispanic (82.4%; n = 169), followed by Hispanic
(7.7%; n = 16), Black, Non-Hispanic (5.3%; n = 11), and Asian American
(2.4%; n = 5); the remainder identified as other (1.9%; n = 4) or did not
answer (1.0%; n = 2). Regarding academic status, 67 (32.4%) were
freshmen, 57 (27.5%) sophomores, 48 (23.2%) juniors, and 35 (16.9%)
seniors. Before college the athletes reported competing at the following
levels: Elite/Olympic (15%, n = 31), Junior Olympic/National (70.5%,
n = 146), and lower than Junior Olympic/National (14.5%, n =30). The
athletes' BMI ranged from 17.09 to 31.42 kg/m2 (M = 22.56, SD= 2.04).
For Sample 2, mean age was 19.19 years (SD = 1.66); the majority
were White, Non-Hispanic (83.1%; n = 172), followed by Hispanic
(1.9%; n = 4), Black, Non-Hispanic (2.4%; n = 5), Asian American
(7.2%; n = 15), and Native American (0.5%, n = 1); the remainder
identified as other (3.9%; n = 8) or did not answer (1.0%; n = 20).
Regarding academic status, 62 (30.0%) were freshmen, 63 (30.4%)
sophomores, 51 (24.6%) juniors, and 31 (15.0%) seniors. College the
athletes reported competing at the following levels: Elite/Olympic
(15.9%; n = 33), Junior Olympic/National (69.6%, n = 144), and
lower than Junior Olympic/National (14.5%, n = 30). The athletes'
BMI ranged from 16.26 to 31.12 kg/m 2 (M = 22.53, SD = 2.05).
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1. Sport weight pressures
In addition to filling out demographics information regarding age,
race/ethnicity, year in school, height and weight, the original 20 items
from the Weight Pressures Scale for Female Athletes (Reel et al., 2010)
were used to assess pressures along four dimensions within the sport
environment: (1) weight pressures from coaches/teammates/sport,
(2) self-consciousness of weight and appearance, (3) importance of
weight and appearance, and (4) weight limit. Female athletes
responded to each item, such as “my coach notices if I gain weight,”
using a 6-point scale that ranged from 1, never, to 6, always. Reel et al.
(2010) described the development of the scale's items and established
Cronbach's alphas that ranged from .59 to .88 for the four factors.
2.2.2. General sociocultural pressures
Based on the work of Stice and his colleagues (e.g., Stice & Agras,
1998), this 12-item perceived sociocultural pressures scale (PSPS) was
developed to assess the amount of pressure women experience in
three different areas, including: (1) lose weight, (2) be more attractive,
and (3) have the perfect body. Within each area, athletes rated the pres-
sure they experience from four different sources – family, female
friends, romantic/dating partners, and the media – using a 5-point
scale, that ranges from 1, never, to 5, always. Total scores were calculat-
ed for each area (e.g., lose weight) by averaging the ratings across the
sources; higher scores indicate more perceived pressure. Cronbach's
alphas were .74 (Lose Weight), .81 (Attractive), and .84 (Perfect Body)
in the current study. Two-week test–retest reliability coefficients have
ranged from .75 to .96 in a sample of female undergraduates (Stice &
Agras, 1998). Anderson and Petrie (2012) have provided extensive in-
formation regarding the validity of the original scale.
2.2.3. Internalization
The 9-item Internalization-General factor from the Sociocultural
Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 (SATAQ-3; Thompson,
van den Berg, Roehrig, Guarda, & Heinberg, 2004) was used to determine
the degree to which individuals have internalized general societal
messages from the media (e.g., television, magazines, internet)
about beauty, attractiveness, and body size/shape. For items such as “I
140 J.J. Reel et al. / Eating Behaviors 14 (2013) 137–144
compare my body to the bodies of TV and movie stars,” athletes indicated
their agreement on a 5-point scale that ranged from 1, completely disagree
to 5, completely agree. Total score is the mean, thus can range from 1, low
internalization to 5, high internalization. Cronbach's alpha was .94 in the
current study. Extensive data concerning the scale's validity has been pro-
vided (Thompson et al.).
2.2.4. Body satisfaction
The 7-item Body Factor from the Body Parts Satisfaction Scale-
Revised (BPSS-R; Petrie, Tripp, & Harvey, 2002) was used to assess
satisfaction related to specific body parts that are often associated
with dissatisfaction in women (e.g., hips, thighs). For each body part,
the athletes indicated their level of satisfaction using a 6-point scale
that ranged from 1, extremely dissatisfied, to 6, extremely satisfied. Total
score is the mean, which can range from 1, low satisfaction to 6, high
satisfaction. In a sample of female undergraduates, Petrie et al. reported
internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) of .90 and provided extensive
information regarding the factor's validity. For the current study alpha
was .89.
2.2.5. Dietary intent
The 9-item Dietary Intent Scale (DIS; Stice, 1998) measures re-
strained eating patterns and dieting behaviors. The athletes rated each
dietary behavior, such as “I take small helpings in an effort to control
my weight,” using a 5-point scale that ranged from 1, never, to 5, always.
Total score is the mean, thus ranges from 1, low intent to 5, high intent.
The DIS is internally consistent (Cronbach's alpha = .94) and has been
shown to be reliable over time (1-month test–retest= .92) in a sample
of female undergraduates (Stice & Agras, 1998). Cronbach's alpha was
.91 in the current study. Stice and Shaw (1994) provided extensive in-
formation about the scale's validity.
2.2.6. Bulimic symptomatology
The 36-item Bulimia Test Revised (BULIT-R; Thelen, Mintz, & Vander
Wal, 1996) was used to assess the bulimic symptoms of female athletes
based on DSM-IV criteria (APA, 2000). Athletes rated all 36 items, such
as “Most people I know would be amazed if they know how much food I
can consume in one sitting,” using a 5-point scale ranging from 1,
absence of a disturbance to 5, extreme disturbance. Because only 28
items are scored, total score ranges from 40, no/low symptoms, to 140,
high level of symptoms. Thelen et al. (1996) reported Cronbach's alpha
(.98) and two-month test–retest reliability (.95) in samples of female
undergraduates, and provided extensive data concerning the scale's
validity. Cronbach's alpha was .93 in the current study.
2.2.7. Social desirability
The 12-item Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSD;
Form B, Reynolds, 1982) was used to assess an athlete's tendency to
respond in a socially desirable way. For each item, such as “I'm always
willing to admit it when I make a mistake,” athletes responded true or
false. Total score is the sum and can range from 0, low, to 12, high.
Reynolds (1982) reported a KR-20 of .76 and adequate validity for
the 12-item version of the MCSD-Form B in samples of men and
women. KR-20 was .60 in the current sample.
2.3. Procedure
Following Institutional Review Board approval to conduct the study,
NCAA Division I gymnastic and swimming/diving head coaches were
contacted via email and phone to solicit their participation. We
explained that the study was funded by an NCAA grant and its purpose
was to examine the physical and psychological well-being of collegiate
female student-athletes. We asked that coaches provide permission for
their teams to complete our questionnaires at the beginning of the fall
season and to identify a contact person (e.g., athletic trainer) who
would administer the surveys. Contacts at each participating school
received standardized instructions for the questionnaires, surveys
with separate consent forms, and contact information for the re-
searchers. We called contacts prior to data collection to answer any
questions they might have; each team contact was paid $150.00 after
the completion of the data collection.
Each athlete received an unsealed envelope that contained the
consent form and questionnaires. Athletes did not put their names or
any other identifying information on the questionnaires. Team contacts
read instructions; the athletes then signed the consent forms and
turned them into the team contact. Participation was voluntary, though
no athlete refused to complete the questionnaires. Team contacts left
the area so the athletes could complete the questionnaires in private.
Upon completion, athletes sealed the questionnaires and consent
forms in the envelope, and then wrote an “X” across the flap for privacy.
The team contact collected the sealed envelopes, and mailed them to
us in the provided postage-paid mailing carton. Inspection of the
envelopes revealed that none had been tampered with prior to being
returned.
2.4. Data analysis
Initially, 62 NCAA Division gymnastic head coaches and 45 swim-
ming/diving head coaches were contacted to solicit their participation
in the study. Of the 107 teams contacted, 69 did not respond, 12
responded but declined to participate, and 26 agreed to participate in
the study. For the 26 teams, team contacts initially identified 503 athletes
who were active and on the team rosters. Of the 503 surveys that were
sent, 454 were returned. Of these, 24 were blank (due to players no lon-
ger being on the team) and 16 had significant missing data (e.g., entire
questionnaires were left blank) and were discarded, giving a participation
rate of 91%. To ensure that Samples 1 and 2 were similar to each other,
they were compared on the demographic variables as well as the con-
structs measured in this study. For all variables, no significant differences
were found between the two samples (ps>.05).
With Sample 1, we took an exploratory approach because the initial
factor structure of the WPS-F had only been tested in one sample, the
internal consistency of two of the factors was lower than acceptable
standards (b .70), and the number of factors had not been determined
using parallel analysis. We used MPlus 5.12 (Muthén & Muthén,
1998–2010) to conduct the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), with the
maximum likelihood estimator, a Promax rotation, and squared multi-
ple correlations as the communality estimates. We conducted a parallel
analysis (PA) to determine factor retention (Hayton, Allen, & Scarpello,
2004). Criteria for item retention or deletion included: (a) deleting
items with factor loadings of less than .35; (b) deleting cross-loading
items with a difference between highest loading of less than .15; and
(c) deleting items with absolute loadings higher than a specified value
(e.g., .32) on two or more factors (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
With Sample 2, we tested the factor structure determined via
Sample 1 using a CFA. We used the robust maximum likelihood estima-
tion procedure within MPlus 5.12 (1998–2010). Overall fit was evaluated
using the two-index strategy (Comparative Fit Index [CFI], and Standard-
ized Root Mean Square Residual [SRMR]) suggested by Hu and Bentler
(1999). We tested a second-order model in which an overall “Sport
Pressures” latent variable was introduced as well as the first-order
model in which the factors were allowed simply to correlate. We exam-
ined the factors' convergent validity through their correlations with the
three general pressures scales (PSPS — lose weight, be more attractive,
and have a perfect body) and their concurrent validity through correla-
tions with the SATAQ, BPSS-M, DIS, and BULIT-R. Then, using hierarchical
regression, we tested the factors' incremental validity, which determined
the variance accounted for in each of the outcome variables beyond that
explained by the three measures of general societal pressures. We
followed the procedures outlined by McFarland and Petrie (2012),
which included controlling for social desirability in the model. Thus, at
Step 1 of each model, we entered social desirability; Step 2 we entered
 J.J. Reel et al. / Eating Behaviors 14 (2013) 137–144 141

the three measures of general societal pressures (to lose weight, be more 3.2. Sample 2 — factor structure and validity
attractive, have a perfect body) from the PSPS; and Step 3 we entered the
factors from the WPS-F. Based on the two-index strategy recommended by Hu and Bentler
(1999), the initial CFA of the two-factor, first order solution revealed
that the model fit was just adequate (χ 2 = 410.19, df = 130; CFI = .86;
3. Results SRMR = .08). We then reviewed the standardized factor loadings and
residuals and tested a second two-factor model that contained fewer
3.1. Sample 1 — initial confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis items (Factor 1 — 6 items; Factor 2–5 items). The fit of the shortened
two-factor model was good (χ 2 = 144.21, df = 39; CFI = .93; SRMR =
Bartlett's (1950) test of sphericity (χ 2 = 2152.229, df = 190, .07), and represented a significant improvement over the original
p b .0001) and the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy (long) two factor model, Δ χ 2 = 265.98, Δ df = 91, p b .001; factor
(.88) both provided evidence that item bivariate correlations were ade- intercorrelation was .55. Given the improvement in the shortened
quate for factorability (Worthington & Whittaker, 2006). PA indicated two-factor model, we used it in subsequent analyses. Our test of the
that instead of the four factors found by Reel et al. (2010), only two fac- second order “Sport Pressures” factor (with the two shortened factors)
tors were supported. Based on the criteria for item retention described revealed that this model also fit the data well (χ2 =144.59, df= 40;
above, 10 items were retained for Factor 1 (Coach and Sport Pressures CFI = .93; SRMR= .069). The two factors each loaded significantly on
about Weight; α = .87) and 8 items for Factor 2 (Pressures Regarding the second order factor (Factor 1 = .73 and Factor 2 = .78). See Table 1
Appearance and Performance; α = .90); factor intercorrelation was for standardized factor loadings for the 11 items across the two factors.
.56. See Table 1 for the factor loadings from the EFA for these 18 Cronbach's alphas for the shortened two factors were .86 (Appearance)
items. Coach and Sport Pressures about Weight factor include external and .90 (Weight);
pressures such as coaches that athletes experience and Pressures
Regarding Appearance and Performance factor comprises internal 3.2.1. Convergent and concurrent validity
pressures or an athlete's perception of certain pressures in sports. We present the correlations for the WPS-F short factors and
WPS-F total score with the disordered eating outcomes in Table 2. The
two factors and the total score were significantly correlated with the
three PSPS measures. These results suggest that the WPS-F, which
Table 1 measure pressures in the sport environment concerning appearance
EFA (Sample 1; N = 207) and CFA (Sample 2; N = 207) factor loadings for two-factor and weight, are related moderately to the general societal pressures
solution. the athletes may experience about losing weight, being more attractive,
Item EFA
and having a perfect body.
The factors and the total score also were correlated significantly
Factor 1 Factor 2 CFA
with measures of internalization, dietary intent, and bulimic symp-
1 My team/sport has a weight requirement to .67 −.16 tomatology, though correlations were highest for Factor 2 (Pressures
try out or compete
about Appearance and Performance). According to theory (Petrie &
2 My team/sport should have a weight limit .27 .16
3 Weigh-ins are held periodically throughout .55 −.08 Greenleaf, 2007), these outcomes would result from increased levels
the season of pressures about weight and appearance in the sport environment,
4 My performances would improve if I lost 5 lb .09 .60 (.63) so the significant relationships support the scale's concurrent validity.
5 My teammates notice if I put on weight .21 .51 (.52)
6 My coach encourages me and/or my .76 −.15 (.71)
teammates to maintain a below average
3.2.2. Incremental validity
weight Table 3 presents results related to incremental validity. For internal-
7 My team participates in a weight-training −.00 .04 ization (SATAQ), social desirability at Step 1 explained 5% of the vari-
program during the season ance, F(1, 205) = 10.47, p b .001. At Step 2, we included the three
8 My lightest teammate is at a distinct −.07 .57
general pressures and they accounted for an additional 35% of the inter-
performance advantage
9 My workout/competition attire makes me .01 .83 (.88) nalization variance, F(3, 202)= 39.37, p b .0001. In Step 3, the WPS-F
conscious of my bodily appearance factors were significant, F(2, 200) = 3.23, p b .05, but explained only 2%
10 Spectators make me concerned about my −.03 .92 (.92) of the variance. Overall, more pressure from family, friends, and the
weight and appearance media to lose weight (β = .16), be more attractive (β = .19), and have
11 Body weight and appearance are important to .72 .15 (.85)
my coach
a perfect body (β = .24) were associated with greater levels of internal-
12 Body weight and appearance are important .12 .38 ization about society's body, appearance, and weight ideals.
to my family Step 1, which was the inclusion of social desirability, was significant,
13 Body weight and appearance are important −.05 .43 but only accounted for 3% of the body satisfaction variance, F (1, 205) =
to my friends outside of my sport
6.23, p b .05. Step 2, which included the three general pressures, also
14 Any of my body flaws are readily apparent in −.03 .74 (.68)
my workout/competition attire reached significance, F (3, 202) = 34.70, p b .0001, ΔR2 = .33. The
15 Other team members make comments if I or .41 .19 WPS-F factors, in Step 3, explained an additional 13% of the variance,
a teammate gains weight F (2, 200) = 25.41, p b .0001. The more pressures the athletes experi-
16 My coach notices if I gain weight .66 .26 (.81) enced from family, friends and the media to lose weight (β = −.33)
17 My coach encourages athletes on my team to .92 −.11 (.86)
drop pounds
and within the sport environment about appearance and performance
18 The leanest athletes get chosen for the best .42 .24 (β = −.43), the more dissatisfied they said they were with their bodies.
positions in a game/competition Regarding the athletes' dietary intent, social desirability (Step 1)
19 There are pressures associated with my sport .58 .27 (.72) was significant, but again only explained 2% of the variance,
to lose weight
F(1, 205) = 6.69, pb .05. At Step 2, the three general pressures measures
20 There are pressures associated with my .60 .16 (.62)
sport to maintain a below average weight accounted for an additional 33% of variance, F (3, 202) =32.40, p b .0001.
The inclusion of the WPS-F factors also was significant, F (2, 200)=
Note: Factor 1 — Pressures from Coaches and Sport About Weight; Factor 2 — Pressures
Regarding Appearance and Performance. Boldfaced loadings represent significant
28.85, pb .0001, ΔR2 =.15. Specifically, higher levels of pressure from
loadings on that factor for the EFA. CFA factor loadings were for the two-factor, short family, friends and the media to lose weight (β= .42) and more pres-
form version. sures in the sport environment regarding appearance and performance
142 J.J. Reel et al. / Eating Behaviors 14 (2013) 137–144

Table 2
Correlations and descriptive statistics of WPS-F factors and selected measures (N = 207).

Variable/measure Factor 1— Coach and Sport Factor 2 — Pressures About WPS-F Mean (SD) Range
Pressures About Weight Appearance and Performance total score

PSPS — lose weight .33⁎⁎ .55⁎⁎ .49⁎⁎ 1.90 (0.83) 1.00–4.50

PSPS — be more attractive .31⁎⁎ .47⁎⁎ .44⁎⁎ 2.17 (1.00) 1.00–5.00
PSPS — perfect body .23⁎ .45⁎⁎ .38⁎⁎ 2.05 (1.03) 1.00–5.00
SATAQ — internalization .32⁎⁎ .45⁎⁎ .44⁎⁎ 2.85 (0.98) 1.00–5.00
BPSS — satisfaction w/body −.37⁎⁎ −.63⁎⁎ −.56⁎⁎ 3.91 (0.99) 1.14–6.00
DIS — Dietary Intent .49⁎⁎ .61⁎⁎ .63⁎⁎ 2.21 (0.93) 1.00–4.78
BULIT-R — Bulimic Sympt. .30⁎⁎ .57⁎⁎ .49⁎⁎ 53.81 (19.11) 30.00–120.00

Note: PSPS — Perceived Sociocultural Pressures Scale; SATAQ — Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire; BPSS — Body Parts Satisfaction Scale; DIS — Dietary
Intent Scale; BULIT-R — Bulimia Test Revised.
⁎ p b .001.
⁎⁎ p b .0001.

(β =.31) and from coaches and sport about weight (β= .22) predicted a
greater intention to diet and restrict food intake.
For bulimic symptomatology (BULIT-R), social desirability explained
only 2% of the variance, F (1, 205)= 5.13, p b .05. At Step 2, the inclusion
of the three general pressures accounted for an additional 32% of the
variance, F (3, 202)= 32.17, p b .0001. The WPS-F factors also were
significant, F (2, 200)= 14.61, p b .0001, ΔR2 = .08. Overall, general
pressures from family, friends, and the media to lose weight (β =.24)
and pressures within the sport environment about appearance and
performance (β = .36) were associated with higher levels of bulimic
symptomatology (See Table 3).
4. Discussion
This study demonstrated that the WPS-F was a valid, reliable mea-
sure of sport pressures that can be used to study the risk for disordered
eating behaviors among female athletes. The original 20-item WPS-F
which yielded a 4-factor solution for 16 items with Division I female
collegiate athletes (Reel et al., 2010) was not supported. Instead, a
two-factor, 11-item solution offered the best fit with the data. These
two factors were internally consistent and suggested that the construct
of weight-related pressures was multidimensional with two distinct
factors — pressures about appearance and performance and coach and
sport pressures about weight.
The two WPS-F factors demonstrated good convergent validity
showing moderate correlations with the measures of general socio-
cultural pressures about body, weight, and appearance and good
concurrent validity through their associations with internalization,
body satisfaction, dietary intent and bulimic symptoms. The pressures
athletes experience in the sport environment about appearance and
performance were more strongly related to these outcomes than
was the factor regarding coaches as a source of weight-related
pressure. That is, direct comments have a negative effect, but these
comments have the strongest influence when an athlete feels nega-
tively about her body. One possibility is that athletes who participate
in esthetic sports become de-sensitized to comments about weight
(e.g., coach remarking “you need to drop five pounds”) when they
are constantly exposing their bodies (and perceived imperfections)
in sport. By contrast, coach and weight (Factor 1) could be a stronger
predictor for athletes who do not need to wear revealing uniforms in
their sport.
Regarding the factors' incremental validity, sport pressures contrib-
uted uniquely in explaining female athletes' body dissatisfaction,
dietary intent and bulimic symptoms, suggesting that pressures within
the sport environment are different from the general sociocultural pres-
sures women face on a daily basis and are important for understanding
how female athletes feel about their bodies and how they approach and
respond to food and eating. These findings support Petrie and
Greenleaf's (2007, 2012) model regarding the etiology of disordered
eating among athletes that hypothesized psychosocial variables would
increase female athletes' risk of developing an eating disorder. Specifi-
cally, they suggested that the internalization of sport-related weight
pressures would contribute to body dissatisfaction and dietary intent
among female athletes. Thus, sport pressures represent a unique and
salient feature for female athletes who may be expected to change
their weight, shape and size (Reel, 2012).
Because the WPS-F has been shown to be a valid and reliable mea-
sure of sport pressures, this 11-item shortened version can be used in
both research and clinical settings to assess weight-related pressures
for female athletes. Because athletes have limited time due to training
schedules and other responsibilities, this 11-item version will allow
researchers and clinicians to gather valuable information in a short
amount of time. However, researchers and clinicians may use the
full 20-items, which are provided in Table 1, to assess a broader
range of potential pressures within the sport context for descriptive
purposes and when athletes are not asked to complete a battery of

Table 3
Incremental variance in internalization, body satisfaction, dietary intent, and bulimic symptomatology as explained by two factors of the WPS-F (N = 207).

Internalization Body satisfaction Dietary intent Bulimic symptomatology

B SE B β B SE B β B SE B β B SE B β

Social desirability −0.04 0.02 −0.09 0.006 0.02 0.02 −0.003 0.02 −0.01 −0.10 0.44 −0.01
PSPS
Lose weight 0.19 0.10 0.16⁎ −0.40 0.09 −0.33⁎⁎⁎ 0.34 0.08 0.31⁎⁎⁎ 5.52 1.86 0.24⁎⁎
Be more attractive 0.18 0.09 0.19⁎ 0.07 0.08 0.07 −0.01 0.08 −0.01 0.06 1.65 0.003
Perfect body 0.22 0.09 0.24⁎ −0.08 0.08 −0.08 0.05 0.08 0.05 3.19 1.67 0.17
WPS-F
Appearance 0.07 0.05 0.09 −0.31 0.05 −0.43⁎⁎⁎ 0.21 0.05 0.31⁎⁎⁎ 4.98 0.99 0.36⁎⁎⁎
Weight 0.07 0.05 0.10 −0.02 0.04 −0.03 0.15 0.04 0.22⁎⁎⁎ −0.11 0.91 0.01
Adjusted R2 .40 .47 .48 .41
F[6,200] 23.98⁎⁎⁎ 31.94⁎⁎⁎ 32.36⁎⁎⁎ 24.53⁎⁎⁎

Note: All values reported are from Step 3 of each model. PSPS = Perceived Sociocultural Pressures Scale; WPS-F = Weight Pressures in Sport— Female.
⁎ p b .05.
⁎⁎ p b .01.
⁎⁎⁎ p b .0001.
 J.J. Reel et al. / Eating Behaviors 14 (2013) 137–144
measures that is time consuming and labor intensive. The pressures
identified by the full WPS-F scale can also be used to create comprehen-
sive education programs to prevent body dissatisfaction and disordered
eating among athletes.
The questionnaires asked participants about sensitive information and
the results of this study were based on using entirely self-report mea-
sures. Although every effort was made to maintain confidentiality and
privacy during study procedures, clinical interviews are generally pre-
ferred when collecting psychological data (Reel & Beals, 2009). Another
limitation was that participants only included female college-aged ath-
letes from gymnastics, swimming and diving who may have experienced
unique sport-related pressures. Furthermore, these esthetic sport ath-
letes, who are subjectively judged, viewed by audiences, and wearing
revealing uniforms, may experience a great dose of weight pressures
than athletes participating in non-esthetic sports. Future studies should
include a wider range of sports with the opportunity to compare
pressures across types of sports.
The current study did not include male athletes or non-college aged
female athletes. Therefore, future researchers should broaden the sports
represented in this study to determine which weight pressures are the
strongest predictors of body dissatisfaction and dietary intent as well as
which sports experience the most pressure and highest disordered
eating. Future studies should compare leanness and non-leanness
demand sports to further understand the relationship between weight
pressures in sport with body dissatisfaction and other body-related
outcomes (e.g., social physique anxiety). By developing a better under-
standing of individual pressures for athletes and teams, clinicians can
better educate coaches about the potential adverse effect pressure
may have on an athlete's well-being and health. Prevention efforts can
include education about frequently reported sport-related pressures
and strategies on how to minimize the emphasis on body weight,
shape and appearance. Furthermore, education about how to approach
athletes who are suspected to have disordered eating can be provided
along with necessary treatment referrals.
Researchers can examine the long-term effects of sport pressures on
female athletes' health. For example, in a longitudinal study, Anderson
et al. (2012) found that sport pressures experienced at the beginning
of an athletic season predicted increases in female athletes' body dissat-
isfaction when measured at the end of the season. Whether such dele-
terious effects extend beyond one competitive season, such as even
post-retirement, should be studied.
A version of the scale (i.e., WPS-M) was recently developed to iden-
tify weight pressures relevant for male college athletes (Galli, Reel,
Petrie, Greenleaf, & Carter, 2011). Future studies should further estab-
lish the factor structure, validity, and reliability of that gender-specific
measure. As mentioned, most of the work with weight pressures to
date has been conducted with college-aged athletes, so future studies
might focus on younger ages given the pressures that even adolescent
athletes experience to alter their size, shape and appearance to meet
sport demands (Porter et al., 2012; SooHoo et al., 2011; Voelker,
2012) Additionally, weight pressures of older athletes who compete
beyond their college years in professional, semiprofessional, and recre-
ational settings should be explored to determine similarities and differ-
ences with college samples.
5. Conclusions
The current study determined that the WPS-F was best represented
by a two-factor solution and that these factors provided a valid and
reliable assessment tool for measuring weight and appearance-related
pressures in the sport environment. The shorter, 11-item version of
the WPS-F will provide an efficient way for both researchers and clini-
cians to assess weight-related sport pressures and to identify athletes
who may be more at risk for disordered eating and clinical eating
disorders.
143
Role of funding sources
This study was supported by a grant from the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) Committee on Competitive Safeguards and Medical Aspects of Sports. Beyond
providing funding support, the NCAA had no influence on data collection, data analysis
or results reported in this paper.
Contributors and roles
Justine Reel and Trent Petrie collaborated on the design of this study to further
examine weight pressures in sport and to refine the Weight Pressures in Sport — Females
measure. Sonya SooHoo headed up the data analysis and Carlin Anderson was in charge of
the data collection for this study. Justine Reel and Trent Petrie took the lead on the writing
of this manuscript; however, all authors contributed to the manuscript preparation.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest to report for this study.
Acknowledgment
The authors acknowledge the support of Robert Bucciere, LCSW, in the preparation
of this manuscript.
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