PROCEEDINGS, Thirtieth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering

Stanford University, Stanford, California, January 31-February 2, 2005

SGP-TR-176

NON-CONDESABLE GASES
AT THE MIRAVALLES GEOTHERMAL FIELD

Paul Moya and Eddy Sánchez

Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad, UEN Proyectos y Servicios Asociados

C. S. Recursos Geotérmicos, Apartado Postal 10032-1000
San José, Costa Rica, Centro América
e-mail: pmoya@ice.go.cr , esanchezr@ice.go.cr

ABSTRACT
The Miravalles Geothermal Field has been producing
electric energy since March 1994. It has provided
steam for Unit 1 (55 MWe) since 1994, a Wellhead
Unit (5 MWe) installed in 1995, Unit 2 (55 MWe) in
1998, Unit 3 (29 MWe) in 2000 and Unit 5 (19 MWe,
a binary plant) in year 2004. The total installed
capacity (163 MWe) has been increasing since 1994,
and so have the non-condensable gases in the steam.
With these increases, the compressors at the
generating units have reached their maximum gas
capacity without ejectors, and therefore options to
decrease the non-condensable gases have been
analyzed. Field management strategies have been
implemented in order to minimize the total amount of
non-condensable gases that are sent to the generating
units.
Figure. 1. Miravalles Geothermal Field.
INTRODUCTION
binary plant came online in January of 2004. As
The Miravalles geothermal field is located on the indicated in Table 1, two wellhead units from the
southwestern slope of the Miravalles volcano. The Comisión Federal de Electricidad (Mexico) were in
extent of the geothermal field already identified is operation while Unit 2 was being built, but these
greater than 21 km2, of which about 16 km2 are have been decommissioned.
dedicated to production and 5 km2 to injection. There
are 53 geothermal wells (Figure 1), including Plant Power Belongs Start- Final
observation, production and injection wells, whose Name (MW) to up Date Date
depths range from 900 to 3,000 meters. The Unit 1 55 ICE 3/1994
production wells produce between 3 and 12 MW WHU-1 5 ICE 1/1995
each, and the injection wells each accept between 70 WHU-2 5 CFE 9/1996 4/1999
and 450 kg/s. The reservoir has a temperature of WHU-3 5 CFE 2/1997 4/1998
about 240 oC and is water-dominated (Moya, 2003). Unit 2 55 ICE 8/1998
The Miravalles geothermal field has been producing Unit 3 29 ICE 3/2000
since 1994. Normally, two or three production wells (BOT)
supply two-phase fluid to each separation station. Unit 5 19 ICE 1/2004
Seven separation stations now supply the steam
needed for Unit 1, Unit 2, Unit 3 and one active Table 1: Units at the Miravalles geothermal field.
Wellhead Unit. At present there is a need to supply
enough steam to produce 55 MWe (Unit 1), 5 MWe In Table 1, the abbreviations stand for: ICE - Instituto
(Wellhead Unit), 55 MWe (Unit 2) and 29 MWe Costarricense de Electricidad; CFE - Comisión
(Unit 3), for a total of 144 MWe. This capacity was Federal de Electricidad (México); WHU - Wellhead
increased to 163 MWe when a bottoming-cycle Unit; and BOT – build-operate-transfer.

NON-CONDENSABLE GAS EVOLUTION
Data from the first wells drilled at the Miravalles
geothermal field showed that there was a wide range
of concentrations of non-condensable gases in the
steam. As new wells were drilled, it was determined
that, under natural conditions, the field´s non-
condensable gas content ranged from 0.4 to 1.2 %
w/w. Figure 2b shows the natural distribution of
non-condensable gas contents. In Figure 2a the
values are disturbed by air-drilling, which had begun
in 1992.

a) 1994 b) 1995
301000

300000 PGM-11 PGM-11

PGM-05 PGM-05
PGM-10 PGM-10 1.5
299000 PGM-01 PGM-01 1.4
PGM-31 PGM-31 1.3
1.2
298000 PGM-17 PGM-17 1.1
PGM-03 PGM-03 1
PGM-46
PGM-46 0.9
297000 PGM-20 0.8
PGM-21 PGM-20 PGM-21 0.7
PGM-12 PGM-12 0.6
296000
0.5
0.4
0.3
295000

294000
405000 406000 407000 408000 409000 405000 406000 407000 408000 409000

0 1000 2000 m

Figure. 2. Distribution of non-condensable gases in 1994 and 1995 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)

dioxide (CO2) present in the reservoir as well as the

All values of non-condensable gas concentration
presented here are in weight percent (weight/weight).
In Figure 2b, it can be seen that in 1995 the non-
condensable gases in the northern part of the field (at
wells PGM-11and PGM-10) were 1.21 % and 0.48%
respectively, in the central part (at PGM-46) they
were 0.52 %, and in the southern zone (at well
PGM-21) they were 0.86 %. Almost every well fell
within the range mentioned above (Sánchez, 2004a).
Non-condensable gas contents have been affected
during commercial operation by the following
factors:
1. The “bubble effect”, which takes place when
drilling with aerated fluids (to protect open fractures)
causes the upper layers of the reservoir to become
richer in non-condensable gases, due to the carbon
nitrogen (N2) provided by air injection when drilling.
Figure 3 shows the non-condensable gas content
behavior in well PGM-21 from 1994 to 2004. The
gas content was close to 1.3 % initially and decreased
a year later to around 0.8 % (Figure 3, yellow box).
A similar behavior of the non-condensable gases is
shown in Figures 4 and 5, in which the wells
PGM-10 (northern zone) and PGM-20 (southern
zone), respectively, experienced an increase followed
by a decrease within a year.
2. Changes in the hydrogeology of the system due to
continuous exploitation cause fluids which may have
high or low gas contents to move from one sector of
the field to another.
 3.2 6,000
Unit 1 Unit 1 & 2 Unit 1, 2 & 3
2.8 5,500
gas % (w/w) in steam at 7,0 bar a

2.4 5,000

Chloride (ppm)
2.0 4,500
Westhern
injection
1.6 4,000

1.2 3,500

0.8 3,000

0.4 2,500

0.0 2,000
94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01-
- - - - - - - - - - - -
01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01
Date
Gas % (w/w) in steam Chloride (ppm) Average Curve (gas % w/w in steam)

Figure. 3. History of non-condensable gases in well PGM-21 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)

20 1.0

gas % (w/w) in steam at 7,0 bar a

18 0.9

16 0.8
N 2, CO2/10 (mmol/Kg)

14 0.7

12 0.6

10 0.5

8 0.4

6 0.3

4 0.2

2 0.1

0 0.0
85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96
6-

6-

6-

6-

6-

6-

6-

6-

6-

6-

6-

6-
-0

-0

-0

-0

-0

-0

-0

-0

-0

-0

-0

-0
07

07

07

07

07

07

07

07

07

07

07

07

Date

CO2/10 mmol/kg N2 mmol/kg Gas % (w/w) in steam

Figure. 4. History of non-condensable gases in well PGM-10 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)
 40 1.20

gas % (w/w) in steam at 7,0 bar a

35 1.05
N2, CO2/10 (mmol/Kg)

30 0.90

25 0.75

20 0.60

15 0.45

10 0.30

5 0.15

0 0.00
93

93

94

94

94

94

95

95

95

95

96

96

96
9-

2-

3-

6-

9-

2-

3-

6-

9-

2-

3-

6-

9-
-0

-1

-0

-0

-0

-1

-0

-0

-0

-1

-0

-0

-0
15

15

15

15

15

15

15

15

15

15

15

15

15
Date

CO2/10 mmol/kg N2 mmol/kg Gas % (w/w) in steam

Figure. 5. History of non-condensable gases in well PGM-20 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)

3. Injected fluids, which are degassed, travel back to
some production sectors, causing a decrease in the
non-condensable gases in those particular zones. In
Figure 3 (green box) it can be seen that the non-
condensable gases decreased from the end of the year
1999 to the end of 2004. The decrease coincided
with an increase in the chloride content, also shown
in Figure 3 (green box), which indicates that injected
water was reaching that sector of the production zone
4. Sustained production due to continuous
exploitation generates a pressure drawdown in the
reservoir and an increase in the steam fraction. This
increases the steam fraction, but at the same time
increases the non-condensable gases in the steam.
Figure 6 shows the behavior of the non-condensable
gases in well PGM-10. The well was drilled during
1984, but air-drilling in the surrounding wells (PGM-
09 and PGM-31) increased the non-condensable
gases to a value close to 0.8% in early 1994. The
gases then began to decrease (until the end of 1997)
and finally increased from the end of 1997 to the end
of 2004. The increment in the non-condensable gases
coincided with an increase in enthalpy values for the
same period (1997 to 2004). In well PGM-10, the
pressure drop (close to 2 bar/year from 1998 to 2003)
caused the wellhead pressure to decrease, impeding
PGM-10 from supplying its two-phase flow to the
gathering system, which finally caused the well to
stop producing.
The bubble effect was transitory; that is, it increased
the non-condensable gases up to 100% in some cases,
but it disappeared within the following year, leaving
non-condensable gas content of the particular zone at
its natural level. The other three effects
(hydrogeology, injected fluids and pressure drop)
have been present since production started and have
influenced the increase in non-condensable gases one
way or another. Figures 7 and 8 show that, in several
production wells and reservoir sectors (respectively),
the non-condensable gases have been increasing from
1994 to 2004. It can be seen from these two figures
that the non-condensable gas increase in the reservoir
has taken place since the three major units (Units 1, 2
and 3) began been producing continuously.
The bubble effect due to air-drilling, as well as the
hydrogeologic effects and pressure decline caused by
the continuous exploitation of the reservoir, have
produced a strong increase in the non-condensable
gases at the Miravalles geothermal field. Only the
effect of injected fluids has tended to decrease the
non-condensable gas content.
 3.2 1,600
Unit 1 Unit 1 & 2 Unit 1, 2 & 3
2.8 1,500
gas % (w/w) in steam at 7,0 bar a

2.4
1,400

Enthalpy (Kj/Kg)
2.0
1,300
1.6
1,200
1.2
Westhern
injection 1,100
0.8

0.4 1,000

0.0 900
94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1-
-0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0
01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01
Date
Gas % (w/w) in steam Enthalpy Average Curve (% gas in steam)

Figure. 6. History of non-condensable gases in well PGM-10 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)

3.0
Unit 1 Unit 1 & 2 Unit 1, 2 & 3
2.7
gas % (w/w) in steam at 7,0 bar a

2.4

2.1

1.8

1.5

1.2

0.9

0.6
Westhern
injection
0.3

0.0
94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01-
- - - - - - - - - - - -
01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01
Date
PGM-10 PGM-11 PGM-63 PGM-07 PGM-45 PGM-62 PGM-01

Figure. 7. History of non-condensable gases from 1994 to 2004 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)
 a) 1999 b) 2004
301000
PGM-14

PGM-60 PGM-60
300000 PGM-62
PGM-63 PGM-11
PGM-05 PGM-05 3
PGM-10 PGM-11 PGM-07
2.8
PGM-10 PGM-65
PGM-42 PGM-42 2.6
299000 PGM-01 PGM-01
PGM-31 2.4
PGM-31
PGM-08 PGM-66 2.2
PGM-08 PGM-44
PGM-43 PGM-43 2
298000 PGM-17 PGM-17
1.8
PGM-03
PGM-45 PGM-03 PGM-45 1.6
PGM-46 PGM-46 PGM-19
1.4
297000 PGM-49 PGM-47 PGM-49
PGM-47 1.2
PGM-20 PGM-21 PGM-20 PGM-21 1
PGM-12 0.8
PGM-12
296000 0.6
0.4
0.2

295000

294000
405000 406000 407000 408000 409000 405000 406000 407000 408000 409000

0 1000 2000 m

Figure. 8. Distribution of non-condensable gases from 1999 to 2004 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)

Diverting more fluid to the western sector caused an

FIELD STRATEGIES
The continuous exploitation of the reservoir has
tended to increase the non-condensable gases in the
reservoir, which in turn has provoked the
establishment of a program of detailed monitoring of
the non-condensable gases at each well in order to
determine the principal causes of the increase, and
also the implementation of injection and production
strategies to improve the current operating
conditions.
The studies that have been carried out have indicated
that the principal cause of the increase in non-
condensable gases is the pressure decline of the
reservoir. In order to minimize this tendency, three
different strategies have been or will be implemented.
First, by increasing the volume of fluids injected in
the western sector (wells PGM-22 and PGM-24), it
was possible to decrease the non-condensable gases
in the vicinity of well PGM-45 and also in all of the
wells located in the western sector. Figure 9 shows
that well PGM-45 had a trend of increasing non-
condensable gases from early 1999 to late 2003.
immediate decrease in the non-condensable gases
reported in this well (a positive effect). Also, the
enthalpy began to decrease as a consequence of the
arrival of injected fluids in the reservoir near well
PGM-45.
Since positive results have been obtained by injecting
hot fluids in the western and southern parts of the
production zone, in the near future it is planned to
inject more hot fluids into PGM-63, which could
contribute to stopping the current pressure drop as
well as decreasing the non-condensable gases in the
northern zone. Wells such as PGM-01, PGM-10 and
also PGM-63 were initially production wells (in
1994), but due to the pressure drop in the northern
zone they have had to be taken out of production.
Second, the studies carried out have indicated that the
non-condensable gases were increasing rapidly in the
northern part of the production zone, that is, near
wells PGM-11, PGM-60 and PGM-62. It has been
necessary to produce these wells at a minimum flow
rate in order to reduce the pressure drop and
consequently the non-condensable gas contents. The
resulting deficit in steam supply for Unit 3 (located in
the northern sector) is compensated for by steam The production from the acidic zone will add to the
from the central part of the field. This strategy has at steam supply in the northern zone (Unit 3), and will
least allowed the non-condensable gas content in that stabilize or slow down the pressure decline and
particular area to be kept constant. Third, two consequently moderate the increase in non-
existing acidic wells (PGM-02 and PGM-06) are condensable gas content in that sector of the
planned to be placed online to extract fluids from the reservoir.
“acidic zone” instead of the main production zone.

3.2 1,600
Unit 1 Unit 1 & 2 Unit 1, 2 & 3
2.8 1,500
gas % (w/w) in steam at 7,0 bar a

2.4
Westhern 1,400
injection

Entalpy (Kj/Kg)
2.0
1,300
1.6
1,200
1.2

1,100
0.8

0.4 1,000

0.0 900
94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01- 01-
- - - - - - - - - - - -
01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01
Date
Gas % (w/w) in steam Enthalpy Average Curve (gas % w/w in steam)

Figure. 9. History of non-condensable gases in well PGM-45 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)

supplied steam to operate, decreasing the efficiency

of the energy generation.
IMPROVEMENTS Higher compressor capacities were specified for the
new units coming online, but nevertheless those
The strategies described in the above section have capacities are becoming too small to process the
allowed optimization of the available steam supply current levels of non-condensable gases being sent to
for the generating plants. A new strategy has been the units.
established for managing the steam supply from the Initially, separation stations 1, 2 and 3 supplied their
field. Initially (in 1994) there was no particular steam to Unit 1, while separation stations 4, 5 y 6
strategy for supplying steam to the various units, but supplied their steam to Unit 2. Separation station 7
now it is important to manage the supply based on supplies steam to Unit 3, but this unit can also receive
non-condensable gas contents, in order to maximize steam from a pipeline coming from separation
the final power output. station1.
The compressor capacities for the main units are Figure 10 indicates that, by the end of 2003, the
0.66% (Unit 1), 0.88% (Unit 2) and 1.5 % (Unit 3). compressor capacity of Unit 1 (0.66%) was
If the non-condensable gas content is higher than the insufficient for the non-condensable gases coming
compressor capacity, then the ejectors provide the from separation stations 1 (1.66%), 2 (1.0%) and 3
extra capacity needed to process the steam. (0.46%), with a weighted average of 0.94%. On the
Unfortunately, the ejectors require some of the other hand, the compressor capacity of Unit 2
(0.88%) was much higher than the capacity required coming from separation station 1 was sent to Unit 2
for the steam from separation stations 4 (0.37%), 5 and vice versa, that is, the steam from separation
(0.75%) and 6 (0.44%), with an average of 0.58%. station 4 was sent to Unit 1. The interchange resulted
After studying the case and looking for the best in a better distribution of the non-condensable gases
option, it was decided to interchange separation among the compressors (Figure 11).
stations 1 and 4. Beginning in early 2004 the steam

1.8
% gas w/w in steam at 7,0 bar a

1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8 1.66
0.7
0.6
0.5 1.00 1.08 1.08
0.94
0.4 0.75
0.3 0.58
0.2 0.46 0.37 0.44
0.1
0.0
1

7
t1

t2

t3
te

te

te

te

te

te

te
ni

ni

ni
lli

lli

lli

lli

lli

lli

lli
U

U
te

te

te

te

te

te

te
Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa
Gas extraction capacity: Compressor Compressor + Ejectors

Figure. 10. Non-condensable gases per satellite in 2003 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)

1.8
% gas w/w in steam at 7,0 bar a

1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7 1.43 1.43
0.6
0.5 1.06
0.91
0.4
0.3 0.63 0.67 0.63
0.2 0.4 0.46 0.48
0.1
0.0
4

7
t1

t2

t3
te

te

te

te

te

te

te
ni

ni

ni
lli

lli

lli

lli

lli

lli

lli
U

U
te

te

te

te

te

te

te
Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Gas extraction capacity: Compressor Compressor + Ejectors

Figure. 11. Non-condensable gases per satellite in 2004 (%w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)

The effect of the switch can be observed in Figures measured data and the maximum compressor
12 and 13. Figure 12 shows the measured non- capacity at Unit 1. Once the interchange was made, a
condensable gas data, the average curve for the decrease in the total non-condensable gas content was
observed (Figure 12). In contrast, Figure 13 shows valves (upstream of the steam collectors of these
an inverse effect, that is, an increase occurred after Units) that would allow the steam from separation
switching the non-condensable gases from the stations 1 and 4 to be variably distributed to Units 1
separation stations 1 and 4. Since the non- and 2. This would permit the non-condensable gas
condensable gas content in the reservoir keeps levels to be matched as closely as possible to the
increasing, due to continuous exploitation, the gas available compressor capacities.
content at the three units has consequently increased The second and most expensive option would be to
(Figures 12, 13 and 14). increase the non-condensable extraction capacity of
Even though interchanging the separation stations the main units. This can be done by: a) increasing
had a positive effect, at present the non-condensable the current capacity of the compressor (improving it),
gas contents are getting close to the maximum b) adding a vacuum pump to the system, c)
compressor capacities at Units 1, 2 and 3 (Figures 12, increasing the existing ejectors (increasing the
13 and 14). amount of steam required per ejector), or d) buying a
In order to fully utilize the compressor capacities at new compressor with the required capacity.
Units 1 and 2, there is the option of installing a set of

1.2
Unit 1, Steam Collector
1.1
Interchange: Satellite 1 by Satellite 4
gas % (w/w) in steam at 7,0 bar a

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5
-9 -9 -9 -9 -9 -9 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0
01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01
0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1-
Date
Gas % (w/w) in steam Compressor capacity Average curve (gas % in steam)

Figure. 12. History of non-condensable gases at Unit 1 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)
 1.2
Unit 2, Steam Collector
1.1
Interchange: Satellite 1 by Satellite 4
gas % (w/w) in steam at 7,0 bar a

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
4 5 6 97 8 9 0 1 2 3 04 5
1 -9 -9 -9 1- -9 -9 -0 -0 -0 -0 1- -0
-0 01 01 0 -0
1 01 01 -0
1 01 01 0 -0
1
01 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 01 0 1- 0 1- 01 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 01
Date
Gas % (w/w) in steam Compressor capacity Average curve (gas % in steam)

Figure. 13. History of non-condensable gases at Unit 2 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a)

1.6
1.5
1.4
gas % (w/w) in steam at 7,0 bar a

1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

- 94 -9
5
-9
6
-9
7
-9
8
-9
9
-0
0
-0
1
-0
2
-0
3
-0
4
-0
5
01 01 01 01 01 01 -0
1
-0
1 01 01 01 01
0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 0 1- 01 01 01
-
01
-
01
-
01
-
Date
Gas % (w/w) in steam Compressor capacity Average curve (gas % in steam)

Figure. 14. History of non-condensable gases at Unit 3 (% w/w in steam separated at 7 bar a) (Sánchez,
2004b).
 Sánchez, E. (2004a), "Evaluación y tendencias del
FINAL REMARKS contenido de gases en el vapor entregado a las
unidades 1 y 2 de Miravalles, periodo 2000-2004,”
Air-drilling caused a temporary increase in non- ICE Internal Report, Equipo de Geoquímica, Area
condensable gases in the Miravalles reservoir that de Geociencias, 18 de setiembre de 2004.
lasted for about a year.
The arrival of the injected fluids to some production Sánchez, E. (2004b), "Evaluación del contenido de
sectors has contributed to a decrease of the non- gas en el vapor entregado a la Unidad 3 de Miravalles
condensable gases in those sectors. So far, most of y pozos del Satélite 7, causas y consecuencias,” ICE
the production wells in the western and southern Internal Report, Equipo de Geoquímica, Area de
sectors have been benefited from hot injection. Geociencias, 31 de octubre de 2004.
Hot fluid injection into PGM-63 should contribute to
stopping the current pressure drop as well as
decreasing the non-condensable gases in the northern
zone.
Minimum flow production from the wells located in
the northern sector has at least allowed the non-
condensable gas content in that particular area to be
kept constant.
Wells PGM-02 and PGM-06 are planned to be placed
online to extract fluids from the “acidic zone” instead
of the northern sector. This will allow a reduction of
both, the pressure drop and the non-condensable
gases in this part of the reservoir.
The pressure drop in the reservoir, due to continuous
exploitation, is the principal cause of the increase in
the non-condensable gas content of the system.
Interchanging the fluids from separation stations 1
and 4 contributed to obtaining a better distribution of
the non-condensable gases at Units 1 and 2.
At the present non-condensable gas levels, the
compressors of the main units are very close to their
maximum capacities. The trend of increasing non-
condensable gases suggests that in the near future the
current compressor capacities will be exceeded.
A set of valves installed upstream of the steam
collectors of Units 1 and 2 will allow diversion of
part of the non-condensable gases to the compressor
that is not operating at its maximum capacity, thus
optimizing the current compressor capacities.
Under normal exploitation of the reservoir, it is
expected that the trend of increasing non-condensable
gas contents is going to persist. Investments in
higher extraction capacities are foreseen at the
generating units.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Roger Henneberger (GeothermEx,
Inc.) for editing and improving the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Moya, P., (2003), "The Costa Rican Geothermal

Energy Development,” The IERE Central America
Forum Transnational Electrical Interconnections and
Sustainability in Central America, Session 2,
November 24-25, 2003. San José, Costa Rica.