Composite Materials and Structures

Semester-VII
Composite
Materials and
Structures
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The aim of this publication is to supply information taken from sources believed to be valid and
reliable. This is not an attempt to render any type of professional advice or analysis, nor is it to
be treated as such. While much care has been taken to ensure the veracity and currency of the
information presented within, neither the publisher nor its authors bear any responsibility for
any damage arising from inadvertent omissions, negligence or inaccuracies (typographical or
factual) that may have found their way into this book.
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B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,
APRIL/MAY 2008
Seventh Semester
Mechanical Engineering
COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
Answer ALL questions
PART A (10 ë 2 = 20 marks)
1. What do you mean by composite material?
2. What is mean by Fiber – reinforced composite material? Give an example.
3. Define the rule of mixture used to determine the material properties.
4. Define
(a) Lamina
(b) Laminate.
5. What is the function of caul plate?
6. Define cross – ply laminate.
7. What are the characteristics of carbon fiber?
8. Why low-modulus foam or honeycomb core is used in the middle of the

sandwich beam?
9. Differentiate between bag moulding and compression moulding.
10. State the impartance of Fiber surface treatments.
PART B (5 ë 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) What are the advantages of composite materials in compare
with isotropic materials.
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5.4 B.E./B.Tech. Question Papers
(ii) State various applications of composite materials.

(iii) Differentiate between isotropic, anisotropic and orthotropic
materials with suitable example.
Or
(b) (i) State the generalised Hooke’s law applicable for orthotropic
material.
(ii) Applying Maxwell –
Betti Reciprocal theorem, drive the
stiffness matrix for 2D – plane stress fiber reinforced lamina.
12. (a) Explain Autoclave molding, Filament Winding and Pultrusion.

Or
(b) Explain Transfer molding.
13. (a) What is Maximum Strain theory, Tsai Hill Theory and Tsai Wu Theory.
Or
(b) What are the applications of Composite Materials.
14. (a) Explain the production of Carbon Fibres.

Or
(b) What are resins, explain in detail.
15. (a) What are the materials used for sandwich construction? What are
the applications of Sandwich structures.
Or
(b) (i) For a graphite/epoxy unidirectional lamina, find the following.
(i) Compliance matrix.
(ii) Minor poisons ratio.
(iii) Reduced stiffness matrix.
(iv) Strains in the 1- 2 co-ordinate system if the applied stresses
are s1 = 2 MPa, s2 = -3 MPa, t12 = 4 MPa,
E1 = 181 GPa, E2 = 10.3 GPa, u12 = 0.28, G12 = 7.17 GPa.
(b) (ii) Find the following for a 60° angle lamina of graphite/epoxy.
E1 = 181 GPa, E2 = 10.3 GPa, u12 = 0.28, G12 = 7.17 GPa.
(a) Transformed compliance matrix
(b) Transformed reduced stiffness matrix
If the applied stress is sx = 2 MPa, sy = -3MPa, txy = 4 MPa,
also find
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Composite Materials and Structures (April/May 2008) 5.5
(c) Global strains

(d) Local strains
(e) Local stresses
(f) Principal stresses
(g) Maximum shear stress
(h) Principal strains
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Solutions
PART A
1. A combination of two or more materials (reinforcing elements, fillers,
and composite matrix binder), differing in form or composition on a
macroscale. The constituents retain their identities, that is, they do
not dissolve or merge completely into one another although they act
in concert. Normally, the components can be physically identified and
exhibit an interface between one another. Examples are cermets and
metal-matrix composites.
2. A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) consists of three components:

(i) The fibers as the discontinuous or dispersed phase,
(ii) The matrix as the continuous phase, and
(iii) The fine interphase region, also known as the interface.
This is a type of advanced composite group, which makes use of rice
husk, rice hull, and plastic as ingredients. This technology involves a
method of refining, blending, and compounding natural fibers from
cellulosic waste streams to form a high-strength fiber composite material
in a polymer matrix. The designated waste or base raw materials used in
this instance are those of waste thermoplastics and various categories of
cellulosic waste including rice husk and saw dust.
3. The rule-of-mixtures model is used to describe three-dimensional solids
having an arbitrary number of material phases with arbitrary orientations
and volume fractions. Orientations are defined for each phase using a triad
of space-fixed rotation angles (g , b , a ) in a 3-2-1 sequence. These angles
rotate the composite material frame to the phase frame. The orientation
of each phase is defined by starting with the phase frame aligned with the
composite frame and rotating the phase material frame g degrees about
the 3-axis of the composite material frame, then rotating the phase frame
b degrees about the 2-axis of the composite frame, and finally rotating the
phase frame a degrees about the 1-axis of the composite frame. Rule-of-
mixtures composites are, in general, fully anisotropic.
4. The Laminate model is used to describe laminated solids and shells. In
this construction, adjacent layers (or laminae or plies) are arranged and
the orientation of each layer is defined by a single constant angle θ. Each
layer may be a unique material and have a unique constant thickness. The
laminate model uses classical lamination theory (CLT) to calculate the
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membrane, bending, and membrane-bending coupling stiffness matrices

for a laminated shell.
A lamina is a flat (or sometimes curved) arrangement of unidirectional
(or woven) fibers suspended in a matrix material. A lamina is generally
assumed to be orthotropic, and its thickness depends on the material
from which it is made.
5. Smooth metal plates, free of surface defects, same size and shape as
that of a composite lay-up, used immediately in contact with the lay-up
during the curing process to transmit normal pressure and to a smooth
surface on the finished laminate.
6. A laminate in which the ply orientations are oriented at right angles to each
other, with ply orientations limited to 0° and 90° only. It is usually best to
arrange stacking sequences with fibers oriented in different directions.
7. Reinforcing fiber known for its light weight, high strength and high
stiffness produced by pyrolysis of an organic precursor fiber in an inert
atmosphere at temperature above 1000 °C. Can also be graphitised by
heat-treating above 2500 °C.
8. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher
thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness
with overall low density.
Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyur-
ethane, polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams,
and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-
cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.
9. Compression molding is a method of molding in which the molding

material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mold
cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is
applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat
and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The
process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either
in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms. Compression
molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding
complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements.
A process using a two-sided mould set that shapes both surfaces of
the panel. On the lower side is a rigid mould and on the upper side is
a flexible membrane or vacuum bag. The flexible membrane can be a
reusable silicone material or an extruded polymer film. Then, vacuum
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is applied to the mould cavity. This process can be performed at either

ambient or elevated temperature with ambient atmospheric pressure
acting upon the vacuum bag. Most economical way is using a venturi
vacuum and air compressor or a vacuum pump.
10. The fiber treatment time and the MAH-PP concentration influenced
the mechanical properties of the composites. Flexural strength of
the composites with MAH-PP treated fibers was higher than that of
unmodified fibers, and increased with fiber loading. The cyclic-dynamic
values at an increasing load indicated that the coupling agent reduces
the progress of damage. Dynamic strength (dynamic failure stress at
load increasing test) of the MAH-PP modified composites is therefore
raised by about 40 %. SEM investigations confirm that the increase in
properties is caused by improved fiber-matrix adhesion. There was less
inclination for fibers to pull out of the matrix.
PART B
11. (a) (i) The advantages of composite materials
Cost: parts manufactured without Good resistance to ageing, even
machining phase and, depending outdoors (UV, thermal shocks,
on the technique, low investment etc.)
levels in tools
Excellent weight/mechanical Self-extinguishing, non toxicity
strength ratio of gases
Possibility of insert Thermal, electric and phonic
overmoulding and adjunction of insulation
accessories
Perfectly suited to aesthetics of Possibility of obtaining complex
modern, functional shapes shapes and integrating functions
Does not corrodes
11. (a) (ii) The major applications include,

(1) Industry
(2) Railway transport and other types of transport
(3) Electrical
(4) Military including ballistic
(5) Naval aeronautic
(6) Chemicals anticorrosion
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(7) Medical
(8) Wind turbines
11. (a) (iii) The word “isotropy” is related with uniformity. The meaning
of the word itself is “uniformity in all directions.” As stated in the
introduction, the meaning may slightly differ according to the subject
area. For example, when talking about the isotropy of a material or
mineral, it means having the same properties in all directions. In
industrial processes isotropy means having the same rate in all the steps
regardless of the direction. Molecules having kinetic energy are said to be
moving randomly to any direction. Therefore, in a given time, there will
be many molecules moving in a similar direction, hence show isotropy.
Isotropy can be a property of some materials. Those materials will have
the same properties in all the directions (example: Amorphous solids).
For example, if a solid expands in a similar manner in all directions,
when heat is applied, is said to be isotropic.
Anisotropy, on the other hand, is dependent on the direction. It is the
opposite of isotropy. The measured properties of a material differ in
various directions in anisotropy. These properties can be physical or
mechanical properties like conductivity, tensile strength or absorbance.
Like the word isotropy, anisotropy also has slightly different meanings
in different subjects where it is used. Normally, liquids have no order
in molecules. Anisotropic liquids are liquid with a structural order in
contrast to other common liquids. The sedimentary materials can have
electrical anisotropy, where the electrical conductivity differs from one
direction to another direction. The rock forming minerals are anisotropic
in relative to their optical properties. The orientation of nuclei of a
molecule differs with the strength of the applied magnetic field in
NMR spectroscopy. In this case, anisotropic systems are referred to the
molecules with high electron density. Because of the anisotropic effect
(in molecules with high electron density), the applied magnetic field
is felt differently to the molecule (most often less than the real value);
therefore, the chemical shift varies. In fluorescence spectroscopy also
anisotropic measurement of the fluorescence polarization is used, to
determine the molecular structures. Further, anisotropy is a common
concept in medicine when talking about the ultrasound imaging.
An orthotropic material has two or three mutually orthogonal twofold axes
of rotational symmetry so that its mechanical properties are, in general,
different along each axis. Orthotropic materials are thus anisotropic;
their properties depend on the direction in which they are measured. An
isotropic material, in contrast, has the same properties in every direction.
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One common example of an orthotropic material with two axis of symmetry

would be a polymer reinforced by parallel glass or graphite fibers. The
strength and stiffness of such a composite material will usually be greater
in a direction parallel to the fibers than in the transverse direction. Another
example would be a biological membrane, in which the properties in the
plane of the membrane will be different from those in the perpendicular
direction. Such materials are sometimes called transverse isotropic.
11. (b) (i) Some engineering materials, including certain piezoelectric

materials (e.g. Rochelle salt) and 2-ply fiber-reinforced composites, are
orthotropic.
By definition, an orthotropic material has at least 2 orthogonal planes of
symmetry, where material properties are independent of direction within
each plane. Such materials require 9 independent variables (i.e. elastic
constants) in their constitutive matrices.
In contrast, a material without any planes of symmetry is fully anisotropic
and requires 21 elastic constants, whereas a material with an infinite
number of symmetry planes (i.e. every plane is a plane of symmetry) is
isotropic, and requires only 2 elastic constants.
Hooke’s law in compliance form
By convention, the 9 elastic constants in orthotropic constitutive
equations are comprised of 3 Young's modulii Ex, Ey, Ez, the 3 poisson’s
ratios nyz, nzx, nxy, and the 3 shear modulii Gyz, Gzx, Gxy.
The compliance matrix takes the form,
 1 v yx v zx 
 − 0 0 0 
 Ex Ey Ez 
 v 1 v zy 
 − xy − 0 0 0 
e
 xx   E x Ey Ez  s xx 
     
e yy   v xz v yz 1  s yy 
e   − − 0 0 0  s 
 zz  =  E x Ey Ez
  zz 
e yz   1  s y z 
   0 0 0 0 0   
e zx   2G yz  s zx 
e    s 
 xy   0 1  xy 
0 0 0 0 
 2G zx 
 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2G xy 

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where,
n yz n zy n zx n xz n xy n yx
= , = , =
E y Ez Ez Ex Ex E y

Note that, in orthotropic materials, there is no interaction between the
normal stresses sx, sy, sz and the shear strains eyz, ezx, exy .
The factor 1/2 multiplying the shear modulii in the compliance matrix
results from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear
strain, where
n xy = e xy + e yx = 2e xy , etc.
Hooke’s law in stiffness form

The stiffness matrix for orthotropic materials, found from the inverse of
the compliance matrix, is given by,
1 − v yz v zy v yx + v zx v yz v zx + v yx v zy 
 0 0 0 
 E y Ez ∆ E y Ez ∆ E y Ez ∆ 
s xx    e xx 
   v xy + v xz v zy 1 − v zx v xz v zy + v zx v xy   
s yy   E E ∆ Ez Ex ∆ Ez Ex ∆
0 0 0
 e yy 
s   z x
 e 
 zz  =  v xz + v xy v yz v yz + v xz v yx 1 − v xy v yx   zz 
s yz   0 0 0  e yz 
   Ex E y ∆ Ex E y ∆ Ex E y ∆
  
s zx   0 0 0 2G yz 0 0  e zx 
s    e 
 xy  0 0 0 0 2Gzx 0  xy 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 2Gxy 
 
where,
1 − v xy v yz − v yz v zy − v zx v xz − 2v xy v yz v zx
∆=
Ex E y Ez
The fact that the stiffness matrix is symmetric requires that the following
statements hold,
 v yx + v zx v yz v xy + v xz v zx
 =
 E y Ez ∆ Ez Ex ∆
v + v v v zy + v xz v yz
 zy zx xy
 =
 Ez Ex ∆ Ex E y ∆
v + v v v xz + v xy v yz
 zx yx zy
=
 E y E z ∆ Ex E y ∆

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The factor of 2 multiplying the shear modulii in the stiffness matrix results
from the difference between shear strain and engineering shear strain,
where,
11. (b) (ii) Maxwell–Betti Reciprocal Relations

In a linearly elastic system subject to discrete loads F1, F2, . . . , if the
conjugate displacements are _1, _2, . . . , the strain energy U and the
complementary energy -U are equal to U = -U = 1 2(F1_1 + F2_2 + . . .)
The displacements can, in turn, be decomposed as,
_1 = _11 + _12 + . . . , _2 = _21 + _22 + . . . , etc.,
where _ij is the part of -i that is due to the load Fj , and can be expressed
as _ij = f ijFj, f ij being the corresponding flexibility coefficient.
According to the Maxwell–Betti Reciprocal Theorem, Fi_ij = Fj_ji (the
work done by one load on the displacement due to a second load is equal
to the work done by the second load on the displacement due to the first),
or, equivalently, f ij = fji (the flexibility matrix is symmetric).
To prove the theorem, it is sufficient to consider a system with only two
loads. If only F1 is applied first, the displacement _1 has the value _11 (while
_2 has the value _21)and the strain energy at that stage is 1 2F1_11. Applying
F2 (with F1 remaining in place) results in the additional displacements
_12 and _22. The work done by F2 is 1 2F2_22, while the additional work
done by F1 is F1_12 (note the absence of the factor of one-half, since F1
remains constant in the process). The final value of the strain energy (or
complementary energy) is therefore
U = -U = 1
F
2 1_11 +1
F
2 2_22 + F1_12.
If the order of application of the loads is reversed, the result is obviously
= -U = 1
F
2 2_22 +1
F
2 1_11 + F2_21.
In a linear elastic system, however, the complementary energy is a
function of the loads only and is independent of the order in which they
are applied. Consequently, F1_12 = F2_21, and the theorem is proved.
It also follows that the stiffness matrix [kij] = [f ij]−1 is symmetric.
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12. (a) Autoclave molding

The process takes place in an autoclave, where it is possible to create
pressure and heat at the same time.
Layers of pre-impregnated fibres (prepreg) are piled with varying fibre
orientation, to form the desired thickness above the forming tool.
The prepreg is pressed down to the forming tool by pressure. Following
heating hardens the matrix and the laminate gets the desired shape.
The process is very versatile and gives a very uniform quality, as pressure
and heat can be regulated very precisely. Any geometry can be produced.
On the other hand, it is very costly and time requiring.
Filament molding
Filament winding is a fabrication technique for manufacturing
composite material, usually in the form of cylindrical structures. The
process involves winding filaments under varying amounts of tension
over a male mould or mandrel. The mandrel rotates while a carriage
moves horizontally, laying down fibers in the desired pattern. The most
common filaments are carbon or glass fiber and are coated with synthetic
resin as they are wound. Once the mandrel is completely covered to
the desired thickness, the mandrel is placed in an oven to solidify (set)
the resin. Once the resin has cured, the mandrel is removed, leaving the
hollow final product.
Filament winding is well suited to automation, where the tension on the
filaments can be carefully controlled. Filaments that are applied with
high tension results in a final product with higher rigidity and strength;
lower tension results in more flexibility. The orientation of the filaments
can also be carefully controlled so that successive layers are plied or
oriented differently from the previous layer. The angle at which the fiber
is laid down will determine the properties of the final product. A high
angle "hoop" will provide crush strength, while a lower angle pattern
(known as a closed or helical) will provide greater tensile strength.
Products currently being produced using this technique range from golf
clubs, pipes, oars, bicycle forks, power and transmission poles, pressure
vessels to missile casings, aircraft fuselages and lamp posts and yacht
masts.
Pultrision
Pultrusion is a continuous process for manufacture of composite materials
with constant cross-section. Reinforced fibers are pulled through a resin,
possibly followed by a separate preforming system, and into a heated die,
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where the resin undergoes polymerization. Many resin types may be used
in pultrusion including polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and epoxy.
The technology is not limited to thermosetting polymers. More recently,
pultrusion has been successfully used with thermoplastic matrices such
as polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
either by powder impregnation of the glass fiber or by surrounding it
with sheet material of the thermoplastic matrix, which is then heated.
Ecological cleanness of manufactured products, in contrast to composites
on thermosetting resins base, as well as practically unlimited possibilities
of recycling (processing) after the resource depletion appear to be forcible
arguments in favor of reinforced thermoplastics. For these reasons the
industrial output and use of the given materials in highly industrialized
countries have increased by 8-10% per year in recent decades.
Pultrusion technology of manufacturing of fiber composites with
polymer matrix appears to be energy-efficient and resource-saving.
For economic and environmental reasons the matrix of thermoplastic
polymers is more preferable, but due to the high viscosity of melts it
is difficult to achieve high productivity and high quality of fiberfills
impregnation.
Products manufactured under this technology, are widely used in the
following industries:
• In agriculture and chemical industry for manufacturing of chemically
resistant to aggressive media slatted floors with enhanced strength
characteristics used in the construction of livestock facilities, chemical
plants, etc.;
• In construction industry for the production of glass-fiber reinforcement,
profiles, carcasses, stiffening bars for PVC-windows, etc.;
• In aerospace industry for manufacturing of structure components of
aircraft;
• In sports and tourism industry for manufacturing of equipment
having enhanced strength properties: skis, ski poles, tent and hovel
constructions, etc.;
• In electrical power engineering for manufacturing of dielectric
structures, fiberglass rods used in composite insulators and as
supporting structures for elements of signaling blocks, and fiberglass
profiles used in manufacturing of transformers and electric motors;
• In commercial production, using grains of long-fiber molding material
(LLM) as a raw material for subsequent manufacturing of structures
and products with enhanced strength and chemical properties;
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• And in many other industries and plants, using mechanisms, structures

and materials, which meet high standards of chemical, dielectric and
strength stability.
12. (b) Transfer molding, like compression molding, is a process where the
amount of molding material (usually a thermoset plastic) is measured
and inserted before the molding takes place. The molding material is
preheated and loaded into a chamber known as the pot. A plunger is then
used to force the material from the pot through channels known as a
sprue and runner system into the mold cavities. The mold remains closed
as the material is inserted and is opened to release the part from the
sprue and runner. The mold walls are heated to a temperature above the
melting point of the mold material; this allows a faster flow of material
through the cavities.
Transfer molding: This is an automated operation that combines com-
pression-, molding, and transfer-molding processes. This combination
has the good surface finish, dimensional stability, and mechanical prop-
erties obtained in compression molding and the high-automation capa-
bility and low cost of injection molding and transfer molding. Transfer
Molding is having a “piston and cylinder”-like device built into the mold
so that the rubber is squirted into the cavity through small holes. A piece
of uncured rubber is placed into a portion of the transfer mold called
the “pot”. The mold is closed and under hydraulic pressure the rubber
or plastic is forced through a small hole (the “gate”) into the cavity. The
mold is held closed while the plastic or rubber cures. The plunger is
raised up and the “transfer pad” material may be removed and thrown
away. The transfer mold is opened and the part can be removed. The
flash and the gate may need to be trimmed. Another key point is that a
premeasured amount of thermosetting plastic in powder, preform, and
even granular form can be placed into the heating chamber.
The molds in both compression and transfer molding remain closed
until the curing reaction within the material is complete. Ejector pins are
usually incorporated into the design of the molding tool and are used to
push the part from the mold once it has hardened. These types of molding
are ideal for high production runs as they have short production cycles.
Transfer molding, unlike compression molding uses a closed mold, so
smaller tolerances and more intricate parts can be achieved. The fixed
cost of the tooling in transfer molding is greater than in compression
molding and as both methods produce waste material, whether it be flash
or the material remaining in the sprue and runners, transfer molding is
the more expensive process.
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Transfer molding (TM) (or resin transfer molding, RTM) differs from
compression molding in that in TM the resin is inserted into the mold
(or tool) which contains the layers of fibres or a preform, whereas in
compression molding prepregs or molding compounds are in the mold
which is then heated and pressure is applied. No further pressure is
applied in TM.
In RTM the resin is injected or drawn into a mold, which contains the
fibres, from a homogeniser under low pressure. The mold can be made
from composites for low production cycles or with aluminium or steel for
larger production. The differences between the two types being that metal
has better heat transfer, hence quicker cycle times; metal lasts longer and
deforms less, but at a higher cost. The main problem with this production
route is that air can be trapped in mold and hence a method must be
incorporated for allowing this air to escape. A number of solutions to the
problem exist including extending one level of reinforcement beyond the
cavity (with a 25% resin loss), appropriate vents and creating a vacuum in
the mold (which also improves quality). Larger structures, better properties
(less movement of fibres), increased flexibility of design and lower cost
are some of the advantage this process has over compression molding
due mainly to the low pressure injection. Other benefits include rapid
manufacture, not labour intensive, ability to vary reinforcements easily or
include cores such as foam and produce low and high quality products.
In the semiconductor industry, package encapsulation is usually done
with transfer molding due to the high accuracy of transfer molding
tooling and low cycle time of the process.
However, the drive to introduce “Green” manufacturing is becoming a
mandatory process in most semicon assembly operations. New transfer
mold designs integrated with suitable surface treatments like CrN, MiCC
and H Cr plating are becoming more popular in the industry.
Some common products are utensil handles, electric appliance parts,
electronic component, and connectors. Transfer molding is widely used
to enclose or encapsulate items such as coils, integrated circuits, plugs,
connectors, and other components.
Plunger molding is a variation on transfer molding, where an auxiliary
ram exerts pressure on the material being molded. This approach often
performs better in fully automatic operation.
13. (a) Maximum principal strain theory (saint-venant)

The theory is based on the assumption that inelastic behavior or failure
is governed by a specified maximum normal strain. Failure will occur at
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a particular part in a body subjected to an arbitrary state of strain when

the normal strain reaches a limiting level.
s 2 /syp
1.0
0.5
s 1/syp
−1.0 − 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
− 0.5
No yielding
predicted
−1.0
v = 0.35
Failure by yielding
Failure is predicted when either of the principal strains, resulting from

the principal stresses, s1, s2, equals or exceeds the maximum strain
corresponding to the yield strength, syp, of the material in uniaxial
tension or compression.
s1 - v(s 2 + s 3) < syp
The Tsai Hill theory

The Tsai-Hill theory [14] is considered an extension of the Von
Mises failure criterion. The failure strengths in the principal material
directions are assumed to be known. The tensor form of this criterion is
Fi, aiaj = 1. If this expression is expanded and the Fi, terms replaced by
letters, the failure criterion is
F (02 - ~ 3 + ) G (a ~ 3 - + H (01 - 0 2) ~ + 2 (Lti 3 + Mt;, + Nt and )
Expanding and collecting terms,
(G + H ) o ~ + (F + H) o $ + (F + G) D;-
2 [H 0102 + FCQC ~ + G u ~ c ~ ]
+2 [Lti 3 + M T; + ~ Nt ?,] = 1
Where F, G, H, L, M, and N are anisotropic material strength parameters.
The failure strength in the principal material directions are represented
by X, Y, and Z. Application of a uniaxial tensile stress in each of the three
M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 17 7/31/2012 3:30:14 PM

principal material directions while keeping all other stresses zero (i.e.,
a1 # 0, 0 2 = 03 = t 1 2 = t i 3 = t 23 = 0) yields
Assuming a state of plane stress (03 = t i 3 = t 23 = 0) the failure theory
is written as
(G + H ) o ~ + (F + H) D; - 2Hala 2 + 2Ntf 2 = 1
GO: + Ha; + Fa: + Ha; - 2H 0102 + 2Nt:z = 1
Ga; + Fa: + H (a1 - ~ 2+) 2N ~ t;, = 1
Tsai Wu Theory
The Tsai–Wu failure criterion is a phenomenological failure theory
which is widely used for anisotropic composite materials which have
different strengths in tension and compression. This failure criterion is
a specialization of the general quadratic failure criterion proposed by
Gol’denblat and Kopnov and can be expressed in the form
Fis i + Fij s i s j ≥ 1
where i , j = …6 and repeated indices indicate summation, and Fi , Fij are

experimentally determined material strength parameters. The stresses
s i are expressed in Voigt notation. If the failure surface is to be closed
and convex, the interaction terms Fij must satisfy
Fii Fjj − Fij2 ≥ 0
which implies that all the Fii terms must be positive.
13. (b) Composites are one of the most widely used materials because
of their adaptability to different situations and the relative ease of
combination with other materials to serve specific purposes and exhibit
desirable properties.
In surface transportation, reinforced plastics are the kind of composites
used because of their huge size. They provide ample scope and
receptiveness to design changes, materials and processes. The strength-
weight ratio is higher than other materials. Their stiffness and cost
effectiveness offered, apart from easy availability of raw materials, make
them the obvious choice for applications in surface transportation.
In heavy transport vehicles, the composites are used in processing of
component parts with cost-effectiveness. Good reproductivity and
resilience handling by semi-skilled workers are the basic requirements
of a good composite material. While the costs of achieving advanced
composites may not justify the savings obtained in terms of weight
M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 18 7/31/2012 3:30:15 PM

vis-a-vis vehicle production, carbon fibers reinforced epoxies have been

used in racing cars and recently for the safety of cars.
Polyester resin with suitable fillers and reinforcements were the first
applications of composites in road transportation. The choice was
dictated by properties like low cost, ease in designing and production
of functional parts etc. Using a variety of reinforcements, polyester has
continued to be used in improving the system and other applications.
Most of the thermoplastics are combined with reinforcing fibers in
various proportions. Several methods are used to produce vehicle
parts from thermo plastics. Selection of the material is made from the
final nature of the component, the volume required, apart from cost-
effectiveness and mechanical strength.
Components that need conventional paint finishing are generally made
with thermosetting resins, while thermoplastics are used to build parts
that are moulded and can be pigmented. Press moulded reinforced
polyester possess the capability to produce large parts in considerable
volume with cost-effectiveness.
In manufacturing of automobile parts, glass and sisal fibers usually find
the maximum use. Sisal costs very less and this alone has prompted
extensive research to come up with applications in which sisal is the
dominant reinforcing material in filled polyester resin, in parts where
specific mechanical properties are required and appearance is not very
important. Heater housings, which find uses for sisal, are produced by
compression moulding. Since a variety of glass fibers are available, it
is used as reinforcement for a large range of parts of different types.
Rovings, non-woven mats are the commonly used low cost versions.
Woven cloth is applied in special cases, where particular properties
are required as cloth is not known to be amenable to large quantity
production methods.
Since the automobile industry is replete with models, options and
changes in trends, the material selection and combinations offered by the
materials is also wide-ranging. Along with a measure of conservation,
the choice is also dictated by the demands of the competitive market for
new and alternate materials.
A reinforced-plastic composite is likely to cost more than sheet steel,
when considered on the basis of cost and performance. In such a case,
other qualities must necessarily justify the high expenditure. Mechanical
properties of the parts, which affect the thickness and weight, must offer
enough savings to render them more effective than steel. It however
shows a higher machining waste than reinforced plastics.
M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 19 7/31/2012 3:30:15 PM

The fabrication costs of reinforced plastics is controlled by the devices

and tooling used for producing them. In turn, it is dependent on the basis
of the quantity of components needed.
Some complicated parts of light commercial vehicles, which need
casting, may be compression moulded from composites of the sheet
or bulk variety. State-of-art technologies of moulding, tooling and
fabricating have thrown open possibilities of increased manufacturing of
vehicles that use reinforced polyesters.
Materials used in automotive body parts show high tensile strength and
flexural moduli. The material is not ductile and hence will not yield
and the failure is accounted only in terms of fracture. These properties
and thickness, determine the maximum bending moment which is
several times higher than the point of fracture for steel sheets.
Reinforced plastics can be given the metal finish, although the cost of
achieving this continues to be prohibitive. They are restricted in their
use in car components. While the defects in painted sheet metal parts
are easily overlooked, the fiber pattern texture is obvious, though the
surface-roughness measurements report that it is smoother.
In commercial vehicles, appearance is also important as is the functional
aspect. Since a commercial vehicle is more a capital investment, it is
the returns from such investment that are considered. The rate of return
depends on initial cost, durability and maintenance costs.
Reinforced plastic is a boon in the sense that it uses shorter lead times
and tooling cost is considerably cheaper. Commitments to launch a new
model are kept easily, since the time between production and introduction
can be co-ordinate perfectly.
Studies have shown that composite panels may be used as the complete
outer skin of the body to give a unique look. Sheet moulding compounds
of resins are most suited for this purpose. Inner and outer reinforcing is
done by panel assembled by adhesive bonding and riveting.
Good stability against corrosion or impact makes the composites
widely used in vulnerable valance panels below the front and rear
bumpers. Signal lamps, indicator lamps of vehicles are fabricated from
glass-reinforced composites and tractors have a different selection
methodology from that of passenger cars. The most crucial parameter
is weight reduction as it directly affects efficiency, payload and the
economy. Durability is the chief factor as these vehicles are normally
realizations of capital investments. Time required, cost and frequency of
maintenance add substantially to the total costs. Therefore it is natural
M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 20 7/31/2012 3:30:15 PM

to try and reduce these factors to a minimum. Fiber glass reinforced

polyester is widely used in various parts of trucks.
The fatigue properties of the materials and the low weight, ability to
sustain strains from the engine heat and low frequency road vibrations
are features that favour composites in trucks and other heavy vehicles.
Reinforced plastics do not cost too much to tool, and they are now
extensively used for automobile parts, indicator and signal lamp parts
and other accessories.
Truck bodies and trailers use assemblies and parts made from reinforced
plastics to a great extent. The use of light metals, which lends itself to
simple shapes and extrudable forms, is also found to be economical.
The low heat transfer coefficient of composites enables their use in
refrigerated units. Glass reinforced polyester has all the properties that
make it ideal for this purpose and has become the standard material.
Plywood panels laminated with thin layer of reinforced plastic are also
widely used in truck carriages. Several methods are used to produce
them and the low cost, and strength offered by plywood make it
appealing. They may not be as light weight as desired, but are found
to be considerably more durable than the conventional constructions,
particularly in intensive service conditions.
14. (a) The process for producing carbon fiber follows three to four steps:
The extrusion of the precursor, the stabilization of the precursor, the
carbonization of precursor, and optionally graphitization of carbon fiber.
The extrusion of the precursor has a great effect on the final properties
of the carbon fiber. The stabilization of the precursor is a diffusion
process and therefore depends upon the thickness of the carbon fiber it
should usually last between 2 and 4 hours for PAN fibers with diameters
of .001 to .0005 mm carbonization has been shown to be optimized at
temperatures between 1500 °C and 1600 °C. Graphitization occurs at
temperatures from 2500 °C to 3000 °C and is also conducted in an inert
atmosphere. To optimize the amount of inert gas required to maintain the
purging atmosphere of the carbonization and graphitization step without
decreasing the opening port to a size where it may damage the fiber
passing through it a liquid can be used to create a seal at the opening
port. Potential liquids must not react with the precursor as it passes
through them; liquids which may be used with PAN based fibers include
benzene, heavy gasoline or mercury.
The inert agent creates a seal between the oxygen atmosphere which the
polymer is oxidized in and the inert atmosphere of the carbonization.
M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 21 7/31/2012 3:30:15 PM

This allows the orifices which the fiber must pass through between the
oxidation stage and carbonization stage to be large enough to avoid
damaging the fibers while still maintaining a seal. The seal allows
smaller amounts of inert gas to be used to maintain an oxygen free
atmosphere.
O O O O
NH NH NH NH NH
B
E
D
C
14. (b) Resin in the most specific use of the term is a hydrocarbon secretion
of many plants, particularly coniferous trees. Resins are valued for
their chemical properties and associated uses, such as the production of
varnishes, adhesives, and food glazing agents; as an important source of
raw materials for organic synthesis; and as constituents of incense and
perfume. Plant resins have a very long history that was documented in
ancient Greece by Theophrastus, in ancient Rome by Pliny the Elder,
and especially in the resins known as frankincense and myrrh, prized
in ancient Egypt. These were highly prized substances, and required as
incense in some religious rites. Amber is a hard fossilized resin from
ancient trees.
More broadly, the term “resin” also encompasses a great many synthetic
substances of similar mechanical properties (thick liquids that harden
into transparent solids), as well as shellacs of insects of the superfamily
Coccoidea.
Other liquid compounds found in plants or exuded by plants, such as
sap, latex, or mucilage, are sometimes confused with resin, but are not
chemically the same. Saps, in particular, serve a nutritive function that
M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 22 7/31/2012 3:30:16 PM

resins do not. There is no consensus on why plants secrete resins. However,

resins consist primarily of secondary metabolites or compounds that
apparently play no role in the primary physiology of a plant. While some
scientists view resins only as waste products, their protective benefits
to the plant are widely documented. The toxic resinous compounds
may confound a wide range of herbivores, insects, and pathogens;
while the volatile phenolic compounds may attract benefactors
such as parasitoids or predators of the herbivores that attack the
plant.
The word “resin” has been applied in the modern world to nearly any
component of a liquid that will set into a hard lacquer or enamel-like
finish. An example is nail polish, a modern product which contains
“resins” that are organic compounds, but not classical plant resins.
Certain “casting resins” and synthetic resins (such as epoxy resin) have
also been given the name “resin” because they solidify in the same
way as some plant resins, but synthetic resins are liquid monomers of
thermosetting plastics, and do not derive from plants.
15. (a) A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite

materials that is fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a
lightweight but thick core. The core material is normally low strength
material, but its higher thickness provides the sandwich composite with
high bending stiffness with overall low density.
Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride,
polyurethane, polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic
foams, and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and
closed-cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.
Laminates of glass or carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics or mainly
thermoset polymers (unsaturated polyesters, epoxies...) are widely used
as skin materials. Sheet metal is also used as skin material in some
cases.
The core is bonded to the skins with an adhesive or with metal components
by brazing together.
Applications:
Sandwich structures can be widely used in sandwich panels, this
kinds of panels can be in different types such as FRP sandwich panel,
aluminum composite panel etc. FRP polyester reinforced composite
honeycomb panel (sandwich panel) is made of polyester reinforced
plastic, multi-axial high-strength glass fiber and PP honeycomb panel
M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 23 7/31/2012 3:30:16 PM

in special antiskid tread pattern mold through the process of constant

temperature vacuum adsorption and agglutination and solidification
15. (b) (i)

 0.0055 −0.0015 0 
(a) [S] =  −0.0015 0.097 0  × 10 −9 Pa −1

 0 0 0.1395
(b) u21 = 0.01593
181.8 2.897 0 
(c) [Q] =  2.897 10.35 0  × 10 9
 0 0 7.17
mm mm mm
(d) e1 = 15.69 ; e 2 = −294.4 ; g 12 = 557.9
m m m
−− 1
S 12 = −0.7878(10 −11 )
Pa
15. (b) (ii) −−
−10 1
S 16 = −0.3234(10 )
Pa
−− 1
S 22 = 0.3475(10 −10 )
Pa
−− 1
(a) S 26 = −0.4696(10 −10 )
Pa
−−
−9 1
S 66 = 0.1141(110 )
Pa
 0.2365 0.3246 0.2005
−−
(b)  Q  = 0.3246 0.1094 0.5419 × 1011 Pa
 0.2005 0.5419 0.33674 
 e x   0.5534(10 ) 
−4
   
(c)  e y  =  −0.3078(10 −3 ) 
g   0.5328(10 −3 ) 
 xy 
 e1   0.1367(10 ) 
−4
 
(d)  e 2  =  −0.2662(10 −3 ) 
g 12   −0.5809(10 −3 ) 
M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 24 7/31/2012 3:30:17 PM

s 1   0.1714(10 ) 
7
 
(e) s 2  =  −0.2714(10 7 )  Pa
t 12   0.4165(10 7 ) 
(f) smax, min = 4.217, -5.217 MPa
(g) tmax = 4.717 MPa
(h) emax, min = 1.962 (10-4), -4.486(10-4)
M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 25 7/31/2012 3:30:18 PM

Solved Model Question Paper 1
Seventh Semester
1. What are the major constituents in composite materials?
2. Define lamina.
3. What are advanced composites?
4. What is meant by orthogonally isotropic material? Give an example.
5. Define micro mechanics.
6. What is elasticity approach?
7. What are the assumptions made in micro mechanics?
8. What are the merits and demerits of Tsai-hill failure theory?
9. Define cross ply laminate and angle ply laminate.
10. Define inter laminar stresses with causes.
11. (a) How are composites classified?
Or
(b) Give a description of graphite fibers.
12. (a) Why are there so many resin systems in advanced polymer

composites?
Or
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 26 7/31/2012 3:36:38 PM

Composite Materials and Structures (Solved Model Question Paper 1) 5.27
(b) Give typical applications of polymer matrix composites.
13. (a) State the generalised Hooke's law applicable for orthotropic material.
Or
(b) Explain Autoclave molding, Filament Winding and Pultrusion.
1 4. (a) (i) Distinguish between open mould and close mould processes.
(ii) What is ‘failure envelopes’?
Or
(b) (i) Define inter laminar stresses with causes.
(ii) What are the assumptions made in classical small deformation
theory for a laminate?
1 5. (a) (i) What are the merits and demerits of Tsai-hill failure theory?
(ii) What are the assumptions made in micro mechanics?
Or
(b) (i) What are the assumptions made in the strength of materials
approach model?
(ii) What is meant by orthogonally isotropic material? Give an
example.
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 27 7/31/2012 3:36:38 PM

Solutions
PART A
1. Reinforcing phase
(i) One in which it is embedded is called the matrix.
(ii) Reinforcing phase - Fibres, particles or flakes.
(iii) Matrix- Materials are generally continuous.
2. A lamina (also called a ply or layer) is a single flat layer of unidirectional

fibers or woven fibers arranged is a matrix.
3. Advanced composites are composite materials which are traditionally

used in the aerospace industries. These composites have high
performance reinforcements of a thin dia. in a matrix material such as
epoxy and aluminium.
4. The Q16 and Q26 terms are non-zero when i has any value other than 0°
or 90°. This indicates the anisotropic behaviour of an orthotropic lamina
when its fibers are not oriented along or perpendicular to the reference
load direction. The terms Q16 and Q26 are that cause an orthotropic lamina
to behave like an anisotropic lamina in a laminate, when i is neither 0°
nor 90°. (Better 30° and 60°).
5. Micro mechanics is the study of composite material behaviour wherein

the interaction of the constituent materials is examined on a microscopic
scale to determine their effect on the properties of the composite material.
6. Elasticity accounts for equilibrium of forces, compatibility and Hooke’s

law relationships in three dimensions, whereas the strength of materials
approach may not satisfy compatibility and not account for Hooke’s law
in three dimensions.
7. Micro mechanics – The study of composite material behaviour wherein

the interaction of the constituent materials is examined in detail as
part of the definition of the behaviour of the heterogeneous composite
material.
The two basic approaches to the micro mechanics of composite
materials are
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 28 7/31/2012 3:36:38 PM

(i) Mechanics of materials

(ii) Elasticity
The mechanics of materials (or strength of materials or resistance of
materials) approach embodies the usual concept of vastly simplifying
assumptions regarding the hypothesized behaviour of the mechanical
system. The elasticity approach actually is at least three approaches
(i) bounding principles (ii) exact solutions and (iii) approximate
solutions. All approaches are characterized by more rigorous
satisfaction of physical laws (equilibrium, deformation continuity
and compatibility and stress-strain relations) than in mechanics of
materials.
8. The variation of strength with angle of lamina orientation is smooth

rather than having cusps that are not seen in experimental results. The
strength continuously decreases as i grows from 0° rather than the rise in
uni-axial strength that is characteristic of both the maximum stress and
the maximum strain criteria. The agreement between the criterion and
experiment is even better than that at first glance. The maximum stress
and strain criteria are incorrect by 100 % at 30°. Considerable interaction
exists between the failure strengths X, Y, S in the Tsai-hill criterion but
none exists in the previous criteria where axial, transverse and shear
failures are presumed to occur independently.
9. Cross ply laminates

A laminate is called a cross ply laminate (also called laminates with
specially orthotropic layers) if only 0° and 90° plies were used to make
a laminate. An example of a cross ply laminate is a (0/90/90/0/90)
laminate.
Angle ply laminates
A laminate is called an angle ply laminate if it has plies of same material
and thickness, and only oriented at + i and - i direction. An example of
an angle ply laminate is
 − 40 − 40  .
 40 40 
10. In classical lamination theory no account is taken of stresses such as _zx,

_zx and _zy which are shown on an element of an angle-ply laminate
loaded with Nx. These stresses are called inter laminar stresses and exist
on surfaces between adjacent layers although they exist within the layers
but are usually largest at the layer interfaces.
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 29 7/31/2012 3:36:38 PM

Accordingly, classical lamination theory does not include some of the

stresses that actually cause failure of a composite laminate.
PART B
11. (a) Composites are classified by the geometry of the reinforcement
particulate, flake, and fibers or by the type of matrix, polymer, metal,
ceramic, and carbon.
Particulate composites consist of particles immersed in matrices
such as alloys and ceramics. They are usually isotropic because the
particles are added randomly. Particulate composites have advantages
such as improved strength, increased operating temperature, oxidation
resistance, etc. Typical examples include use of aluminum particles in
rubber; silicon carbide particles in aluminum; and gravel, sand, and
cement to make concrete.
Flake composites consist of flat reinforcements of matrices. Typical
flake materials are glass, mica, aluminum, and silver. Flake composites
provide advantages such as high out-of-plane flexural modulus, higher
strength, and low cost. However, flakes cannot be oriented easily and
only a limited number of materials are available for use.
Fiber composites consist of matrices reinforced by short (discontinuous)
or long (continuous) fibers. Fibers are generally anisotropic and examples
include carbon and aramids. Examples of matrices are resins such as
epoxy, metals such as aluminum, and ceramics such as calcium–alumino
silicate. Continuous fiber composites are emphasized in this book and
are further discussed in this chapter by the types of matrices: polymer,
metal, ceramic, and carbon. The fundamental units of continuous fiber
matrix composite are unidirectional or woven fiber laminas. Laminas are
stacked on top of each other at various angles to form a multi directional
laminate.
Nano composites consist of materials that are of the scale of nano meters
(10–9 m). The accepted range to be classified as a nano composite is that
one of the constituents is less than 100 nm. At this scale, the properties
of materials are different from those of the bulk material. Generally,
advanced composite materials have constituents on the micro scale
(10–6 m). By having materials at the nanometer scale, most of the
properties of the resulting composite material are better than the ones
at the micro scale. Not all properties of nano composites are better; in
some cases, toughness and impact strength can decrease. Applications
of nano composites include packaging applications for the military in
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 30 7/31/2012 3:36:38 PM

which nano composite films show improvement in properties such as

elastic modulus, and transmission rates for water vapor, heat distortion,
and oxygen.
Body side molding of the 2004 Chevrolet Impala is made of olefin- based
nano composites.
This reduced the weight of the molding by 7 % and improved its surface

quality. General Motors currently uses 540,000 lb of nano composite

materials per year. Rubber containing just a few parts per million of
metal conducts electricity in harsh conditions just like solid metal. Called
Metal Rubber, it is fabricated molecule by molecule by a process called
electrostatic self-assembly. Awaited applications of the Metal Rubber
include artificial muscles, smart clothes, flexible wires, and circuits for
portable electronics.
11. (b) Graphite fibers are very common in high-modulus and high-strength
applications such as aircraft components, etc. The advantages of graphite
fibers include high specific strength and modulus, low coefficient of
thermal expansion, and high fatigue strength. The drawbacks include
high cost, low impact resistance, and high electrical conductivity.
Manufacturing:
Graphite fibers have been available since the late 1800s. However, only
since the early 1960s has the manufacturing of graphite fibers taken
off. Graphite fibers are generally manufactured from three precursor
materials: rayon, polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and pitch. PAN is the most
popular precursor and the process to manufacture graphite fibers from it
is given next. PAN fibers are first stretched five to ten times their length
to improve their mechanical properties and then passed through three
heating processes. In the first process, called stabilization, the fiber is
passed through a furnace between 392 and 572° F (200 and 300°C)
to stabilize its dimensions during the subsequent high-temperature
processes. In the second process, called carbonization, it is pyrolized in
an inert atmosphere of nitrogen or argon between 1832 and 2732°F (1000
and 1500°C). In the last process, called graphitization, it is heat treated
above 4532°F (2500°C). The graphitization yields a microstructure that
is more graphitic than that produced by carbonization. The fibers may
also be subjected to tension in the last two heating processes to develop
fibers with a higher degree of orientation. At the end of this three-step
heat treatment process, the fibers are surface treated to develop fiber
adhesion and increase laminar shear strength when they are used in
composite structures. They are then collected on a spool.
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 31 7/31/2012 3:36:38 PM

12. (a) Each polymer has its advantages and drawbacks in its use
• Polyesters: The advantages are low cost and the ability to be made
translucent; drawbacks include service temperatures below 170 °F
(77 °C), brittleness, and high shrinkage of as much as 8 % during
curing.
• Phenolics: The advantages are low cost and high mechanical strength;
drawbacks include high void content.
• Epoxies: The advantages are high mechanical strength and good
adherence to metals and glasses; drawbacks are high cost and
difficulty in processing. Each of the resin systems has its advantages
and drawbacks. The use of a particular system depends on the
application. These considerations include mechanical strength, cost,
smoke emission, temperature excursions, etc.
12. (b) Applications of polymer matrix composites range from tennis

racquets to the space shuttle. Rather than enumerating only the areas in
which polymer-based composites are used, a few examples have been
taken from each industry. Emphasis has been placed on why a composite
material is the material of choice.
Aircraft:
The military aircraft industry has mainly led the use of polymer composites.
The percentage of structural weight of composites that was less than 2 % in
F-15s in the 1970s has increased to about 30 % on the AV-8B in the 1990s.
In both cases, the weight reduction over metal parts was more than 20 %. In
commercial airlines, the use of composites has been conservative because
of safety concerns. Use of composites is limited to secondary structures
such as rudders and elevators made of graphite/epoxy for the Boeing 767
and landing gear doors made of Kevlar–graphite/epoxy. Composites are
also used in panels and floorings of airplanes. Some examples of using
composites in the primary structure are the all-composite Lear Fan 2100
plane and the tail fin of the Airbus A 310-300. In the latter case, the tail
fin consists of graphite/epoxy and aramid honeycomb. It not only reduced
the weight of the tail fin by 662 lb (300 kg) but also reduced the number
of parts from 2000 to 100. Skins of aircraft engine cowls are also made of
polymer matrix composites for reducing weight.
With increasing competition in model airplane flying, the weight of
composite materials has been reduced. World War II model airplane
with fuselage made of glass/epoxy, wings made of balsa-wood
facings/Styrofoam core sandwich construction, and wings pars made of
graphite/epoxy.
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 32 7/31/2012 3:36:38 PM

Helicopters and tilt rotors use graphite/epoxy and glass/epoxy rotor

blades that not only increase the life of blades by more than 100 % over
metals but also increase the top speeds.
Space:
Two factors make composites the material of choice in space applications:
high specific modulus and strength, and dimensional stability during
large changes in temperature in space. Examples include the graphite/
epoxy-honeycomb payload bay doors in the space shuttle. Weight
savings over conventional metal alloys translate to higher pay loads
that cost as much as $1000/lb ($2208/kg). Also, for the space shuttles,
graphite/epoxy was chosen primarily for weight savings and for small
mechanical and thermal deflections concerning the remote manipulator
arm, which deploys and retrieves payloads. High-gain antenna for the
space station that uses sandwiches made of graphite/epoxy facings
with an aluminum honeycomb core. Antenna ribs and struts in satellite
systems use graphite/epoxy for their high specific stiffness and its ability
to meet the dimensional stability requirements due to large temperature
excursions in space. In june 2004, launched the first privately manned
vehicle, called Spaceship One, beyond the Earth’s atmosphere. The
spaceship reached a record-breaking altitude of approximately 62 miles
(100 km). Spaceship One is constructed from graphite-epoxy composite
materials; at rowel on ablative thermal protection layer protects its hotter
sections.
Sporting goods:
Graphite/epoxy is replacing metals in golf club shafts mainly to decrease
the weight and use the saved weight in the head. This increase in the head
weight has improved driving distances by more than 25 yards (23 m).
Bicycles use hybrid construction of graphite/epoxy composites wound on an
aluminum tubing or chopped S-glass reinforced urethane foam. The graphite/
epoxy composite increases the specific modulus of the tube and decreases
the mass of the frame by 25 %. Composites also allow frames to consist
of one piece, which improves fatigue life and avoids stress concentration*
found in metallic frames at their joints. Bicycle wheels made of carbon–
polymide composites offer low weight and better impact resistance than
aluminum. Tennis and racquetball rackets with graphite/epoxy frames are
now common place. The primary reasons for using composites are that they
improve the torsional rigidity of the racquet and reduce risk of elbow injury
due to vibration damping. Ice hockey sticks are now manufactured out of
hybrids such as Kevlar–glass/epoxy. Kevlar is added for durability and
stiffness. Skipoles made of glass/polyester composites have higher strength,
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 33 7/31/2012 3:36:38 PM

flexibility, and lower weight than conventional ski poles. This reduces stress
and impact on upper body joints as the skier plants his poles.
Medical devices:
Applications here include the use of glass–Kevlar/epoxy light weight
face masks for epileptic patients. Artificial portable lungs are made of
graphite–glass/epoxy so that a patient can be mobile. X-ray tables made
of graphite/epoxy facing sandwiches are used for their high stiffness,
light weight, and transparency to radiation.
13. (a) Some engineering materials, including certain piezoelectric materials

(e.g. Rochelle salt) and 2-ply fiber-reinforced composites, are orthotropic.
 1 v yx v zx 
 − 0 0 0 
 Ex Ey Ez 
 v 1 v zy 
 − xy − 0 0 0 
e xx   E x Ey Ez  s xx 
     
e yy   v xz v yz 1  s yy 
e   − − 0 0 0  s 
 zz  =  E E E  zz 
x y z

e yz   1  s y z 
   0 0 0 0 0   
e
 zx   2G yz  s zx 
e    s 
 xy   0 1  xy 
0 0 0 0 
 2G zx 
 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2G xy 

M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 34 7/31/2012 3:36:39 PM

where,
= , = , =
E y Ez Ez Ex Ex E y

strain, where

 0 0 0 
s xx    e xx 
0 0 0
 e yy 
s   z x
 e 
s yz   0 0 0  e yz 
   Ex E y ∆ Ex E y ∆ Ex E y ∆
  
s zx   0 0 0 2G yz 0 0  e zx 
s    e 
 xy  0 0 0 0 2Gzx 0  xy 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 2Gxy 
 
where,
∆=
Ex E y Ez
statements hold,
 =
 zy zx xy
 =
 E E
z x ∆ Ex E y ∆
 zx yx zy
=
 E y E z ∆ Ex E y ∆

M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 35 7/31/2012 3:36:39 PM

where,
13. (b) Autoclave molding
Filament molding
Filament winding is a fabrication technique for manufacturing composite
material, usually in the form of cylindrical structures. The process involves
winding filaments under varying amounts of tension over a male mould
or mandrel. The mandrel rotates while a carriage moves horizontally,
laying down fibers in the desired pattern. The most common filaments
are carbon or glass fiber and are coated with synthetic resin as they are
wound. Once the mandrel is completely covered to the desired thickness,
the mandrel is placed in an oven to solidify (set) the resin. Once the resin
has cured, the mandrel is removed, leaving the hollow final product.
masts.
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 36 7/31/2012 3:36:39 PM

Pultrision
possibly followed by a separate preforming system, and into a heated
die, where the resin undergoes polymerization. Many resin types may
be used in pultrusion including polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and
epoxy.
Ecological cleanness of manufactured products, in contrast to composites
on thermosetting resins base, as well as practically unlimited possibilities
of recycling (processing) after the resource depletion appear to be forcible
arguments in favor of reinforced thermoplastics. For these reasons the
industrial output and use of the given materials in highly industrialized
countries have increased by 8-10% per year in recent decades.
impregnation.
plants, etc.;
aircraft;
• In sports and tourism industry for manufacturing of equipment
structures, fiberglass rods used in composite insulators and
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 37 7/31/2012 3:36:40 PM

as supporting structures for elements of signaling blocks, and

fiberglass profiles used in manufacturing of transformers and electric
motors;
strength stability.
1 4. (a) (i)
Open mould process: It is done in open structure.
• Spray lay up
• Hand lay up
• Filament winding
• SMC
• Expansion tool moulding
• Contact moulding
Closed mould processes: It is done in a closed structure.
• Compression moulding
• Vacuum bag
• Injection moulding
• Resin transfer
14. (a) (ii) A failure envelope is a three dimensional plot of the

combinations of the normal and shear stresses which can be applied to
an angle lamina just before failure. Since drawing three-dimensional
graphs can be time consuming, one may develop failure envelopes for
constant shear stress, _xy, and then use the two normal stresses _x and _y
as the two axes. Then if the applied stress is within the failure envelope,
the lamina is safe, otherwise it has failed.
14. (b) (i) In classical lamination theory no account is taken of stresses

such as _zx, _zx and _zy which are shown on an element of an angle-ply
laminate loaded with Nx.
These stresses are called inter laminar stresses and exist on surfaces
between adjacent layers although they exist within the layers but are
usually largest at the layer interfaces.
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 38 7/31/2012 3:36:40 PM


14. (b) (ii)
(i) Each lamina is orthotropic.
(ii) Each lamina is homogeneous.
(iii) A line straight and perpendicular to the middle surface remains
straight and perpendicular to the middle surface during deformation
(_xz = _xz = 0).
(iv) A straight line in the z-direction remains of constant length
(_z = 0).
(v) The laminate is thin and is loaded only in its plane. (plane stress)
(_z = _xz = _xz = 0).
(vi) Displacements are continuous and small throughout the laminate.
(_u_, _v_, _w_<< laminate thickness).
(vii) Each lamina is elastic.
(viii) No slip occurs between the lamina inter faces.
15. (a) (i) The variation of strength with angle of lamina orientation is

smooth rather than having cusps that are not seen in experimental results.
The strength continuously decreases as i grows from 0° rather than the
rise in uni-axial strength that is characteristic of both the maximum
stress and the maximum strain criteria.
The agreement between the criterion and experiment is even better than
that at first glance. The maximum stress and strain criteria are incorrect
by 100 % at 30°.
Considerable interaction exists between the failure strengths X, Y, S in
the Tsai-hill criterion but none exists in the previous criteria where axial,
transverse and shear failures are presumed to occur independently.
15. (a) (ii) Micro mechanics – The study of composite material behaviour
wherein the interaction of the constituent materials is examined in detail
as part of the definition of the behaviour of the heterogeneous composite
material.
The two basic approaches to the micromechanics of composite materials
are
(ii) Elasticity
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 39 7/31/2012 3:36:40 PM


system. The elasticity approach actually is at least three approaches
(i) bounding principles (ii) exact solutions and (iii) approximate
solutions. All approaches are characterized by more rigorous satisfaction
of physical laws (equilibrium, deformation continuity and compatibility
and stress-strain relations) than in mechanics of materials.
15. (b) (i)

(i) The bond between fibers and matrix is perfect.
(ii) The elastic moduli, diameters and space between fibers are uniform.
(iii) The fibers are continuous and parallel.
(iv) The fibers and matrix follow Hooke’s law. (linearly elastic)
(v) The fibers possess uniform strength.
(vi) The composite is free of voids.
15. (b) (ii) The Q16 and Q26 terms are non-zero when i has any value other
than 0° or 90°. This indicates the anisotropic behaviour of an orthotropic
lamina when its fibers are not oriented along or perpendicular to the
reference load direction. The terms Q16 and Q26 are that cause an
orthotropic lamina to behave like an anisotropic lamina in a laminate,
when i is neither 0° nor 90°. (Better 30° and 60°).
M05_ME_Ch05(2).indd 40 7/31/2012 3:36:40 PM

Solved Model Question Paper 2
Seventh Semester
1. What is the function of caul plate?
2. What are the assumptions made in micro mechanics?
3. Define the rule of mixture used to determine the material properties.
4. Define lamina.
5. Differentiate between bag moulding and compression moulding.
6. Define inter laminar stresses with causes.
7. Why low-modulus foam or honeycomb core is used in the middle of the

sandwich beam?
8. What are advanced composites?
9. What do you mean by composite material?
10. What are the major constituents in composite materials?
11. (a) State the generalised Hooke’s law applicable for orthotropic material.
Or
(b) Explain Autoclave molding, Filament Winding and Pultrusion.
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 41 7/31/2012 3:38:32 PM

12. (a) What is Maximum Strain theory, Tsai Hill Theory and Tsai Wu Theory.
Or
(b) (i) Distinguish between open mould and close mould processes.
(ii) What is ‘failure envelopes’?
13. (a) What are the materials used for sandwich construction? What are
the applications of Sandwich structures.
Or
(b) (i) Define inter laminar stresses with causes.
(ii) What are the assumptions made in classical small deformation
theory for a laminate?
14. (a) (i) What are the advantages of composite materials in compare
with isotropic materials.
(ii) State various applications of composite materials.
(iii) Differentiate between isotropic, anisotropic and orthotropic
materials with suitable example.
Or
(b) Why are there so many resin systems in advanced polymer
composites?
15. (a) Give typical applications of polymer matrix composites.

Or
(b) What are resins, explain in detail.
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 42 7/31/2012 3:38:32 PM

Solutions
PART A
1. Smooth metal plates, free of surface defects, same size and shape as
that of a composite lay-up, used immediately in contact with the lay-up
during the curing process to transmit normal pressure and to a smooth
surface on the finished laminate.
2. Micro mechanics – The study of composite material behaviour wherein
the interaction of the constituent materials is examined in detail as part of the
definition of the behaviour of the heterogeneous composite material.
The two basic approaches to the micro mechanics of composite
materials are
(ii) Elasticity
system. The elasticity approach actually is at least three approaches (i)
bounding principles (ii) exact solutions and (iii) approximate solutions.
All approaches are characterized by more rigorous satisfaction of
physical laws (equilibrium, deformation continuity and compatibility
and stress-strain relations) than in mechanics of materials.
3. The rule-of-mixtures model is used to describe three-dimensional solids
having an arbitrary number of material phases with arbitrary orientations
and volume fractions. Orientations are defined for each phase using a triad
of space-fixed rotation angles (g , b , a ) in a 3-2-1 sequence. These angles
rotate the composite material frame to the phase frame. The orientation
of each phase is defined by starting with the phase frame aligned with the
composite frame and rotating the phase material frame g degrees about
the 3-axis of the composite material frame, then rotating the phase frame
b degrees about the 2-axis of the composite frame, and finally rotating the
phase frame a degrees about the 1-axis of the composite frame. Rule-of-
mixtures composites are, in general, fully anisotropic.
4. A lamina (also called a ply or layer) is a single flat layer of unidirectional
fibers or woven fibers arranged is a matrix.
5. Compression molding is a method of molding in which the molding
material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mold
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 43 7/31/2012 3:38:32 PM

cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is
applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat
and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The
process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either
in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms. Compression
molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding
complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements.
A process using a two-sided mould set that shapes both surfaces of
the panel. On the lower side is a rigid mould and on the upper side is
a flexible membrane or vacuum bag. The flexible membrane can be a
reusable silicone material or an extruded polymer film. Then, vacuum
is applied to the mould cavity. This process can be performed at either
ambient or elevated temperature with ambient atmospheric pressure
acting upon the vacuum bag. Most economical way is using a venturi
vacuum and air compressor or a vacuum pump.
6. In classical lamination theory no account is taken of stresses such as _zx,
_zx and _zy which are shown on an element of an angle-ply laminate
loaded with Nx. These stresses are called inter laminar stresses and exist
on surfaces between adjacent layers although they exist within the layers
but are usually largest at the layer interfaces.
7. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher
thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness
with overall low density.
Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyur-
ethane, polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams,
and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-
cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.
8. Advanced composites are composite materials which are traditionally
used in the aerospace industries. These composites have high
performance reinforcements of a thin dia. in a matrix material such as
epoxy and aluminium.
9. A combination of two or more materials (reinforcing elements, fillers, and
composite matrix binder), differing in form or composition on a macroscale.
The constituents retain their identities, that is, they do not dissolve or merge
completely into one another although they act in concert. Normally, the
components can be physically identified and exhibit an interface between
one another. Examples are cermets and metal-matrix composites.
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 44 7/31/2012 3:38:32 PM

10. Reinforcing phase

(i) One in which it is embedded is called the matrix.
(ii) Reinforcing phase - Fibres, particles or flakes.
(iii) Matrix- Materials are generally continuous.
PART B
11. (a) Some engineering materials, including certain piezoelectric materials
(e.g. Rochelle salt) and 2-ply fiber-reinforced composites, are orthotropic.
 1 v yx v zx 
 − 0 0 0 
 xE Ey Ez 
 v 1 v zy 
 − xy − 0 0 0 
e xx   E x Ey Ez  s xx 
     
e yy   v xz v yz 1  s yy 
e   − − 0 0 0  s 
 zz  =  E E E  zz 
x y z

e yz   1  s y z 
   0 0 0 0 0   
e
 zx   2G yz  s zx 
e    s 
 xy   0 1  xy 
0 0 0 0 
 2G zx 
 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2G xy 

M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 45 7/31/2012 3:38:32 PM

where,
= , = , =
E y Ez Ez Ex Ex E y

strain, where

 0 0 0 
s xx    e xx 
0 0 0
 e yy 
s   z x
 e 
s yz   0 0 0  e yz 
   Ex E y ∆ Ex E y ∆ Ex E y ∆
  
s zx   0 0 0 2G yz 0 0  e zx 
s    e 
 xy  0 0 0 0 2Gzx 0  xy 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 2Gxy 
 
where,
∆=
Ex E y Ez
statements hold,
 =
 zy zx xy
 =
 Ez Ex ∆ Ex E y ∆
 zx yx zy
=
 E y E z ∆ Ex E y ∆

M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 46 7/31/2012 3:38:33 PM

where,
11. (b) Autoclave molding

Filament molding
Filament winding is a fabrication technique for manufacturing
composite material, usually in the form of cylindrical structures. The
process involves winding filaments under varying amounts of tension
over a male mould or mandrel. The mandrel rotates while a carriage
moves horizontally, laying down fibers in the desired pattern. The most
common filaments are carbon or glass fiber and are coated with synthetic
resin as they are wound. Once the mandrel is completely covered to
the desired thickness, the mandrel is placed in an oven to solidify (set)
the resin. Once the resin has cured, the mandrel is removed, leaving the
hollow final product.
masts.
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 47 7/31/2012 3:38:33 PM

Pultrision
possibly followed by a separate preforming system, and into a heated
die, where the resin undergoes polymerization. Many resin types may
be used in pultrusion including polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and
epoxy.
Ecological cleanness of manufactured products, in contrast to
composites on thermosetting resins base, as well as practically unlimited
possibilities of recycling (processing) after the resource depletion appear
to be forcible arguments in favor of reinforced thermoplastics. For these
reasons the industrial output and use of the given materials in highly
industrialized countries have increased by 8-10% per year in recent
decades.
impregnation.
plants, etc.;
aircraft;
•
In sports and tourism industry for manufacturing of equipment
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 48 7/31/2012 3:38:33 PM


structures, fiberglass rods used in composite insulators and as
supporting structures for elements of signaling blocks, and fiberglass
profiles used in manufacturing of transformers and electric motors;
strength stability.
12. (a) Maximum principal strain theory (saint-venant)

The theory is based on the assumption that inelastic behavior or failure
is governed by a specified maximum normal strain. Failure will occur at
a particular part in a body subjected to an arbitrary state of strain when
the normal strain reaches a limiting level.
s 2 /syp
1.0
0.5
s 1/syp
−1.0 − 0.5 0 0.5 1.0
− 0.5
No yielding
predicted
−1.0
v = 0.35
Failure by yielding
Failure is predicted when either of the principal strains, resulting from

the principal stresses, s1, s2, equals or exceeds the maximum strain
corresponding to the yield strength, syp, of the material in uniaxial
tension or compression.
s1 - v(s 2 + s 3) < syp
The Tsai Hill theory

The Tsai-Hill theory [14] is considered an extension of the Von
Mises failure criterion. The failure strengths in the principal material
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 49 7/31/2012 3:38:33 PM

directions are assumed to be known. The tensor form of this criterion is

Fi, aiaj = 1. If this expression is expanded and the Fi, terms replaced by
letters, the failure criterion is
F (02 - ~ 3 + ) G (a ~ 3 - + H (01 - 0 2) ~ + 2 (Lti 3 + Mt;, + Nt and )
Expanding and collecting terms,
(G + H ) o ~ + (F + H) o $ + (F + G) D;-
2 [H 0102 + FCQC ~ + G u ~ c ~ ]
+2 [Lti 3 + M T; + ~ Nt ?,] = 1
Where F, G, H, L, M, and N are anisotropic material strength parameters.
The failure strength in the principal material directions are represented
by X, Y, and Z. Application of a uniaxial tensile stress in each of the three
principal material directions while keeping all other stresses zero (i.e.,
a1 # 0, 0 2 = 03 = t 1 2 = t i 3 = t 23 = 0) yields
Assuming a state of plane stress (03 = t i 3 = t 23 = 0) the failure theory
is written as
(G + H ) o ~ + (F + H) D; - 2Hala 2 + 2Ntf 2 = 1
GO: + Ha; + Fa: + Ha; - 2H 0102 + 2Nt:z = 1
Ga; + Fa: + H (a1 - ~ 2+) 2N ~ t;, = 1
Tsai Wu Theory
The Tsai–Wu failure criterion is a phenomenological failure theory
which is widely used for anisotropic composite materials which have
different strengths in tension and compression. This failure criterion is
a specialization of the general quadratic failure criterion proposed by
Gol’denblat and Kopnov and can be expressed in the form
Fis i + Fij s i s j ≥ 1
where i , j = …6 and repeated indices indicate summation, and Fi , Fij are

experimentally determined material strength parameters. The stresses
s i are expressed in Voigt notation. If the failure surface is to be closed
and convex, the interaction terms Fij must satisfy
Fii Fjj − Fij2 ≥ 0
which implies that all the Fii terms must be positive.
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 50 7/31/2012 3:38:34 PM

12. (b) (i)

Open mould process: It is done in open structure.
• Spray lay up
• Hand lay up
• Filament winding
• SMC
• Expansion tool moulding
• Contact moulding
Closed mould processes: It is done in a closed structure.
• Compression moulding
• Vacuum bag
• Injection moulding
• Resin transfer
12. (b) (ii) A failure envelope is a three dimensional plot of the combinations
of the normal and shear stresses which can be applied to an angle lamina
just before failure. Since drawing three-dimensional graphs can be time
consuming, one may develop failure envelopes for constant shear stress,
_xy, and then use the two normal stresses _x and _y as the two axes. Then
if the applied stress is within the failure envelope, the lamina is safe,
otherwise it has failed.
13. (a) A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite

materials that is fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a
lightweight but thick core. The core material is normally low strength
material, but its higher thickness provides the sandwich composite with
high bending stiffness with overall low density.
Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride,
polyurethane, polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic
foams, and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and
closed-cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.
Laminates of glass or carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics or mainly
thermoset polymers (unsaturated polyesters, epoxies...) are widely used
as skin materials. Sheet metal is also used as skin material in some
cases.
The core is bonded to the skins with an adhesive or with metal components
by brazing together.
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 51 7/31/2012 3:38:34 PM

Applications
Sandwich structures can be widely used in sandwich panels, this
kinds of panels can be in different types such as FRP sandwich panel,
aluminum composite panel etc. FRP polyester reinforced composite
honeycomb panel (sandwich panel) is made of polyester reinforced
plastic, multi-axial high-strength glass fiber and PP honeycomb panel
in special antiskid tread pattern mold through the process of constant
temperature vacuum adsorption and agglutination and solidification
13. (b) (i) In classical lamination theory no account is taken of stresses

such as _zx, _zx and _zy which are shown on an element of an angle-ply
laminate loaded with Nx.
These stresses are called inter laminar stresses and exist on surfaces
between adjacent layers although they exist within the layers but are
usually largest at the layer interfaces.
13. (b) (ii)
(i) Each lamina is orthotropic.
(ii) Each lamina is homogeneous.
(iii) A line straight and perpendicular to the middle surface remains
straight and perpendicular to the middle surface during deformation
(_xz = _xz = 0).
(iv) A straight line in the z-direction remains of constant length
(_z = 0).
(v) The laminate is thin and is loaded only in its plane. (plane stress)
(_z = _xz = _xz = 0).
(vi) Displacements are continuous and small throughout the laminate.
(_u_, _v_, _w_<< laminate thickness).
(vii) Each lamina is elastic.
(viii) No slip occurs between the lamina inter faces.
14. (a) (i) The advantages of composite materials
Cost: parts manufactured without Good resistance to ageing, even

machining phase and, depending outdoors (UV, thermal shocks,
on the technique, low investment etc.)
levels in tools
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 52 7/31/2012 3:38:34 PM

Excellent weight/mechanical Self-extinguishing, non toxicity

strength ratio of gases
Possibility of insert Thermal, electric and phonic
overmoulding and adjunction of insulation
accessories
Perfectly suited to aesthetics of Possibility of obtaining complex
modern, functional shapes shapes and integrating functions
Does not corrodes
14. (a) (ii) The major applications include,

(1) Industry
(2) Railway transport and other types of transport
(3) Electrical
(4) Military including ballistic
(5) Naval aeronautic
(6) Chemicals anticorrosion
(7) Medical
(8) Wind turbines
14. (a) (iii) The word “isotropy” is related with uniformity. The meaning
of the word itself is “uniformity in all directions.” As stated in the
introduction, the meaning may slightly differ according to the subject
area. For example, when talking about the isotropy of a material or
mineral, it means having the same properties in all directions. In
industrial processes isotropy means having the same rate in all the steps
regardless of the direction. Molecules having kinetic energy are said to be
moving randomly to any direction. Therefore, in a given time, there will
be many molecules moving in a similar direction, hence show isotropy.
Isotropy can be a property of some materials. Those materials will have
the same properties in all the directions (example: Amorphous solids).
For example, if a solid expands in a similar manner in all directions,
when heat is applied, is said to be isotropic.
Anisotropy, on the other hand, is dependent on the direction. It is the
opposite of isotropy. The measured properties of a material differ in
various directions in anisotropy. These properties can be physical or
mechanical properties like conductivity, tensile strength or absorbance.
Like the word isotropy, anisotropy also has slightly different meanings
in different subjects where it is used. Normally, liquids have no order
in molecules. Anisotropic liquids are liquid with a structural order in
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 53 7/31/2012 3:38:34 PM

contrast to other common liquids. The sedimentary materials can have

electrical anisotropy, where the electrical conductivity differs from one
direction to another direction. The rock forming minerals are anisotropic
in relative to their optical properties. The orientation of nuclei of a
molecule differs with the strength of the applied magnetic field in
NMR spectroscopy. In this case, anisotropic systems are referred to the
molecules with high electron density. Because of the anisotropic effect
(in molecules with high electron density), the applied magnetic field
is felt differently to the molecule (most often less than the real value);
therefore, the chemical shift varies. In fluorescence spectroscopy also
anisotropic measurement of the fluorescence polarization is used, to
determine the molecular structures. Further, anisotropy is a common
concept in medicine when talking about the ultrasound imaging.
An orthotropic material has two or three mutually orthogonal twofold axes
of rotational symmetry so that its mechanical properties are, in general,
different along each axis. Orthotropic materials are thus anisotropic;
their properties depend on the direction in which they are measured. An
isotropic material, in contrast, has the same properties in every direction.
One common example of an orthotropic material with two axis of
symmetry would be a polymer reinforced by parallel glass or graphite
fibers. The strength and stiffness of such a composite material will
usually be greater in a direction parallel to the fibers than in the transverse
direction. Another example would be a biological membrane, in which
the properties in the plane of the membrane will be different from those
in the perpendicular direction. Such materials are sometimes called
transverse isotropic.
14. (b) Each polymer has its advantages and drawbacks in its use
• Polyesters: The advantages are low cost and the ability to be made
translucent; drawbacks include service temperatures below 170 °F
(77 °C), brittleness, and high shrinkage of as much as 8 % during
curing.
• Phenolics: The advantages are low cost and high mechanical strength;
drawbacks include high void content.
• Epoxies: The advantages are high mechanical strength and good
adherence to metals and glasses; drawbacks are high cost and
difficulty in processing. Each of the resin systems has its advantages
and drawbacks. The use of a particular system depends on the
application. These considerations include mechanical strength, cost,
smoke emission, temperature excursions, etc.
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15. (a) Applications of polymer matrix composites range from tennis

racquets to the space shuttle. Rather than enumerating only the areas in
which polymer-based composites are used, a few examples have been
taken from each industry. Emphasis has been placed on why a composite
material is the material of choice.
Aircraft
The military aircraft industry has mainly led the use of polymer
composites. The percentage of structural weight of composites that
was less than 2 % in F-15s in the 1970s has increased to about 30 % on
the AV-8B in the 1990s. In both cases, the weight reduction over metal
parts was more than 20 %. In commercial airlines, the use of composites
has been conservative because of safety concerns. Use of composites
is limited to secondary structures such as rudders and elevators made
of graphite/epoxy for the Boeing 767 and landing gear doors made of
Kevlar–graphite/epoxy. Composites are also used in panels and floorings
of airplanes. Some examples of using composites in the primary
structure are the all-composite Lear Fan 2100 plane and the tail fin of
the Airbus A 310-300. In the latter case, the tail fin consists of graphite/
epoxy and aramid honeycomb. It not only reduced the weight of the tail
fin by 662 lb (300 kg) but also reduced the number of parts from 2000
to 100. Skins of aircraft engine cowls are also made of polymer matrix
composites for reducing weight.
With increasing competition in model airplane flying, the weight of
composite materials has been reduced. World War II model airplane
with fuselage made of glass/epoxy, wings made of balsa-wood facings/
Styrofoam core sandwich construction, and wings pars made of graphite/
epoxy.
Helicopters and tilt rotors use graphite/epoxy and glass/epoxy rotor
blades that not only increase the life of blades by more than 100 % over
metals but also increase the top speeds.
Space
Two factors make composites the material of choice in space applications:
high specific modulus and strength, and dimensional stability during
large changes in temperature in space. Examples include the graphite/
epoxy-honeycomb payload bay doors in the space shuttle. Weight
savings over conventional metal alloys translate to higher pay loads
that cost as much as $1000/lb ($2208/kg). Also, for the space shuttles,
graphite/epoxy was chosen primarily for weight savings and for small
mechanical and thermal deflections concerning the remote manipulator
arm, which deploys and retrieves payloads. High-gain antenna for the
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 55 7/31/2012 3:38:34 PM

space station that uses sandwiches made of graphite/epoxy facings

with an aluminum honeycomb core. Antenna ribs and struts in satellite
systems use graphite/epoxy for their high specific stiffness and its ability
to meet the dimensional stability requirements due to large temperature
excursions in space. In june 2004, launched the first privately manned
vehicle, called Spaceship One, beyond the Earth’s atmosphere. The
spaceship reached a record-breaking altitude of approximately 62 miles
(100 km). Spaceship One is constructed from graphite-epoxy composite
materials; at rowel on ablative thermal protection layer protects its hotter
sections.
Sporting goods
Graphite/epoxy is replacing metals in golf club shafts mainly to decrease
the weight and use the saved weight in the head. This increase in the head
weight has improved driving distances by more than 25 yards (23 m).
Bicycles use hybrid construction of graphite/epoxy composites wound
on an aluminum tubing or chopped S-glass reinforced urethane foam.
The graphite/epoxy composite increases the specific modulus of the
tube and decreases the mass of the frame by 25 %. Composites also
allow frames to consist of one piece, which improves fatigue life and
avoids stress concentration* found in metallic frames at their joints.
Bicycle wheels made of carbon–polymide composites offer low weight
and better impact resistance than aluminum. Tennis and racquetball
rackets with graphite/epoxy frames are now common place. The primary
reasons for using composites are that they improve the torsional rigidity
of the racquet and reduce risk of elbow injury due to vibration damping.
Ice hockey sticks are now manufactured out of hybrids such as Kevlar–
glass/epoxy. Kevlar is added for durability and stiffness. Skipoles made
of glass/polyester composites have higher strength, flexibility, and lower
weight than conventional ski poles. This reduces stress and impact on
upper body joints as the skier plants his poles.
Medical devices
Applications here include the use of glass–Kevlar/epoxy light weight
face masks for epileptic patients. Artificial portable lungs are made of
graphite–glass/epoxy so that a patient can be mobile. X-ray tables made
of graphite/epoxy facing sandwiches are used for their high stiffness,
light weight, and transparency to radiation.
15. (b) Resin in the most specific use of the term is a hydrocarbon secretion
of many plants, particularly coniferous trees. Resins are valued for
their chemical properties and associated uses, such as the production of
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 56 7/31/2012 3:38:34 PM

varnishes, adhesives, and food glazing agents; as an important source of

raw materials for organic synthesis; and as constituents of incense and
perfume. Plant resins have a very long history that was documented in
ancient Greece by Theophrastus, in ancient Rome by Pliny the Elder,
and especially in the resins known as frankincense and myrrh, prized
in ancient Egypt. These were highly prized substances, and required as
incense in some religious rites. Amber is a hard fossilized resin from
ancient trees.
More broadly, the term “resin” also encompasses a great many synthetic
substances of similar mechanical properties (thick liquids that harden
into transparent solids), as well as shellacs of insects of the superfamily
Coccoidea.
Other liquid compounds found in plants or exuded by plants, such as
sap, latex, or mucilage, are sometimes confused with resin, but are not
chemically the same. Saps, in particular, serve a nutritive function that
resins do not. There is no consensus on why plants secrete resins. However,
resins consist primarily of secondary metabolites or compounds that
apparently play no role in the primary physiology of a plant. While some
scientists view resins only as waste products, their protective benefits to
the plant are widely documented. The toxic resinous compounds may
confound a wide range of herbivores, insects, and pathogens; while the
volatile phenolic compounds may attract benefactors such as parasitoids
or predators of the herbivores that attack the plant.
The word “resin” has been applied in the modern world to nearly any
component of a liquid that will set into a hard lacquer or enamel-like
finish. An example is nail polish, a modern product which contains
“resins” that are organic compounds, but not classical plant resins.
Certain “casting resins” and synthetic resins (such as epoxy resin) have
also been given the name “resin” because they solidify in the same
way as some plant resins, but synthetic resins are liquid monomers of
thermosetting plastics, and do not derive from plants.
M05_ME_Ch05(3).indd 57 7/31/2012 3:38:35 PM

NOV/DEC 2010
Seventh Semester
1. Differentiate orthotropic materials from isotropic materials.
2. Name any two important applications where fiber reinforced laminates

were used.
3. How does one evaluate the material properties along arbitrary directions
in a fiber reinforced lamina knowing the properties along principal
material directions?
4. Name any two matrix materials with fibers used in fiber reinforced
laminates.
5. Differentiate lamina from laminate.
6. For a composite laminate what does the matrix [A] represent?
7. What is meant by sandwich plate/panel?
8. Name the materials used for constructing sandwich plates.
9. Name any two component that were made by filament winding.
10. Classify thermosetting polymers.
11. (a) Starting from generalized Hooke’s law, derive the material stiffness
matrix Q for a fiber reinforced lamina in terms of elastic constants
in principal material directions.
M05_ME_Ch05(4).indd 58 7/31/2012 3:39:22 PM

Composite Materials and Structures (Nov/Dec 2010) 5.59
Or
(b) Explain various applications of composites in detail.
12. (a) Consider a two-ply laminate with the ply orientations of 0° and 45°
with laminate axis as shown in figure. The bottom lamina is 0° layer
with thickness of 5 mm, whereas the 45° top lamina is 3 mm thick.
The stiffness matrices Q, referred to the principal material directions
are the same for the two layers:
 20 0.7 0 
[Q ] = 0.7 2.0 0  GPa
 0 0 0.7
Obtain laminate stiffness matrix.
Lamina 1
45° h1 = −1 h0 = −4
Z=0
X
Lamina 2 0° h2 = 4
Z
Or
(b) Starting from fundamentals, derive the contents of A, B and D
matrices.
1 3. (a) Explain various features for the following lamiantes.

(i) Cross-ply lamiantes
(ii) Angle-ply laminates
(iii) Symmetric laminates
Or
(b) Derive the fourth order governing differential equation for bending
of composite plate due to load applied in Z-direction.
14. (a) The unidirectional lamina has the following properties in the

principal fiber direction.
FIT − 1280 MPa, FIC = 622 MPa, F2T = 49 MPa, F2C = 245 MPa,
F6 = 69 MPa, E1 = 35 GPa, E2 = 7 GPa, E6 = 3 GPa g12 = 0.3.
M05_ME_Ch05(4).indd 59 7/31/2012 3:39:23 PM

The loading is
sx = − 2 MPa, sy = 4 MPa, sshear = −1 MPa fiber orientation 60°
Check the safety based on different failure theories.

Or
(b) Discuss the following failure theories wich are applicable for fiber
reinforced polymer composites.
(i) Maximum strain theory
(ii) Tsai-Hill theory
(iii) Tsai-Wu theory
1 5. (a) Explain the following in detail:

(i) Auto clave molding
(ii) Filament winding
(iii) Pultrusion
Or
(b) Explain the following in detail:
(i) Resin transfer molding
(ii) Preparation of fiber reinforced laminates by hand lay-up.
M05_ME_Ch05(4).indd 60 7/31/2012 3:39:23 PM

MAY/JUNE 2009
Seventh Semester
1. Differentiate between isotropic, orthotropic and anisotropic materials.
2. List the common matrix materials used for composites.
3. Differentiate between lamina and laminate.
4. Write the general compliance matrix for a fiber reinforced materials.
5. Show the diagram to represent the following laminate ( 45° / 90).
6. Define
(a) angle ply laminate
(b) cross ply laminate.
7. What are the advantages of sandwich structures?
8. Name the materials used for sandwich construction.
9. Name any three manufacturing methods for mass production of fiber

reinforced composite structures.
10. What are the advantage of compression moulding method for making
sheet molding compounds in comparison with other methods?
PART B (5 ë 16 = 80)
11. (a) Derive the material stiffness laminate ‘Q’ for plane fiber reinforced
lamina starting from the fundamentals.
M05_ME_Ch05(5).indd 61 7/31/2012 3:40:06 PM

Or
(b) Write a detailed account about the various types of fibers, which are
generally used in composite materials.
12. (a) A two ply laminate having its top and bottom layers are 3 mm and
5 mm respectively. The stiffness matrix ‘Q’ referred to the principal
material directions are the same for the layers and is given as
 20.0 0.7 0 
[Q ] =  0.7 2.0 0  GPa. Obtain A, B and D matrices of the
 0 0 0.7
laminate.
Or
(b) Starting from fundamentals, derive the contents of A, B and D
matrices of a laminate.
13. (a) A four layered angle ply laminate of [± 45°] , with a thickness
of 3 mm for each layer. The stiffness matrices Q, referred to the
principal material directions are same for all the layers and is given as
 20.0 0.7 0 
[Q ] =  0.7 2.0 0  GPa. Numerically obtain A, B and D
 0 0 0.7
matrices. And discuss its important characteristics with respect to
A, B and D matrices.
Or
(b) A three – ply symmetric laminate  45 0 , which has top and bottom
layers are each 3 mm thick and middle layer is 6 mm thick. The ‘A’
matrix for the laminate is given as
159.3 35.1 27.0 
 
[ A] =  35.1 51.3 27.0  GPa-mm . Calculate the stresses and
 27.0 27.0 35.1
strains Nx = 1000 N/mm, Ny = 200 N/mm and Nxy = 0.
14. (a) Derive the governing differential equation for the bending of a
composite plate applied with load along normal to surface of the
plate.
M05_ME_Ch05(5).indd 62 7/31/2012 3:40:07 PM

Composite Materials and Structures (May/June 2009) 5.63
Or
(b) Discuss in detail the manufacturing of a sandwich beam.
15. (a) Explain how polymer composites are manufactured. Give example.
Or
(b) Explain compression moulding of composites.
M05_ME_Ch05(5).indd 63 7/31/2012 3:40:07 PM

M05_ME_Ch05(5).indd 64 7/31/2012 3:40:07 PM

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Semester-VII

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 1 7/31/2012 3:30:12 PM

EEE_Sem-VI_Chennai_FM.indd iv 12/7/2012 6:40:43 PM

2. What is mean by Fiber – reinforced composite material? Give an example.

3. Define the rule of mixture used to determine the material properties.

5. What is the function of caul plate?

6. Define cross – ply laminate.

7. What are the characteristics of carbon fiber?

8. Why low-modulus foam or honeycomb core is used in the middle of the

9. Differentiate between bag moulding and compression moulding.

10. State the impartance of Fiber surface treatments.

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 3 7/31/2012 3:30:12 PM

(ii) State various applications of composite materials.

12. (a) Explain Autoclave molding, Filament Winding and Pultrusion.

14. (a) Explain the production of Carbon Fibres.

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 4 7/31/2012 3:30:12 PM

(c) Global strains

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 5 7/31/2012 3:30:12 PM

2. A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) consists of three components:

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 6 7/31/2012 3:30:12 PM

membrane, bending, and membrane-bending coupling stiffness matrices

9. Compression molding is a method of molding in which the molding

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 7 7/31/2012 3:30:12 PM

is applied to the mould cavity. This process can be performed at either

11. (a) (ii) The major applications include,

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 8 7/31/2012 3:30:12 PM

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 9 7/31/2012 3:30:12 PM

One common example of an orthotropic material with two axis of symmetry

11. (b) (i) Some engineering materials, including certain piezoelectric

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 10 7/31/2012 3:30:13 PM

Hooke’s law in stiffness form

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 11 7/31/2012 3:30:13 PM

11. (b) (ii) Maxwell–Betti Reciprocal Relations

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 12 7/31/2012 3:30:13 PM

12. (a) Autoclave molding

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 13 7/31/2012 3:30:14 PM

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 14 7/31/2012 3:30:14 PM

• And in many other industries and plants, using mechanisms, structures

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 15 7/31/2012 3:30:14 PM

13. (a) Maximum principal strain theory (saint-venant)

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 16 7/31/2012 3:30:14 PM

a particular part in a body subjected to an arbitrary state of strain when

Failure is predicted when either of the principal strains, resulting from

The Tsai Hill theory

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 17 7/31/2012 3:30:14 PM

where i , j = …6 and repeated indices indicate summation, and Fi , Fij are

Fii Fjj − Fij2 ≥ 0

which implies that all the Fii terms must be positive.

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 18 7/31/2012 3:30:15 PM

vis-a-vis vehicle production, carbon fibers reinforced epoxies have been

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 19 7/31/2012 3:30:15 PM

The fabrication costs of reinforced plastics is controlled by the devices

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 20 7/31/2012 3:30:15 PM

to try and reduce these factors to a minimum. Fiber glass reinforced

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 21 7/31/2012 3:30:15 PM

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 22 7/31/2012 3:30:16 PM

resins do not. There is no consensus on why plants secrete resins. However,

15. (a) A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 23 7/31/2012 3:30:16 PM

in special antiskid tread pattern mold through the process of constant

15. (b) (i)

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 24 7/31/2012 3:30:17 PM

M05_ME_Ch05(1).indd 25 7/31/2012 3:30:18 PM

3. What are advanced composites?

4. What is meant by orthogonally isotropic material? Give an example.

5. Define micro mechanics.

6. What is elasticity approach?

• And in many other industries and plants, using mechanisms, structures

• In electrical power engineering for manufacturing of dielectric