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Applied Energy 170 (2016) 176–185

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Process and techno-economic analysis of green diesel production from


waste vegetable oil and the comparison with ester type biodiesel
production
Sandra B. Glisic ⇑, Jelena M. Pajnik, Aleksandar M. Orlović
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Karnegijeva 4, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

 Production of green diesel and


biodiesel from WVO are
comparatively analysed.
 Hydrogenation process for green
diesel is evaluated.
 Biodiesel production by commercial
and supercritical technology are
examined.
 Typical industrial scale capacities are
analysed on process and economic
level.
 Economics of these technologies
strongly depend on capacity and price
of feedstock.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Like ester type biodiesel fuel, green diesel is a next generation transportation fuel emerging due to the
Received 10 September 2015 need for a renewable replacement of internal combustion engine fuel, which is also fully compatible with
Received in revised form 18 February 2016 existing automotive powertrain systems. Besides other limitations, the main obstacle for wider applica-
Accepted 19 February 2016
tion of such renewable fuels is their relatively high production cost, depending mainly on the raw mate-
Available online 3 March 2016
rial cost and the application of more efficient processing technology. Green diesel and ester type biodiesel
can be produced from waste vegetable oil by catalytic hydrogenation, homogeneous alkali catalysed
Keywords:
transesterification and supercritical non-catalytic transesterification. Techno-economic analysis and
Green diesel
Biodiesel
the sensitivity analysis reveal that economics of these production technologies strongly depend on the
Hydrogenation process unit capacity and the cost of feedstock. Green diesel production by catalytic hydroprocessing
Supercritical located in a petroleum refinery appears to be the most cost effective option for unit capacity close to
Process design and above 200,000 tonnes/year. Conventional ester biodiesel process and non-catalytic ester biodiesel
Techno-economic analysis process under supercritical conditions are less profitable at specified capacity. Unit capacities of the
investigated processes which are below 100,000 tonnes/year are likely to result in negative net present
values after 10 years of project lifetime.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +381 113303707; fax: +381 113370473.


E-mail address: sglisic@tmf.bg.ac.rs (S.B. Glisic).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.02.102
0306-2619/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.B. Glisic et al. / Applied Energy 170 (2016) 176–185 177

1. Introduction Over the past two decades the green diesel production technol-
ogy was patented [31–37] and investigated [38–40,45,46,10] by a
The majority of total worldwide energy consumption (around number of research groups and companies. The process was
80%) is resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels with global applied on industrial scale at several locations and is believed to
consumption projected to increase at an average annual rate of be ideally suited for existing complex petroleum refineries [4–9].
0.9% to 2030, according to International Energy Agency (IEA) [1]. Neste Oil is operating two units with a combined capacity of
Renewable energy sources were reported to be the fastest growing 170,000 tonnes/year of green diesel in Finland as well as a produc-
sector of the world’s energy resources, with consumption esti- tion in Singapore and Rotterdam with 800,000 tonnes/year capac-
mated to increase by 3.0% annually by 2030 [1]. Transportation ity [47]. Another green diesel commercial unit, UOP/Eni Ecofining
sector is the world’s largest consumer of fossil energy (around process technology, is to become operational in Italy [48]. The
40%) indicating the need to reduce high fossil fuels use in this sec- same technology is installed at Diamond Green Diesel facility in
tor in particular [2–11]. Considerable potential for the use of Norco, Louisiana, with capacity of more than 130 million gallons/
renewables within transportation sector has been recognised year. Petrobras/H-BIO is reported to be successfully developed as
within diesel fuels, fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) biodiesel and a hydrotreating process for converting vegetable oil into green die-
hydrogenated vegetable oils or green diesel. These renewable sel [49]. Green diesel production is based mainly on hydrodeoxy-
energy sources have high potential being well-matched with exist- genation reaction using vegetable oils and animal fats as main
ing automotive powertrains [4–10]. FAME biodiesel is a mixture of reactants to produce n-paraffins in diesel fuel range [4,12–15,50].
fatty acid methyl esters while green diesel is a mixture of diesel Hydroprocessing of triglycerides requires heterogeneous catalyst
boiling range hydrocarbons essentially free of aromatic com- operating in the stream of hydrogen under moderate to high pres-
pounds. Green diesel is thus a product that is almost identical to sure (2.5–15 MPa) at temperatures between 250 and 500 °C [4,12–
petroleum diesel except for more narrow boiling point range while 15,50], depending on the catalyst, hydrogen to oil ratio and feed-
biodiesel is composed of oxygen containing fatty acid ester mole- stock material [4,12–15,50]. Hydroprocessing reactions take place
cules that have distinctly different chemical identity than petro- in a fixed bed reactor, in a three-phase system: the liquid feed
leum diesel [4,12–15]. The other differences include higher trickles down over the solid catalyst in the presence of a
heating value, higher energy density and an extremely high cetane hydrogen-rich gas phase [4,12–15,50–52]. For this purpose numer-
value of green diesel (values of 80–90 are common due to exclu- ous catalyst have been investigated but common catalysts used in
sively paraffinic content). petroleum refineries for hydrotreating processes (removal of sul-
The increased level of fossil diesel fuel substitution is facing, phur, nitrogen and product quality improvement), such as sul-
and will continue to face, various obstacles; the crude oil price phided Co–Mo or Ni–Mo, are commonly employed and capable
and the price volatility being the major ones [16–24]. Other out- of processing various input blends including gas oil–triglycerides
standing issues are the impact on food supply, the energy supply mixtures [13,12,14,15,50–52]. Catalytic hydrogenation of triglyc-
security and the relatively high production cost of renewable diesel erides, beside hydrocarbons as main products, also yield the fol-
fuels [16–29]. The experience gathered has shown that the overall lowing by-products: water and gaseous products including
cost of biodiesel production needs to be reduced either by the methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), propylene (C3H6),
reduction of raw material cost (vegetable oil, animal fat, used cook- butane (C4H10), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and
ing oil), by the decrease of utilities consumption (energy) or by the in some cases hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in varying degrees, depend-
application of more efficient processing technology [30–40]. Rela- ing on the source feedstock, catalyst and processing conditions.
tively high production cost of renewable diesel fuel is dominantly Process conditions are the key parameter and it has been observed
influenced by the feedstock cost (price of rapeseed, sunflower, soy- that higher temperatures promote the formation of straight and
bean or other vegetable oil), which makes a significant fraction of branched chain aliphatic C6-C18 hydrocarbons [4,12–15,50].
the overall biodiesel cost (around 70–80%) [17–29]. Depending on the temperature and pressure conditions the reac-
The need to decrease the influence of feedstock cost on the pro- tion pathway of triglycerides hydrogenation could significantly dif-
duction cost of renewable diesel fuels has resulted in the use of fer and favour either decarboxylation or hydrodeoxygenation
waste vegetable oils as lower-cost feedstock [16–18,28,41]. Never- reaction. That can lead to a lower or higher hydrogen consumption,
theless variability in quality: the content of free fatty acid (FFA), which can have a direct impact on the capital and operational costs
the amount of water and impurities, variations in composition due to the reduced size of the hydrogen compressor [4]. Capital
and the type of triglycerides, represent the important disadvan- and operational costs can be lower in the case of decarboxylation
tages which have a major impact on production technology and reaction pathway since it is favoured at lower pressures accompa-
production process economy [4,16–18,42]. Besides the waste veg- nied by lower amount of water being formed by the reaction [4,50].
etable oil, the non-edible oils are also highly optional for cheaper The ester biodiesel technology based on the transesterification
biodiesel or green diesel production. The main options within the reaction under supercritical conditions has been investigated and
non-edible oils are Jatropha oil, the lower quality palm oil and developed over the past 20 years. This non-catalytic technology
canola oil. However, these options would require additional oil requires high pressure (17–35 MPa) and high temperature (230–
extraction procedure which would make the fuel production cost 350 °C) conditions. The high excess of alcohol reactant (20–42 M
highly sensitive to costs associated with extraction procedure ratio of methanol to oil) is also necessary, resulting in a large quan-
and the solvent cost [30,43,44]. tity of alcohol in the recycle loop. When compared to conventional
Sustainability of renewable diesel fuel production therefore FAME biodiesel technology, alkali or acid catalysed reaction under
relies on the technology which is capable of processing feedstock atmospheric conditions, the supercritical transesterification has
with high FFA content, typically seen in waste vegetable oils. Cur- environmental benefits regarding wastewater and spent chemicals
rently there are two processing options which could readily fulfil generation, as well as energy consumption. Along with very high
this requirement: non-catalytic transesterification under super- production efficiency this technology has high feedstock flexibility
critical conditions and catalytic hydroprocessing. Conventional as feedstocks with high FFA contents, like waste vegetable oil, are
homogeneously catalysed process for FAME biodiesel production easily processed. Over the last 10 years several units applying
can be used to convert waste vegetable oils but limited to oils with supercritical (and subcritical) transesterification technology were
relatively low FFA content. successfully operated on industrial scale by several companies like
178 S.B. Glisic et al. / Applied Energy 170 (2016) 176–185

5 milions gallons/year supercritical biodiesel plant in Annawan, stearic acid as the model compound [58], or kinetic modelling of
USA, designed and built by Jatrodiesel Super process by Patriot vegetable oil/gas oil mixtures over commercial Co/Mo or Ni/Mo alu-
Holdings LLC [53], 1 million gallons/year plant by BioFuelBox in mina [59–61]. In this work the approach of Zhang et al. was
Idaho, USA [54] etc. employed as the most suitable one, as it takes into consideration
The optimum unit capacity of FAME biodiesel and green diesel process parameters, reaction mechanism and WVO as the feedstock
production depends strongly on the waste vegetable oil availability [61]. As already shown, the hydrogenation reaction of vegetable oils
and price which consists mainly of transportation and collection ser- is represented by a very complex reaction pathway composed of
vice costs. Other significant factors influencing unit capacity include three different reactions: decarboxylation, decarbonylation and
the availability of methanol and hydrogen, the presence or absence hydrodeoxygenation. It was assumed that all these elementary
of important auxiliary units (like hydrogen generation, hydrogen reactions are irreversible reactions since the hydrogen to triglyc-
purification and waste water treatment) and the opportunities for eride ratio far exceeds the required stoichiometric ratio. Due to
profitable marketing of by-products (glycerol, propane etc.). As stip- the rate constants values, deoxygenation reactions were set as the
ulated in the preceding paragraphs, the capacities of existing indus- rate-limiting step for all the investigated temperatures. The reac-
trial units producing green diesel are virtually by the order of tion rate of FFA conversion is considerably faster than reaction of
magnitude larger than FAME biodiesel units applying supercritical triglycerides, so it was excluded from the kinetic model used in this
transesterification process. Also, hydroprocessing units producing study. In this work the kinetic data obtained in experiments previ-
green diesel are often located within complex petroleum refineries ously published [61] was used to size the hydrogenation reactor.
where PSA units and reforming units are already available. For the process simulation, the R-Yield reactor type was used
The aim of this paper is to perform comparative process and since the kinetic data are not available in more detail, as well as
techno-economic analysis of the green diesel and FAME biodiesel for the mass balance for all reactants and products involved in
production from waste vegetable oils, as well as to analyse influ- the process. Yields of components are based on literature data for
ence of the key factors governing decision on the selection of opti- commercial catalyst at high pressure and temperature conditions,
mum option for renewable diesel production. The production of and the following values have been used: 1 mol of triglycerides
green diesel by catalytic hydrogenation process is compared to reacts to yield 1 mol of n-octane, 2 mol of n-heksadecane, 1 mol
FAME biodiesel production by conventional alkali homogeneously of propane, 3.76 mol of water and 0.398 mol of carbon monoxide
catalysed (HACA) and supercritical process (SCA). Base case sce- and carbon dioxide. Accordingly, one mole of triglycerides reacts
nario of industrial scale units processing 100,000 tonnes/year with 7.33 mol of hydrogen. The overall conversion of waste veg-
was applied to perform process simulation and calculation of basic etable oils was set at 95.6 wt%.
economic indicators for the investigated technologies capable of
processing waste vegetable oils. Sensitivity analysis based on the 2.2. Description of the process flowsheet
Net Present Value (NPV) method was performed by the variation
of key variables affecting process unit economic performance, such The process flowsheets for hydrogenation of waste vegetable
as the feedstock price, unit capacity and the by-product price. oil, as well as for the non-catalytic FAME production under super-
critical conditions (SCA) and for the conventional alkali homoge-
2. Process design neously catalysed FAME production process (HACA) processes,
are shown in Fig. 1. For the SCA and HACA processes the detailed
2.1. Process simulation process description and process simulation results are available
in the literature [17,18,28].
The process design and simulation was performed using In WVO hydrogenation process, waste vegetable oil and hydro-
Ò
UniSim software by selecting and defining components, defining gen streams, pressurised to 138 bar are entering the heat exchan-
appropriate thermodynamic model, selecting the required equip- ger system (inlet oil is heated by hot reaction mixture leaving
ment and specifying operating conditions. As a result material the reactor) followed by a furnace. Heated and pressurised mixture
and energy balances, as well as equipment sizing, were obtained. of reactants is fed to catalytic hydrogenation reactor operating at
The more detailed description of methodology and process simula- 390 °C and 138 bars. The reactor outlet flow is further separated
tion can be found elsewhere [17,18,28]. into the organic phase, water and the gas phase. The gas phase
obtained from the separator contains carbon monoxide, carbon
2.1.1. Key components dioxide, propane, as well as the light hydrocarbons (C1–C4 as valu-
The feedstock for the hydrotreating process, a waste vegetable able by products) formed in the hydrocracking reactions [2]. The
oil (WVO), was represented by triolein as the key component water phase, separated in three phase separator, except for water
[17,18,28], along with hydrogen which is the second reactant. contains also small amounts of hydrocarbons and organic oxygen
The final products are: propane, octane, hexadecane, as well as side containing compounds. After three phase separation, liquid hydro-
products like carbon monoxide and dioxide, methane and water. carbons fraction is separated by distillation in an atmospheric dis-
The plant capacity was set at production of 100,000 tonnes/year tillation column into the target products (gas oil boiling range
with 330 operating days per year or 8000 h/year. fraction and gasoline fractions) and the residue (unconverted
triglycerides, diglycerides and monoglycerides along with fatty
2.1.2. Thermodynamic models acids and esters) [2]. The liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV) is
The thermodynamic behaviour at high pressures and tempera- 1.0 h1 and H2/WVO volume ratio is 1068 Nm3/m3.
tures was correlated using RK-Aspen EOS [17,18,28]. For the low- As outlet product stream leaves the hydrogenation reactor, gas
pressure section of hydrogenation process, including a distillation products are separated from liquid products and purified. Very
column for the final separation of products at near atmospheric important step is the removal of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
pressure, Peng-Robinson EOS was employed. and methane from the hydrogen recycle. Carbon monoxide can be
removed by amine washing or using the pressure swing absorption
2.1.3. Kinetic data for WVO hydrogenation to green diesel (PSA) process. If WVO hydroprocessing unit is installed in the refin-
Kinetic modelling studies for hydrogenation of triglycerides ery carbon monoxide could be eliminated in the PSA unit sepa-
were performed by several research groups. These studies have rately, or later in catalytic methanation process [62]. The
included mainly triglycerides from natural feedstocks [55–57] with optimum choice for treatment of gas phase is based on the specific
S.B. Glisic et al. / Applied Energy 170 (2016) 176–185 179

Fig. 1. Process flowsheets of the investigated processes.

situation subject to the overall refinery processing layout. In typi- conversion levels for investigated processes are similar and that
cal case hydrogen would be separated in the PSA unit and recycled hydrogenation of WVO has lower environmentally impact than
back to the reactor. Utility estimates were taken from an industrial production of FAME biodiesel by homogeneous catalytic process.
handbook [63] and modelled as black-box separator in UniSimÒ Operating pressure is lower for hydrogenation processing than
software. for SCA FAME biodiesel process while the temperature is higher.
Energy requirement per kg of products is lower in the case of
3. Results and discussion hydrogenation process than for both FAME biodiesel production
processes. Also, hydrogenation of waste vegetable oil is flexible
3.1. The comparison of green diesel and FAME biodiesel processes process. Operating conditions can be adjusted and optimised to
accommodate changes in feedstock and seasonal variations in die-
Material and energy balance data and operating conditions for sel cloud point specification [8,9,48]. In contrast to fatty acid
analysed processes are given in Table 1. The data indicates that methyl esters, where fuel properties depend on feed origin, green
180 S.B. Glisic et al. / Applied Energy 170 (2016) 176–185

Table 1
Comparison of operating conditions and material and energy balances.

Hydrogenation of WVO Supercritical process, SCA Alkali catalysed process, HACA


Process conditions
Capacity, tonnes/year 100,000 100,000 100,000
Temperature, °C 390 300 60
Pressure, MPa 13.8 20 0.4
Reactor contact time 1.1 h 120–400 s 1.8 h
Conversion, % 96 97 95
Material flow input
Catalyst Commercial Co/Mo on alumina No NaOH 10.1 kg/h
Reactants, kg/h Hydrogen:1350 Methanol:9740 Methanol:1235
WVO: 12500 WVO:6410 WVO:6535
Reactants, mol ratio Hydrogen:WVO = 46:1 Methanol: WVO = 41:1 Methanol:WVO = 6:1
Phosphoric acid, kg/h No No 41.5
Water, kg/h No process water but generate waste water No 200
Energy requirements
Consumption, MW/year 73,608a standalone 63,320a 93,040
22,720a in refinery
Consumption, kW/kg of product 0.74 0.63 0.93
0.23
a
Includes an energy obtained by heat recovery.

diesel product quality is independent of feed origin and cold flow working hours per annum). The plant operation and maintenance
properties can be controlled [8,9,48]. That makes the hydropro- labour was set at 3 operators per shift (3 shifts per day, 35 US$/
cessing more flexible than FAME biodiesel production with respect h) in case of WVO hydrogenation unit incorporated in refinery
to feedstock selection and variation as achieved by Ecofining pro- and 7 operators per shift, 3 shift per day for stand-alone plant.
cess [48]. The depreciation period of 10 years was used in the calculation.
The main process equipment is listed in Table 2 and analysis The equipment cost, which is a part of capital cost for hydrogena-
shows that the green diesel production process requires a fewer tion of WVO, was calculated using cost of the main process equip-
pieces of the major equipment, but equipment mostly requires a ment for calculated equipment size and cost of other plant
special construction material as stainless steel. components like: piping, instrumentation, electrical installations,
construction elements etc., as percentage of main process equip-
3.2. Techno-economic analysis ment cost. The investment cost was adjusted and corrected using
the CEPCI ratio (Chemical engineering’s Plant Cost Index) in order
The preliminary economic design in this study is based on the to estimate all investment costs on the equal time basis. The feed-
previously determined optimal operating conditions, as well as a stock for green diesel and biodiesel synthesis in all cases was
process design for hydrogenation process using UniSimÒ software. assumed to be the waste vegetable oil containing 5% FFA. The total
First scenario for WVO hydrogenation is a plant incorporated in a calculated plant cost (total capital investment) includes the direct
refinery assuming that hydrogen stream is coming from refinery and indirect costs and working capital, as shown in Table 3, for the
reforming unit (there is no need for reforming unit and compressor WVO investigated processing options as well as for the biodiesel
system in the capital investment) and PSA unit is already available production processes: SCA and HACA processes.
at refinery and therefore investment in PSA unit is also not The annual total product cost at 100% capacity with all variable
required. Second scenario is a stand-alone WVO hydrogenation costs (taxes, insurance, and plant overhead) and manufacturing
unit which includes a hydrogen production unit and PSA unit as costs (administration, distribution and selling, research and devel-
capital expenditure. The economic analysis was performed using opment, general expenses) included are listed in Table 4. The cat-
the method proposed by Peters, Timmerhaus and West [64]. Plant alyst price is set at 0.5 cents per litre or 2 cents per gallon as
capacity was set at 100,000 tonnes/year for all processes (8000 proposed in the literature [65]. All other variable costs are set at

Table 2
Main process equipment required for each of the investigated processes.

Equipment Hydrogenation of WVO Supercritical process, SCA Alkali catalysed process, HACA
Reactor 1a 1b 2b
Reactor type Trickle bed reactor Plug flow reactor CSTRc
Pumps 1 5 6
Distillation columns 1 3 3
Heat exchangers 1a 7 8
Furnace 1a 0 0
Gravity separator 0 1b 1
High pressure separator 1a 0 0
Compressor 1a 0 0
PSA unit 1a 0 0
Total 8 (6)a 17 (2)b 20 (2)b
a
Special construction stainless steel.
b
Stainless steel; (number): number of equipment requiring stainless steel as construction material.
c
Continuously stirred tank reactor.
S.B. Glisic et al. / Applied Energy 170 (2016) 176–185 181

Table 3
Total capital investment for analysed processes (in million US$).

Cost of capital investment WVO hydrogenation unit WVO hydrogenation Supercritical process, SCA Alkali catalysed process, HACA
incorporated in a refinery unit stand-alone
Direct costs
Purchased equipment 4.217 8.711 8.920 4.610
Delivery 0.422 0.871 0.892 0.461
Purchased equipment installation 2.180 4.504 4.612 2.383
Instrumentation & controls (installed) 1.670 3.450 3.532 1.826
Piping (installed) 3.154 6.516 6.672 3.448
Electrical systems (installed) 0.510 1.054 1.079 0.558
Buildings (including services) 0.835 1.725 1.766 0.913
Yard improvements 0.464 0.958 0.981 0.507
Service facilities (installed) 3.247 6.707 6.868 3.550
Total direct costs 16.699 34.496 35.323 18.256
Indirect costs
Engineering and supervision 1.531 3.162 3.238 1.673
Construction expenses 1.902 3.929 4.023 2.079
Legal expenses 0.186 0.383 0.392 0.203
Contractor’s fee 1.021 2.108 2.159 1.116
Contingency 2.041 4.216 4.317 2.231
Total indirect costs 6.680 13.798 14.129 7.302
Fixed capital investment 23.379 48.294 49.452 25.558
Working capital 4.128 8.528 8.733 4.513
Total capital investment 27.507 56.822 58.185 30.071

Table 4
Annual total product cost at 100% capacity (in million US$).

Item WVO hydrogenation unit WVO hydrogenation Supercritical process, SCA Alkali catalysed
incorporated in refinery as stand alone unit process, HACA
Raw materials 41.892 41.613 33.201 33.800
Operating labour 1.051 2.453 1.051 1.226
Operating supervision 0.158 0.368 0.158 0.184
Utilities 0.795 2.436 6.636 9.751
Maintenance and repairs 1.403 2.898 2.967 1.533
Operating supplies 0.210 0.435 0.445 0.230
Laboratory charges 0.158 0.368 0.158 0.184
Royalties 0.646 0.755 0.549 0.556
Catalyst 3.507 5.696 0.000 0.000
Variable cost 49.820 57.020 45.165 47.465
Taxes (property) 0.468 0.966 0.989 0.511
Insurance 0.234 0.483 0.495 0.256
Plant overhead, general 1.567 3.431 2.506 1.766
Manufacturing cost 52.088 61.900 49.154 49.998
Administration 0.522 1.144 0.835 0.589
Distribution & selling 3.231 3.773 2.747 2.779
Research & Development 2.584 3.018 2.197 2.224
General expenses 6.337 7.935 5.779 5.592
Total product cost without depreciation 64.610 75.458 54.934 55.590
ROI, %/year 8.500 8.500 8.500 8.500
Pay back period, year 5.000 5.000 5.000 5.000
Green diesel/biodiesel price excluding taxes, US$/kg 0.808 1.000 0.727 0.671
0.772a 0.716a
a
Without glycerol value set as 0.5 US$/kg.

the same level as for the biodiesel synthesis previously analysed while the cost of raw material takes around 23–33% of the total
[66]. Prices for WVO, methanol and hydrogen were set as 0.26, annual product cost. The fraction attributed to raw material cost
0.5 and 1.1 US$/kg respectively. increases to 41% if the WVO hydrogenation unit is incorporated
The breakdown of the total annual product costs for the inves- in a refinery, since the unit investment cost decreases significantly
tigated green diesel and biodiesel plants are shown in Fig. 2. due to the presence of vital units like hydrogen unit and PSA unit.
The energy cost does not play an important role in the total pro- This comparison indicates that unit investment cost and raw
duct cost and the price of final product (green diesel or biodiesel) material cost (mainly WVO, hydrogen, and methanol), and even
mainly depends on the feedstock (waste vegetable oil) price. utilization of glycerol, are the key economic parameters for green
Namely, the cost of energy represents only 1–7% of the total cost diesel or FAME biodiesel production. Due to the more complex
182 S.B. Glisic et al. / Applied Energy 170 (2016) 176–185

analysis performed in this study is based on the impact of variation


of one uncertain variable on the NPV in the range of 90% to 200%.
The NPV method is used for the profitability assessment within a
10-year project lifetime and calculated in Microsoft Office Excel
software. The NPV method represents the comparison of the pre-
sent worth of all cash inflows to the present worth of all cash out-
flows associated with the investment project and positive NPV
illustrates a profitable investment [68]. Based on the detailed
techno-economic analysis performed in previous section and
results shown in Fig. 2, it could be concluded that important vari-
ables for sensitivity analysis of FAME biodiesel and green diesel
production are prices of waste vegetable oil, methanol, glycerol
and hydrogen. Another very important influence on the economic
viability is most certainly the plant capacity. For the analysis of
impact of the plant capacity on the total investment and NPV,
the investment cost was correlated to plant capacity using the
power of 0.7 for WVO hydrogenation in a refinery and also for
HACA FAME biodiesel technology. The power of 1 was used in
the case of SCA FAME biodiesel technology since reactors operating
at very high pressure required by this technology would have to be
arranged in parallel trains instead of a single train with one
increased volume reactor. WVO hydroprocessing as stand-alone
unit was omitted in this analysis since previous results (Tables 4
and 5) indicate that substantially higher investment cost would
be practically impossible to offset by variation of uncertain vari-
ables investigated by the sensitivity analysis.
The formula for NPV used in this study was taken from Peters,
Timmerhaus and West [58] and could be summarized as follows:
P
NPV ¼ C 0 þ ni¼0 ð1þrÞ
Ci
i , where C0 is the total investment, Ci is

the net cash flow at the end of period n, and r is the minimum
acceptable rate of return of 0.08. The results of analysis performed
are shown in Fig. 3. Base case scenario corresponding to plant
Fig. 2. The analysis of total product cost and the impact of different cost elements. capacities of 100,000 tonnes/year yields NPV (in million $) of 7.0
for WVO hydroprocessing in a refinery, 10.3 for SCA FAME biodie-
sel process and 2.3 for conventional HACA FAME biodiesel pro-
technology and higher investment cost of hydrogenation unit, the cess. The analysis indicates that WVO price is the most
cost based product price of green diesel produced by a stand-alone significant influence factor for all processes, with WVO hydropro-
process unit is the highest one (Tables 4 and 5). cessing being the most sensitive one. NPV is less sensitive to vari-
The obtained results regarding the difference in price of biodie- ation of plant capacity but still the plant capacity influences NPV to
sel and green diesel produced by hydrogenation process incorpo- a great degree, especially for WVO hydroprocessing technology. In
rated in a refinery are in accordance with the data published by case of twofold capacity increase of WVO hydroprocessing unit,
UOP Honeywell analyst [67] whose analysis indicated 9% lower from 100,000 to 200,000 tonnes/year, NPV changes from 7.0 to
price for green diesel comparing to biodiesel (Table 5 with prices 53.1 million $. Doubling the capacity in case of SCA or HACA bio-
given in US$ per litre). diesel technologies will increase NPV to a lower degree. The influ-
ences of price variations in other material inputs and outputs are as
3.2.1. Sensitivity analysis expected.
Sensitivity analysis is shown in order to understand better the The sensitivity analysis indicates that NPV in the case of FAME
effects of uncertain variables on the FAME biodiesel and green die- biodiesel production by SCA process is less sensitive to changes in
sel production that could affect production cost and revenues. The unit capacity although the increased capacity of SCA plant can con-
analysis is performed to estimate the most significant influence on siderably decrease the production cost of FAME biodiesel (as
the Net Present Value (NPV) using impact analysis [68]. An impact depicted in Fig. 4). This result is in accordance with the results

Table 5
Calculation of green diesel and biodiesel prices obtained using the same price of feedstock material and calculation method.

Process WVO hydrogenation unit WVO hydrogenation SCA process HACA process
incorporated in a refinery as stand alone unit
Capacity, tonnes/year 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000
Total direct cost, Million US$ 16.699 34.496 35.323 18.256
Utilities cost, Million US$ 0.795 2.436 6.636 9.751
Total product cost, Million US$ 64.238 75.458 54.934 55.590
Green diesel and biodiesel pricea, US$/litre 0.631 0.780 0.679 0.630
a
Price obtained with the same price for raw material and with the same procedure for calculating total product cost and with the density of green diesel and biodiesel of
0.78 and 0.88 kg/l respectively.
S.B. Glisic et al. / Applied Energy 170 (2016) 176–185 183

obtained by Apostolakou and co-workers who have investigated


the critical profitability indicators and their dependence on the
biodiesel production capacity. Their main conclusions indicate that
plants with capacities of less than 15,000 tonnes/year cannot be
profitable while units with capacities greater than 50,000 tonnes/
year – 80,000 tonnes/year can be feasible [69]. Less pronounced
influence of unit capacity on NPV for SCA process is the conse-
quence of relatively high investment cost and the fact that invest-
ment cost correlates linearly to changes in process unit capacity.
Such correlation between the unit investment cost and unit capac-
ity is, as indicated previously, the consequence of high cost of

Fig. 4. The analysis of the impact of SCA process plant capacity on FAME biodiesel
price.

Fig. 5. Impact of hydrogen price on the green diesel production cost obtained by
WVO hydroprocessing unit incorporated in a refinery.

reactors operating at very high pressure. This renders process


operation to be conducted in lower volume reactors arranged in
process sections running in parallel. Problems associated with
safety and high costs associated with process operation at very
high pressures in large reactor volumes can be avoided by the
application of highly active catalysts. Such processes for produc-
tion of FAME biodiesel, under moderate pressure and temperature
conditions and in the presence of heterogeneous catalyst, are cur-
rently under development or have been recently developed
[70,71].
The impact of hydrogen price on the production cost of green
diesel was evaluated since the price of industrial hydrogen
depends on the price of natural gas which can vary widely subject
to geographical region. The cost of hydrogen production without
on-site compression, storage, and dispensing (CSD), has been posi-
tioned between 1.1 and 2.1 US$/kg over the last 5 years. The US
forecast up to 2020 [72] indicates this price level to remain largely
unchanged while in Europe higher price levels are to be expected
in the future. If hydrogen prices reach higher levels the production
cost of green diesel could surpass the production cost of FAME bio-
diesel (see Fig. 5).

4. Conclusions

Fig. 3. NPV sensitivity analysis of different technologies: WVO hydroprocessing Waste vegetable oils and/or lower quality triglyceride type oils
incorporated in a refinery, SCA and HACA units. could provide viable renewable source for cost efficient diesel fuel
184 S.B. Glisic et al. / Applied Energy 170 (2016) 176–185

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