orn rat oe win 5 ORD 0THRE YALE UuwvERsiTy EIN 5 POROUN -SOUTMEAST ASIA STUDIES. to th ting 2 ‘ersten in Vien ohn Cs Schafer 6 in tention stm Ty Win Ths 2 te Battle avin Te te eure Hog Anh 3 omge to bina Mater Vnstac Tf Tha Tong Sera Trée Lae ok Einory in Veto aja gent Plog 1a unin de 2048 oo foci Tigayd TS Anh st my sian, tm stare lng Bé Lan sen ‘Somication guy Bing LiG0 08 ome mciolingitie pacts of Vitae ‘uf Be ado ae Tue Bide ir tay oy Dietanoer hf in tm opr be in pfs Frangalan dane a plate ‘me te aoe avy Nope Ngo ee “Geahige givin Nguyen ThuySe Phgog 314 vgene Bade “ip Cnf Opi trdog ne snugan Sanh TengBohaESfo yt beatae SSH 0735-3855 senerEttns 0, He, NoLcors Scetive Elton: uj Seah TREOE SoG Srreeuee Fatbarine C, Plerce S2in hewgert fey Mnetield Nar Tl retain Naud Ming tc toSothanct Artem ttc Prefect Im 0, Wy WOLTERS, Senion Editon We are proud and hapay to announce that 0. W, Yobtens has graciously accented to. sere as Senior editor fon {een "rhe VEETWAN FORM and the LACAVEET Sexies starting in 1383, Profeston Uolters Ls an eminent historian of South ‘sast Aada uno, until his secent setLuementy, had oceunted ith “distinction the Golduin Seith chain at Comell University for many years. Under Phofesson Velters! guidance ond with the con Linued comnitnent of fudnh Sanh Thdng “as Ceccasiog Editor, “se kellave Uiad our esearch dnd. publication (mogran in Vietlnonese studies “al ale wilt yceld ever fone slgnificané tesulis in the Aunanities Gnd socal Aedances for the henefit of all those interasbed in Vietnam. Gaienan Council on Southeast Asie Studies Yate In ivenaityta Tole Wh THE BEAST OF THE YEAR At-sUUy SPLAKING OF THE WATER BUFFALO adapted from Bo ty Deng jetnam, a9 agricultural country with lond parceled out into Small rice Tiles and where frm work hes hever benefited from the we ot tractors and other machines, hes for thousands of Years depended on the water bufalo (Su) to pull'a plow or @ Kirrow. {n'a ‘pine, the or fb can be drafted Yor the purpore But proves for ead efficient Decaure e does not take realy to'the met, muddy fields os its well-named cousin, the Water bullae “A” weak water buffeto is sill better than ® at x" (74a tru cdn hn Kibe bal, says a proverb In many regions the Water buffalo has also been enisted' to turn the sugercane- a press, 0 cart flrewoed or lumber, and soon. It has been so close ys imumatay tue co the fo of pens at thoy have etme to adres itt te were'a member of the family ty folk songs tt tiked 10°"n perso: °0" buffalo, Ti tell non hie! So‘ co he Hild and plow it with mes To plow a als ata former's meamt toda Where Tam, thor you afecwhe i min hard work (road, ta bdo rn bye) tru a poe gra tru chy VO ta/Chy chy vb gh song dtr ria ma quia cong?) Av evefyiy sgh ontarihyhurags a ti n'a common endeavor Goscbed in thi Caupee TA, pshtiow tik below, steep lel) Hesband plows, ite pnts Psiaio pls the arrow" Cen dng ony dD dogs) Chdag wa chy, con tras i boa} ne ator htt fe the start of your fortune.” (Con edu 18 in engi) Yaar rng teh mater Sal id's song though er man {Lam rang mance ras ‘math co ching) The prime import of te scr ur, by so meny folk sying tortor iltraed In Tn thot beast Ip such a pit ponies thot pecnanty dort st uy a bua? (mun trbuthy Soci» atl fu a being the specal term reserved for moje puree tea howe ofa fied To sell one's water bua I the very Jos Feat, on unfortuets sep one Takes oly when one cannot, fs ottervise: Mate one minclslaion and you tay hve to sel oor betel (gn on toam, Ban on fr) Tnvold Vieemm the water befale figured prominently in 0 feasts concept ‘of went Arch ilger vas sid ta be he per of Sane heaps fot pay) and ton uae (eka dyn pit wrt) oof Sanayi and buffalo cows” (rugs edu (A bun cow wan load bocate ie tou freee move flows} The vaterutflo wor t0 Inapensabte Co arnes that Rersbest penalty the village sthortes cold inp Tor ame igus offense wen seize the afende's water ba. ‘Atodern poet, Pham Nage iu elebrate eke water Duffle these ied ties: Now te the sme when mighty: Bafa ah ful the plowshore, rearing up alll to are tne flow ot fe within dead earth and let the nurse ce tod work tet Pay up." (Nay 18 Ie mang sft: tru minh-liet/ kéo Idi cay rach, ‘ung ets) Li mpc sbng trong tng dit Skt mb etco het ihoe dann) rte Vettamem people, there is no more iylc sene than he ote that shows 8 butfto boy rin on th beck of hi bean ita bamboo whip fa one hand and ithe other bacco Tee ice plays with guntovand abandon Foes hove’ leap eee ied the Join Image of toy and best. Depicting 9 courts Ton fesve Betre nights. Ly Tom Guan wrote Sack at Prvens, flhermen rest thelr oars./ Bound for lone hamlers, herdhpys Cap the horns" (Gio mB ngu-tng v8 vibe ph GB song’ myeotl lat co-thon) Soclaly speaking, to be a buffalo boy has not amounted 10 ‘much, as suggested by this couplet of folk verse: "For your son you Keep a titor st nome:/ But you make your nephew tend gxen Sd berfaloes" (Con eu chu miGt thy cho./ Chau Bu Ou ‘chin bd chin tru) Still, the lowly) chore has its compensations, tihich some fondly remembered ines from Vietnamese textbook Tor Schooldren enumerate: "Who says that it's © hardship co tend 1 buffalo? No, buffalortending Is qulte a oy. Your head wears the conieat hat as if Ie wore parasol. Your hand holds the bron ‘of bamboo ar if it were a horsewhip. You sit in state on the buf fao'e back, while your eart hear the birds sing.in some clump of frees, gna your eyes watch butterflies flutcer ebave some tuft of rast." And one. svch buffalo oy grew up to sit on the imperial frome: the founder of the Dinh dynasty. “The water buffalo, as a s)mbol of the down-to-earth peasant, has not escaped from upper-class elitist preludice, For example, dole is supposed to be "as dumb. as 9 buffalo” (ogu abit tru), find the Vietnamese equivalent of Tasting pearls before swine” Is "plucking the guitar by the esr of » buffalo” (din gal tal tr But, more often than not, the water buffalo stands for Every- ‘man, with all such folles and frailties #8 envy and selfishness "ihe tethered buffalo losthes the grazing buffalo" (Tra ghee trau di) "A slow buffalo drinks muday water." (Trau cham tng toe: dye.) A lazy fellow behoves like the buffalo thet hears clearly when told "Stop' and turns deaf ear when told “Plow™ (sing tal hoy die tat ey “The water buffaio is normally associated with the peaceful task of viee-growing, But with its mansve gray body and huge, ‘harp horna, It can also evoke contest and strife Indeed, when Drovoked, the seemingly Slow and gentle beast will change into Gh augressor flercer and more dangerous than a bull n 8 matador} trena however, “blo tng hg eB Viet, paie= larly in the B8-sdn area of Quingsyen province, does nor pit ‘east against man, but beast againee fellow beast. "A water buffalo that goes on a rampage may ‘metaphorically represent the downtrodden populace rising in anger against its Fulers Legend has it that, before the outbreak of a. peasant == Volt, some monarch dreamed and sew a water buffalo clim> "up wiki’ mango tee, thu portending the social upheaval to come. But, with their long history of civit wars, the Vietnamese people prefer to think of the woter buffalo as «symbol of peace, epit= Sinized by the Image of 1 herdboy viding hs buffalo and playing his flute . In front two ropes coil round my neck. Waite otnera rest, nay I Just idle too? hen Im exhausted, who will take my place? T'plov then all, S0eh dap and shallow fede.I | Ulvstration 111: Taung Hifs *loyalty—Piial Picty' ta Vetoes evyclopedin, the fallong etry is offered as a |pumeion of te cling ord rine Ai (COUPLING AS A TERE-RULLDING, MYTH-EVOKING STRATEGY IW vIETIOMESE JNPLICATIONS FOR S#COND LANGUAGE READING Joba C. Schafer fe bagasse Tilustration I: The Vietnamese Myth of Origin fut then Lge Ln explained to Re GF tot they coud roe imin | Suiteerencecene he sen, The chiar aio wort it ha Of Beene the arcetors of go caeeneneranens aera eenwmeees era 2 ag ch Ly be den of eae ey Toyog tron Pe oa Vda as Thea! Behl alk ng nod oh = Ear low ‘th the ator Xa Treas they exiree wos of exer. ction, sy thereat Ty KB fon The ely ey Ty reg the righ of King GBs Way thre us 9 rein nana hoch th oped ack te the lacs ard reported to the king ae foblves Tie iitter ts Ge father of thie yur Pale stipes T camel avast gery niente you habe bie for seis ‘ether is to be inptous [rot Addi]y to be a subject and rot uphold the Iw of the lard fe tobe diols rot Cane Beira Iornt 1s 3 ‘Tilustration IV: HS Chi Minh Lecturing Gpares fet be lope (tag toe party, plo Pal wit (i tae oe ay hi wi dn Mhustration Vi the Kin Van Kids, an Barly Ninatoonth Gentry Verse tarrative The ise Vin Kidis to en eae te rier epic oj Vien Te “fe gitl Thy Kiiy sv ust ceo bear fas "Cia pty" ‘ie day ring valk. garden che rts a falls i Wefoties So unjaly sci alee Seto tan pep hin So to let herself bo old eto ao the eye He Cid Sit By ageing ti meine She Serl=| ical 220 for Ak a Cin ho latter hase" vires aa ih ene ata yo oe ustraticn Vir The Scholar and the Lady Tavern Kooper 1 follovng story ects Sova gg hk ofa Uo cmos pe inthe section tht ernie hae to Be oye Itt offer asa | toon of the dgtay in opps, of so fwrirg cut the cmt state0 ent of eres egpnen efor one opposes 4 Th ecalarappears foolish be ince in asta hi reply to ee taver Kee i mplesing bth in ‘ym an soe toss off at's taveny to tase fr the night betoro continua hie Summ. teticing tat tre oun snared tobe an attractive and 8 tad cman fr began to five atta Pre Tcored y nents thoviy the Sey tavern ner diced te fot you eave you have ust eetured fron taking the exay probably, yo| hatte seo with woes, So Lette presnt to you sone words to dé issn tony con spose thy then 101 apm Cok en Sn he offere Uw ord ngs te pon it uth day. ‘esol lates ho oppone it wlth earl). ‘Se said clceny hw opares St wth ibe She sai ery Pe appoes He with ery. She Sn cocestoiedy he eutered lth pkepn, Sh oon offacea tvem onary fe cartared vith Gnfictan scolar, Se onl way epost St lth Hey fe and opr he cantaved wen de. Se and top fain eter os She eaid may he on ri pre Then te tors caer sai Mow F232 rd at Ts ard you coed ot yuan Sra on foawee "Late at fy en the Foster ""Pfhen hc ouro sola sand his vane Pearly 4m the soni wan ‘ne pig cree pa byte Cnfuclan scholar ee ae eats Hee svar HT an gulcy itt the ave eto sep artes ware Milustestign VII: Pham Qaynh's Analysis of Duty apa Rights Fg Qi vll-lon ms of eters in early tenieth-ontry Pet— nm, cane the editor oo prestigions and Snfuatial jira calles aw: (ong "Star Dives" Although be bs ben atk by historias for cot {iSoracing with tae Pench colensalats, Phan Qith sw his role as helpne the Vetus pole whee © ythenis of Us best of Wocern al Baers Slese ee who disagree wich fs pallies aft the high uty of Ms {tele Bro i bo be begins an esoy eae "Wit Te Bay? och ap- red in a hog in 1917 ‘in eanfclanin tare fs a aayingt IT one wants to bein te of Cofino rey fst tw mat be the to aotngush ns Cay eo tes : efurlan scalars reverse ta aA att ple us ey rfered ty AP Seg wet ve ea gut GL. The to ees Zep sui ws a Hi (ys Site ae ci, rae ln he no Th guecalyeoriersocetiercempect city nora than sighs 18 facie of te fn vis represents by ay ond niga oy iy wee Iapatarts no ore Ogi aba slghsn Ih sttny thee Sot soc yy Sonic of Hels seition had rigs in roar to otters is We ihn ee gn on ey {1 fe thee spect rightey and also Ue special ites. The ng the slot tosula ne paploy ut Wat slg atale the sdon™ "fan ta aoe to it that ho people were content on nye paca tbe rena ted the signe ao govern nis eney Sat OMe sgh entailed ‘be seepabinsty of brining tht child to Insta nae to ont to trate hes wl nes the rights view wor the minor vier. Nouaye 1 socne that rt Ae covet In tw cases the nina hen becann te n8Sor ad he mar ‘nis srange has cone fron g Iplustration VITT: Nguyfin Bé"s Philosophy of Chung-Thiy > BE ss a estat province che al Seatrctar nthe Sh utirmry Develo Gren Vig tn sir Uh row oF Nay J. While bo eli these positicns, be wrote of @ pilot be calles Thy» ston of thought en conct the pel wld se Viet (Guna thy (ites er bopirning] mens faithful, opal. Tt 18 comonly ‘avreference to wnens a faithful wife, far exe, ts oang thi she fg edn epg dn apt B's syston, fay they has many meses. Tt mes ong other Tyalty, banesty, and sp antreness of conmpgomecs. This Test Mean hse the mot Inport Ue tir we rest iprtare mar of Gna Tbs Tk the "oe nay the neteny alent aly te eat of te site of an cs th tly tn ke te chy sod Thy the anyingy Neculesge for the sae of reuledy"y Ulumtrates suliclenty that tw effort of Weston philosophy Se tab Western dee ovine a erly the eaults of canes ac the Inaiiltive torpor sets Theron ie etc be ele dno as Meee aSei me i St "ceeatien Xe A da-in-thestzeat Analyste of the etal Witham Vista SSSI AT itil ot sane oe aire mein Ie ee ou ht ater ot Sr i Se rt lt eke fe slr ete Soe AE ile dn os i ‘Tilustration Xt #8 chi Minh on the Bssential Qualities Shweta SINE Sadia Totes Ss race 2 Tse des eae SILLA on tr Ghdrstanding Vietnaeoe rove stories tfatlne (the fesican) het teh Haze i» tretation oF Unt Exia'to onestand thie storys and non nary Sout letras ortens you mrt unrstand tw concep of cba (Lt Sint lgeicn. Vietnnsebnifve that merge psh ot gh th are's nate unre st to be Lowy and corpo th thet tn an ceesen of cay yon te ote Py ms rate cons rplenoar nd reap ey then ote as tsuned » fy an Bb rhyme ae oy 1 te do ese tTustrations alt up oH do thy relate to problas | xml in teching sere spr of Fish hw 0 real? or me these Tilustetian mippert Benji Lee Wes serch tht pile sc sot stustone in nyo ch are ike the ways thy talk oa then Reple ahve wr for loyalty cr fatilrass is charg tly ek guining® sl ted to soe lye a fosttulnse an a eertaln vp. Tn ‘Patnethethor omen so opal and auth, vy wil ten to ack th 2utee Unter hs hove athe end of ah elo ie cnuiten with Shvior at the bgjning, weer, a5 Vict sy, Tis before and af Ure like ene” [ead sas nahn telling a story ce cnt 2 70] teu they wll ent to ase it tragh to eapletin lst eo chore that it hes the bond fa elojane. tat the tai of me, “his Sa ato cy tot ly Vetomes lg a oon tobe lop ven el Reece ts etsten with his beginning, or st ony Witness pnt ce ts Se nt kino en EE am tec nce tose hg oh to ample De ta en res deers ots ver of i em Sree Te rads cern ccs Tope So ere ey amr itm re cng el gs etre inset ey fc act srry en te a ltt Ghee eiontlo bese their Largan oetils in thon re Ses Alt ote fr Visuenece is te forall pops. elie ge tend tna coegrastoy tis effects ws stere- Weg aero Selo we en pn a iy bl se 8 the Me sect of te Viena lenge bas his pr toe ty apc ta are reste for fee rei, ‘ere a Feo wa dane re, ce tn 8 ad es caer cpling he jpeg of bo a tht in also or) altetical, in cn Ticino ements ian ng ae aes ttre, Vtameondscite their cers a eerging Se ange pesca bench rene fay, oko ma ESE ee en of mimi i erred ne grcee of lon na aia nesting in oy ou ee) doen, ee Sbren C2) fiy | ma ("ol (a) te). So ine acl cael Yo be ta eld td wth Ey ee el vith mia the pep cat, ages ok GUESS IR ols Bh ot Wietuman polal fd wc Sty ae een eta apne ce rope relator Inte the ot ing wnda Wk Vast. “irr Mth’ Cana hs gat aoe gt Gute caput cores on the fger crt of Haan eee te enna te mee Sinilae leet ofthe poration, Fe Pelmcary on cang tel yay (mrs for me)estey (Grimey for tne “Erste eft abv asthe joeapsg of antithetical elem ee ete placing of ters ch are tactical a ter ene ala In copapeiesly ptt lacs tna text Bah ere gpelny Sect in Tutranin for ‘Svs ip cop with econ i Teper Bix ga oy y/o. a hd iy So i ie le ae re bees enw and wre ea wong! oa : Sula ay ade Ao fc t/t ro i mg hg Uo poe tie itr oy ly pny stor Gna Se (Eee to cant grin ee" y sige ie ale with ey (1) cise the wo words ace Sn eptetically ma Tee tnticg in Cait feqpetive sete, (2) bas, the 0 vrs (Scie else hy tleg to the som eng "orc Sr Sea by tae Oy cy eet cea peer inei ete a: th py te fet ats he te pe (a Socata a etc ee ep ee Beli ies nso eigen eat as scat Sl yin ae wh i gly Sones Ter ry cle peptone noticing are GIR Soltis Deeb eth le” gh a od wie sly oped em he Blah me “he ot ‘So Mayo nel em a ie fg (Spend rete Ye bel oni ogee ps aspen Foren ae pace its tga sci ‘ero patie afutintng res ey San {STM ih oe ate age tia fa tat ete tiga elects sy ig tc ont ‘Pal ata ie ise etic hy gl te unin clings Sel te, th ltemte cro ety i al to fo hs aca speee re o ‘Sy aor a ple ele ol Pad opty of en eel apt Sout lee cling seca Eat taal Foc lrg Sr bones I sy eee Tapie ia Weems ils los wt tone ogiun hick Sins of oe pie oi etme Sr ine al PN leap of wg lng a ‘cover hinge stew the worl Aitetly ve alan mare and contest stn so nt Nig stele nag Secor ee eta lt Genin 16 lotr for song ala, 2 epee 1965, ro inte in fi uf apie Gide "enaeng heten in Baton’ (ie Th RA Lay be SF fey (ep 5B. * te hin WK ti ty eT (SD). pein be ‘on lige dats Die's tration, The Talo of K1GU Qo Rin ee Maar man mamaria es sar eet cea Ee oe oe oma ETE TEE ener ana a ft too es Ong i ay, AS. (Gopal) Do pase gutad se Pop le em fn Hy Uy Sg tin Ouro v6 he tient om vi at ‘a ee wy Gann 8 i Sembee reson ES CD he afer loo lor, The Tninicn of atta Tug end Beatie to Lan ‘oes, is Languages Thoughts and Realitys Selected irieings EF benjooin Lae Whort, st iin 3. Orval (Onin, Maret HE Brey 150 PB 19 yp witha rogue of topogmpicalequvenos 1 tnt etio- ues fos Suns fy vin, Linguiatic Structures in Poetry (he Fags: Mouten, 192), pn Se : in pp tation of Buigt-ast cams fr Lass Welasor, Profogomena oa Thoory of Language Ose 7, inn Clversty Raltcacna 1s alg wee) (ee 1) 2 qe ile HS tae Cavin ote 8 (HS) 1 1 plik an St, “oma Wore Structures sd Neeley Pres in Dis “surve Cmprtexaion" in Cognitive Processes in Comprehension Proceedings of the IITch Carnegie-Nellon Syspostun on Cop ition, ee Prcia Captor ant Reco fat (tiie, Nut Doe faa, 197), p21 pala! tins, Mythologtes, tres, deette Levers (Ne Yrk Hea egy 127, P= De ie De lames, “Oagton So Beings, Lage 2 (195)¢ eat ty Of ibn 4 in win rid oon ci Thh ging et ae wt ‘ibe Go gdh gt, “greg Gir SS le etn is ; Paylite roe ence Wy fealairg ral fang, rsd Basted Rev {1 (197)¢ {ey te ra Sty Comprehension aod Learnings 1 Concept iad Pravevork for Teachers (iw Yrs Hat Mare 0 Wston, 178). * nak itn, Understanding Reading (li Yk: Ht, imtart ad Wotan 9M), Hp AS.IN TRADITIONAL VIETNAM 1t vin aL 1p our discussion here, We use the definitions and stan darts of the Internaticeal Covenant on the Elimination of ‘Ll Foms of Racial Digeriaination. Therefore, the tem "racial discrimination” is to mean any distinction, © clusion, restriction or praference baged an Face, ‘ation al'or elhnie origin, Dia traditional Vietnam “undartake to prohibit and to felininate racial discrininatcn,.. and to guarantee’ the Fight of everyone, without distinction ae to rae, Oolour, fr tational ot ethnic origin, to equality before the lat We weil examine the seve under three baadingst the legal. process, the anjomment of economic ond esltural Fishts, ns the enjoyment of civil and polieieal sights. ‘a preliminary matter needa clarifications ven by today's universal standards, the tere "racial diserimina- Elen" doos not apply to distinctions, exclusions, restric ‘Hons or preferences mate by a government between citi- Bene and hon-eigizene,” Tf we look ineo the laws Of the EB and the Nuva, ue fina hat the 1A dymaaty made, amok Peoples of allen culture (ha nga! nhny in Chines: ha Sai jon), « distinction botween the ethnic ninoriities (man 116%, in Chinese: man Liao) and the foreign nationale (ngogt qube nahin, in Chinese: wai kuo jen) and applied a aifterent sot of legal ules to the foreign nationals. ‘These rules will be belefly examined at the end of this Giscussion to ascertain whether they discriminated against foreigners and gibjected then to sane exclusions or restric: lone, The Nguyen dynasty, copying the Ch'ieg Gade, sede ro distinction betwaen the ethnic minorities and the forots| faticnala and called all gf them pooples of alien culture. Ne ww all seo, the policy towards foreigners asa hot aisoriminats against then Duty especially vis-a-vis the pmanent Chinose Tesidonts, actuslly Ereated then wall, Por the nent, ‘in the bulk of this article on racial iscrininaticn, Wt will concentrate on the ethale minorities, 2 2 1, RQUAL TREATNENT IN THE LEGAL PROCESS hen brought before tribunals in 1 or ups Viet, the etinic minorities were governed by thelr own custom te Sew if their case Involved only people of cre ethic and By the national law Sf the parties belonged Jrattferent ethnic groups (a case Involving an ethnic Sinority pareon and 2 lowland Vietmanese would fal) unde fhe latter catagory). This mule for settling contLict of Sine was quite advanced for the tine and, substantialiy, tho etinic minorities equal protecticn under the Lak. "fhe LA dasty provided clearly for thie prineiple in sts Oot ‘persons of allen culture belonging to the same ethnic group camlt an offense one against a ‘ther, Justice shail be Glspensed in accordance with their Gistone. IE they cone from different ethnic groxpe, the fntional law shall apely."* fin the L2's application of this principle, ben the etmnic ainority people comeitted robbery or hoicide against Gpe another, they could receive a penalty cna dagres Lower {than woold romelly be the case and wate permitted to reach nanicable settlenent;* when they xcbbed ethnic Vietnam, Ghay woald be sentenced under the national law on tabbery Case, adopting the principle in its chinese satel, the Ging Cade, simply sald: "All people of alien Gultire woo are guilty’ shall e adjudged under the nation ‘tmwe." in practice, in adaiesen to this leveling of 431 pordons (national or alieg, Vietnamese oF etinie minor Ityi'before the law, the Nquyes dynasty also nade conces ‘ons to the ethnic minorities’ customary law. in civ) Gisptes involving only these people, It allowd them to Sspply their customary law In eriminal cases (incluaing fenicide), if thetr castomry law provided for nore enient penalty, they were permitted to benefit fren the Lighter penalty.€ Bepuror Minh Mann ordered that, when the death penalty wos impoosd, even the newly incorpocated Sinoritice in freshly assinilated territories were, entitled to the review process at the Inperial Coust level? He also ejected proposal by the ‘of Qudng NOH Province SDassassinte senbers of the Mahy and other ethnic groups {© prevent than fran making trouble an the border areas! in sumary, vith respect to the crininal process, tho tine minorities in traditional Vistran wsce treated eval 1y ror the nations) law or mare Leniently tier thelr cistonary law. In po caso wuld they be discriminated against by the Cribnats and subjected to a more oppressive. poralPa policy as compared with the other subjects from the lowland, Tn the aren of procedural law, the sane principle of ent sty ayplied, the otinic minoritise benstitel fron ell the ecowral gurantee a safeguards of the clateal procs, ‘rane, in taking arcents among the ethnic panacitice, the Jail officers alos fad to go through the local saein= strative authoritios a2 in the armests of other subjects Sn the lowland, the only Sitference was that, under the £8, the local authoritica in these cases of arceat wore "the ede finistrators of the othnic mindrities", instead of the pee- Fectural or istrict chiefa as in the lowlands’ Presumably, theso ethnic minority adinintrators koe the minority post ple'e Language, costen and oulture and would help catty out fe fuzents an effective way," Tf the warrant otf jcors wont: directly to the ncmused etinle sisority people's houses Eb make arrest and were reviled or manhandled by then, the Aattor would not be charged with any offense,! Tn addition to the usual prooeaitel due process guarentee te tint mipority poopie ere ntl to have a feat Interpreter “Court proceedings. Tf the interpreter Geliberately nado a-wrony translation, chersby aosravaling & nltigating tho criminal cage in qoesticny fe would be pune ‘ge for the (secon) often of soyevation or ucigong ‘hus, ‘the ethnic airority people enjoyed the cane rishta as, or Sent ims bettor’ thestamnt thany the Vietramsay low {ders in th criminal pebcoaings before a or Nauta 1 ADEMISMNNVE AMD AO HOHE cA, RIGS ave have say the ayecty parnited tin enue aioe ‘ey"pople Sorta ay aateabis Extiomee oae o eet ahon thyrcomitted retbely or honlclae agtsat coe Seater, Sis ccntssotn to he nitrites” cstoe a etace ter fnyond the fields Of aw eed social releians in fore io ferangoere tort to miteais thelr tarticear tyre te, the Wectanltsied etnic ninceities"aistsicts eke) In shi che acnnistestone ot Glfferat Leeks wee ote Trotuty persona in nutes te hentia Chit ese Shan rea (py dhe) apd palcteretee te ett nieetty Sisteice eal (Get chy to tguyda dyoasty's policies Sana Iase lent. Ons policy he Cobitcter Choke Ok hiniateative authorities 1 stinie nisolty cree te al” hyp hats cus pote at aty tn 1885 Baesor Muh hy lca that niin tine nig eoltow be cust ‘Sites of mange al fanay Sornenss Go users od 2s ight be governed by their ow leaders appointed by provings Gercrrorg, (although, in litigation, they should follow nation QP ibvis'* ‘Then, Later, the Baperas leeked for some way to Fletsamize then, Ho sald of the hichlonders and Cankedlan mi- forities in the Southern provinces: "We must hope that thet PSigarian hablta will be gradually Gizeipsted in thoir minds 2S that daily they wll Become wore inbued with Han (that ud tet Sietlaness) customs" SEIll Tatars in 18360 ahen {to lover officials proposed thet the Northern hichlanders be fed directly by Vistnamoce, that their ow chiofs be trans” ferred to renate provinces, that roads be mille into their Houeaine, and that thosr Gommnteses be ofgantand into Viet- Rese-style villages with village chiefs, thair proposal. was for secejved with enthociaan,i? ‘us, in the final analysis, {he Neuyen dynasty had to recognize the coexistence of minor ty cultures, and’ any attonpe to implant sino-Vietnansee cal fatgp mays stony the minorities was-oaly through persuagson (dh ay) ana through education (giso bie), such as teaching ‘hen the Vietnanose language and custom ina gradi unbir~ ‘led aosinilation process.:® Experor Minn Mog even acta [ished four translation of¢icas to which wore 2 fe no knew foreign and minority languages, s0 that the In the comtry vere ‘learn than. Be fscally ordered officials in Binh Thugn, Nahe he and ‘NG, to stlect two parsons in each provinco forthe study Of Chin and 738" Langunges, under state scholarships. Later, be ordeved vinh Long, an Giang and HA Tién officials to Belact Vietnamese scholars ard have then Learn the mor ‘Senguage so that they tndenstood the minorsty castan which, Ghosh different, "belonged to the same cult” (as Viet ‘pamaee ustan) "he policy of "Livo and let live wes applied to the ‘etinie Rinorities not only in the administrative and coltur~ 1 fields but also in the econonic, The most important econ Gnic resourses of the athnic minorities were ageicultaral Prosucts fron virgin land ard forest and mountain products. oe LB Code put restrictions on public land holdings ut aid tot impose ary Limit an the clearance of virgin land,*" Rs For forest art mountain products, {e stipulated that no one ‘could nenepol ize then beoateo—a# the T'ang Case, 1t2 model, Stated thoy yore Considered as bolonging to the people at Innge, exoapt when Ighor had been performed to eblain thoce premucts.#" the ‘emitted the excavation of virgin Tana. Tho Righianders were confined to tha plateaus, but they wore free to cultivate land, to slash sr buzn succes sively different parts of the forest to change then into26 rricefields and, after each crop, to mave from one area to another—uhich' ws not an efficient way to manage forest escuroes, The point mada here is that tho Nouyén alco let the ethnic minorities enjoy econenic rights ca wild lana without restriction. = "The 18 specifically protected the ethnic minorities ‘against posbible econgeic depredation by government offi- Glals in their area. Ary frontier guard wo exacted "greet Sng gratuities” from then would be punished and required 5 pay punitive danages.*” ven generale goveming ‘the frontier territories who exacesd such "greeting gratuities” ere denoted and required to pay punitive danages; if they Tooted the etinnic minorities, they would be subject to pe= pall servitude and also required ta pay punitive damages. = Te should be noted that the punitive damages payable by government officials to private citizens were peculiar to {the E2 cio and constituted an dmportant protection of hi fan rights. Bven the ethnic minorities enjoyed this pro- fection, Tix collectors would be danotad if they collected taxes diroctiy trem the etinic minorities instead of acting {hroush their ow administrators. This was to peetact the tinority people from possible pressure and economic cepred- ation by the tax collectors. ‘In one econonic activity, the 18 and the nguyén, at first glance, seanad to discrininate against ethnic winor- ities. the LE Gade dia not allow lorlaniers and ethnic ‘minorities to borrow money from one another; the offenders ‘ould be Gosoter and the loan maney confiscated? The Nguytn Code also stated thie "uoever frequents the barbar~ ian tribes, does business with then lends money to or bor rors it from theny chests them of thels properties: and ‘uses hatred, acts of reprisal, or crime among thoes [ople on tho’ frontiers and therefore Brings calanity cn the nation, shall be condesned to military senvituse, in aa distant border area, or to death if their offense is, Sore serious (sich as crossing a frontier gost, bringing ‘out people, weapons én military equipments)” Bue a ‘carefull residing of these provision will shay that. there Was no discrimination against the ethnic minorities, as ‘fe ban on borrowing and tending between than and the Viet- nanese Lowlanders applied to both categories of People; soreover, the min Purpose of such a prahibition was £2 Prevent possible explottation of the native minorities by the mre! astute Vietnamese in bisiness deale and thereby to preserve peace in the frontier zeglons. In other words, ‘the! provisions did not premote inequality of treatment but, n at worst, they ained at a "soparate but equal” treatment Heaton considerations of public order and national seo Bey. Mat naticnal security was the prine reason for Soon ‘BOY: goparation of the minorities can bo proved by a oppo: Site Gecision in 1625 by Brgeror Minh tng, who wanted the ‘Boor bo tribesnen newly rallied to the ooverraent by te seaeity women to Live scattered anong Viseranoes so that the government could subject then to control ani avoid their Guesbling together ond causing eroible.** But when ap such Special considorations existed, the minorities enjoyed equal ‘ironic rights, if they dia not receive more solicituoe Grom tho goverment in the fom of Lighter taxes, eters Boporor Nish hang often told his officials that those Ainor- Files were aloo ‘children of the Gourt" and once anid in umection with his order fo send relief tice to two stary- Sig minority prefectures: "although these two prefectures" {23 invaistane brbarian areas, thoy are also ny children. ‘fe Gurt's benevolence is uniformly dispensed ancng che ie people. How can we put thes oxtsign ies scope Himliy, in praction, trade between Viotnanose and Kigh- anders was fot banned and only subject to'a garrieon tax (thod eate d° ’o the other hand, it was also national. security that sl sone discrinination against the minorities in the Eree of civil end political cighta, 1, Sa DIScRMARIA IW TE UO Ce CIVIL ‘No soci, was tational ascurity a the mor covideration was the son of the Uh Sfasty's reelcanee tat th Ponteton GP teil chet-tian fend of an tovie minh oe Ge, ech saa tareieary, cro pe Sean fe ie petition to the hte fer cffitas apctsemats fhe etd of Vlctnonne Fouls torts tale ne ecg tor raguived by iow to coport Yo\the fname tere astining Bis onea, te trbel Chet alen'hal ts cre co che oe {easeo pry age to thn enpecor tice a fours in the feat trl eooheh mantis soso to.a 1418 dace At they {ait too mo trie, tiny would be rouge the cbiead {Er pnlahomn! hele heel devine sates note ie Witeolane of thosinoriey tsb tothe ational go- Scent nt the Nts atte pole oe histiog ena tinlserative auton) of miroritios Bf peotneiog vaeenae Se fo ineity avons yet stint siees isnt, Tes, after the Garé had sopointed Vietnamese conte teats fo aly established Sniotatine ents" che28 Norther provinces of Ign doy C30 Bog, thing 8a, Tan (Quang, and Het Nqwyen,beperor Hann gg, in 1836, re Stnuctad the provinse officials to infor’ the pinoritios hat "te rece policy of appotnting Vietnamese aiminis- Erators didnot nean diserinination against than, and they ‘ld be velsone to a audience with the Enger’ a cr Ploment In tho contrat: goverment If they So Gootrady in ocindanoe with fho poligy af vane people’ enjoying tS Some Benevolence’ (nade ey ay Both Gymasties, 14 and Nye, fo difterent degrees, fromed open marriages betwcan Vietnamese anette mine {efeo, the 18 being less restrictive in thie respec. Te Uf Gate forbade officials to contract marriages vith the feniliee of tribal chiefs in the frontier teeritariesy if they aid, they sould be condenmed to penal servitide Oe tiled at the marriages dissolved. As the ban aid not Spply to tho camon people, and 0 ancthar 18 code provi- Sten punished vith exiie ary ethnic minority persen who Secretly srchangod blood eathe with officials or milieary ‘en (apd Vietnamece cononars), St can be inferred Ot ‘he ban on marriages between officiala" fantlies and those fof triinl chiefs was Sine tainly at preventing a possible Gellusion betwen the officiale and the tribal che, for Siineraive purposes, Thus, the 2 restriction on interracial farriago ws baosd cn national ecurity reascne, 38 an im ferial edict expanded in 1499 the category of poopie cube Jest to the reotrict‘on and formde all persensy ron Brinces down to the camaners", fren wading venen of the Ekin race,°" Le tes Glan baood'on natlonalssosesey coneide trations, as the enly minority group spacified was te Gham whose matriarchal soctety ancpies the tereitory south of Vietnam, aod so often attacked Wstnan and wore the argot of a Vetnmose expansionist driver ironically a Slstlonary, Ortonen de Gevallon, reported that because it tas recesusry to rely on the Chin to strogsle aguinst the he shove,eace pore operative after 2 fev years and Siperor 22 ih tong hel? married a Ghia princess: "fie Nguyen Code generalized the ban on marriage Uich ajnorities, extending st to the common people ort eniarging fhe List of minorities to inelsde those fron the Southern esion of Vistran such as the Canbodlana ard the "Mba ‘pant people (probaly the eribespeople on the Southern Plateaus) an the Mg an bof the extern neunbainous Fojion of Vietnan,*” The guia Code's provision wes Pat tarred after a Ching decros wich was sind against the ‘People of Pormen. Therefore, 10 amoted of racial Giscrin- nation and 454 pot. seem based on ary consideration of $iiomn security. - | igweer, under both the turn gpa the 2y the people's rights,were respected’ in this mt Peetrac SGUISte. the Gone" ban on officials” marciages into Milpal chiefs’ families Ald rot affect the then existing tribes and the Nguyén Coue"s restriction on interracial iarriaye also pod ro effect on unions long contracted which Jat prodeced children.?® 1v, concension ‘to conclude, ve can say that there was no racial diserin- Raion ageinst the aitoritios in traditions! Vietnam tn So'taries equal trestrent under the law and eqial ersoy~ ‘S2rc of eootanic and cultural rights were concerned, Some Zestelctions vere inposet en the political ard civil rights Sf the etic minorities, fut Under the U8 they were based Sa national security conaidgrations white the ban on intar— Social marriage in the Noun CoBe, Gorived fran the Gi¥ing Gate, aid inply discrimination. the other hardy With regard to foreign pationals, Gyeasty adopted atringert regeations vhtie Sola dynasty wes sonavhat more generous, strictly speak- Top the folloving brief dlacussyen of foreign nationals Fights under he 18 and the Ngaydn touches only tanger ELiily on the tople of cacial Sigerininaticn of equality forse, a5 stated above, even 1f foreigners were subject SSrresttictions and exclusions, 1 would pot constitute ‘cial discrimination” as defined by today's universal Landarde which permit distinctions, exclusions, restric. Fidts or proferoroce made by a state between citizens ard foreltizens. Bven modem danocratie states tnpoee mary Testrictions on foreigners (especially on their freedom However, for- Considered, Therefore, it {s wortimhile to discuss brief iy thoir rights or the restrictions on their righte with= ‘out implying thap there vas any substandard perfomance of Soe 1B ana Qymasties when, it cane to human rights. ‘hier both the Le and the Nguyln, foreigners were sub- ject to, and received all the safeqiards of, the regular Tega grooees,*? in substantive lav as woll’ as in proce tal laws We will gee that even in the sensitive area of (Baishing foreign miseLonaries who, while spreading the’ Gristian religion, were suspected of endangering national20 wecurity, the 18 and guyfn governments them to, ‘ial in a careful mmer, and the Nuvi had even to provide protection for the Catholics against the: sponta- focus but illegal violance fron segments of the popula ‘len, especaliy the Confucianist scnolaen. Nowver, If we go boyond the hlnmim doo process safe guards which guaranteed the integrity of the person, the picture yas eifferent, Poreigrars vere restricted in hhutbar of activities or excluded fram them by Le under the 14 because of this dynasty's concer for national - curity. Th the 18 Cote, whoaver married foreign national Would be exiled and the marriage diasolved.t" An edict in 1662, though, pemitted foreignecs who had married Viet~ anede and given birth to chtldran to enter thelr nanos in the population registars.*! The ban had been either ited Gr not enforced, hope wo sold to foreigners lard bordering on the frontior,"= ar sarfe, elephants and hore- fe, milleary weapons," of veo divulged niiitary secrets to foreigners,"* would be sentenced £0 decapitation, Those no sold to aliens salt, cinnamon, pearls, elephant tasks, liten, copper, cattle skin, eters, would be punished with exito.** Wan trade and relations with foreigners were Allowed, the latter had Co followdetalled regulations on stopovers by foreign trading vessels, and they wore Festricted in thelr residence, movenerts, activities snd contacts with Vietnamese. These regulations epplied to Westerners as well as to Chinese.** Long-tine Chinese res- ‘dents were compelied to wear Victnanese national dress land spouk Visenamsse, apd Nestorners to desist, Fron spread- ing Ghristianity.*? ‘That national defence mae the peisery retson for tho careful control of foreigners could’ be gen ‘Sn Ghe fact that they were confined to the trading carters (Gye dich truha) so that they would be in no position to py for thelr comeries. Upset the 1, these trading cone tears were: Vin S8n and'PhS iién in Northern Vietnan,céSL ‘An (or Paifo) and Tourane in the South under the Nguyén’ tords.** when foreigners were believed to be simply engag- ing in trade, they were treated wall by both te gover ‘ent and,the’ people. in Southern Vietnam, for erase, 11 Nauyén lords fren My Tog en encouraged foreign tfade.** ‘Te nisciocary Christopher Borri, uo was in Southern Viet fan (Cochinchina) in 1618, reported that the policy of ‘the "Cochinehinais!" was "to give all strangers free acces into their ports and take teaffigue in thelr countreys ee ‘The maxino GF the Cochin-chinote being, not to acknaviaige ver any the least apprehensien of any Nation in the World, emo contrary to the King of China, who fearing all, Gutteeh the Ghee against strangers; permitting no teat Fue in his Kingdoa,"*® pore considered the Vietnamese rainded ad Roepitabla in their covtact with foreign Ear Tor this gentle and agteasile hour of the Cosine ‘Sirois cormeth the scrote they make of strangers» v- Shy then Liberty to live aconeding to ett cue lay. aA Wiapuarrell thersalwes aa thay tink. goods” Whenasa Si "Ector Ector ation hla the Rrciane fr po- ao peopl, el have than taturally an horveey in a fort that when woe Iand in any of their countroys, Uy Setake themselves to flights In Cochanchina on he, cone "Eomyy thoy contend wo shal conmerae with os nest, they ‘tok Ub many questions, they invate us to eato with then ping ol) kin of couttoni, civility and fansTaarity.0 21 Mior's foreisngr complained about nt-payaent ina cradle fle, the Nguyin lord alms ordared an erpeditious pay Sertis! on tho other hart wben foreigners wee suspected SE thenatening the security of the state, ghey were harshly Sele thy Re teal, alte the i Tore a ae Seats Cxpncsced o strcnd dosive to. have tracing relations then the Daten in Djakarta, he stiffened his position hen be wes informed by splen sn Northern Vietnam that ‘he butch fase india Company had sent. the vessel Grol to Northern Viet in 1637"and been quien erasing priv legos By the tegen Lora sho fog Teqsested the Duten to Pep hus i his wat with tho Nye loca, Beginning in 16st, 9 Series oF ipeldents led co actus) naval, eohesng bataen {he Cenpany" vessels ard the touyen navy's shires Tg Stained reistione improved Ln-1es0 with 2 new Rouyen ESSE cote ani in 0340 th cry ew ‘urgpaina” trading selatscna with not only Sovthern ie hha but also with northern Wetnan furthor aeteriorated {che point of approaching a comploto brook because the ‘Vietnamese suspected that foresgunrs cane with sane polit eat deelgn, and also because foreigners were causing fhblie disorder in theée dealings with one another and With the focal peoples? he sate cichotinose attitude tamrds foroisners (s0- verity for sumpoctel violatoss of mtional security sna ‘Sood Comets Bonafide trading forgigners) persisted ‘Ear the iy Sob aymasty ad thg Nguyin enparces ho ‘eve the descendants of the Nays lords); Sohn Baer feported that beperor Quang Toln of the My San and the IGfal authorities welcomed’ the tctartney mission when a sna the mlosion visited Tourane ay in 1793, Dut chan the2 vessel's crow attonptad to maagure the base Line on the peach and an officer tried to explore the river leading up to Paifog he was arrestad.° ‘The Nguyen Cada's provisiane on contact and trade with foreigners, copied fron the Ching Gade, were also restric. tive when tational security was thought to be at stake. {he Cade puniahad vith strangulation whoever Brought x= sons, weapons or military equimment to foreign countries, and with the beavy stick uhosver brought to foreign oan tries for sale the folloving iter: horses, bovines, iron (oorls usable for military purposes, copper’ coins, silkere ‘fhe gosds ard the vessels or carriages teed in transport ‘ng then would be confiscated.** Hovover, foreign vessels caning to Vietnarese ports were perniCtad to trade. provided that, they inforeed the luthorities for a custons inspecticn.*" Ben ata tine. (1834-1835) when mperor Minh dang already worried about the Chinese merchant vessels bringing thousands of poor pexple to Vietnam, these vessels were allowed to dott at Vietnamese gorts for four or five months to trade,*? ‘Te ‘Qymasty proved generous particularly vie-R- vvis the Chinese. They wore not excluded fran an qual en Joymnt of civii, esconnie ard even political rights. he fentny of Chinese’ smigrants. into Vietnam was regulated, but ina very simple samer: in order to establich reei- Of their bang (dialect-besed ansociatien), ani,eo register ‘their nanes on the tax roll.'® Before the’Nguyén dynasty, Up to tho end of the T8th century, Chinese in Southern \Viothan had not been ceganized ancng thensalves and hed been adninistered by the head of each province. But be- teen 1802 and 1807 the goverment permitted the Chinese £5 organize in each provinos dieferent sesoclations haved on their dialacts ant called bang. the heads of these a5 Seolations were electad by the Chinese but confiamad sn their position by the province chiafs. The role of the dads Sf those associations wis to collect the had tax for the goverment, ‘Thus, the Chinese enjoyed all hana ‘ighte on an equal footing with the Vietnasese, They might purchase movable or real property and marry Visthamsse. As {for econonic activities, te Crunese hecane donsnant <5 ‘ado and even in mining.2 Later, to inplonent @ policy cof assimilation, the Nguyen government permitted half-chi- hese half-Viotnamose people fo fom Minh huldeg villages, Mie.; villages of Vietnamese and Chinese descent 2 and as typical Vietnamese villages indopendont of GE Glalect associations, Thave Minh huidng people were the itjows to take part in civil service exaninations 220? join the. manvtarinate (the typical cases were L2 ‘oink apd ‘rjnh HOR Die who wore well regarded by (Quang fg and Ninh Mang). Prom 1842 on, the policy of 3- Gis etdcn was extended even to pure Chinese in the var Ges Glatect assoesatione® fron then on, they wore re- {Gifad to List their nanes in the Minh hing population Beltters to pay eaves accordingly ane to abonon their FeeStyle (a shaven hand with a queue) #2 Ths, while Rereasingly suspecting the Wostermors, especially bgcause GF their prosalyting efforts as christians, the Ghmsty wie generaliy well Gispceed towards the Chinese Oy their desoondants to the extent of pornitting then, SA uniting then, €0 assimilate with the Vistraness. {This pro-chinece golicy might be an acknowledgenent of The bop the Nguyen emperors’ ancastars had obtained fron {kinese immigrants in Southern Vietnam under the nominal 2B govermentvl 6 ed i elie 1 pa fe an 5 fatiie |, peraeagn? of the Intrmtionl Conon 9 Reka ise 4. Sel WS he Cte ng oT, gee ya te rss fordomry ins fetaeftar referees tase Ese dev sree fe five a (ne 2c Saf ts tol Spey) io eset ln a ei ote Np ie Le iar Pty are esta) eon ene Crs atcha ey agp fe eso ‘Inperial Vigt). The cass of the Rguydn oynasty (1602-1945). 2 me eo igo ae Ma Se ete Fea an yt ety ness SS them am to ne Rom mp {Smt eer restos nec oe {S:CE Ses a. tee ts peyton amating «oe ss uae yo ts Boy a ae vs Leos chs eats en wats ox ‘Seed den Etter Indchirans, WU 2 on 3, 18 pe Te Tho Sis of casas Ine spa oy Sse Essen ata un eng ie a ao ty tm Seton te nen Sg ay 9 TE Bele ub sy 1 2m, ats Inu Bs en Wile DUA adnan rs Sete aan ey ee, 18, See MNcave Wy abe 13D; DE, 201. SS mut 20,70, % pb a ala Rat airuettloe uch Os rg, wo extant nwa fren ore Med torent ato tometer, we fan give te pelle of ey Do ony mit toe ter sate, RAEN. Uy 137 BLE Tob Sew ot wig hf Toba a (he Cnet tek o te a> Seine oa thy nm tt TOES y ta sy che, heal, 186, Recenter rferrd tows TaT=y {is Stor the cae of Creal Le Tift wo ve dled for Sting ue ae TN us sepa ti ey ines tat tne 1 toe hts SE'Ruit vant in ete pono to jlotly aorta wth let 5G; pan nde ih, ge cto (tary of te fate Ouch {rvtenen). sia, te, 1p ae 12S ke reigs ents sh mignon (™e Melons Oyraty"e Ebets ant Decrees fa bog! Eeverare) trretas fren te Chinese Sn Wet roves OF ST Ciby Sng, 181, pe 12. Si caine Se ee ec: oH, at reat ee i tale rare a it cman in hatin Si te cola el,Mn Thm, ie 16 8H BE Aan ce Wn Tei Hb BCom wt ty oh tan) gy eh wo ‘pic mts for tw pena ee an ysl Se oy 8 ty petty pe 212-28 Mann Tk fry petty be Sse Sw lao id, pty 6 61s Tey eda napears apt te tu ads ownan e LE BOUDDHISME DEVAN TRC LAM Nguy8n Hoang Anh 7-3 Se a0 an 1 pa comunausé oe EN rb Lemont ytn'r¥ os apes liter tos provinces Hs HstetadGne't Gung Ye sw Weta Nod Ss Se a Se Garey sible Sant J. un ante ae Me praia: dans atte menagne Ia Sone t0- Sr we totnal en RS So Deptce jury Tes Wee wae eet ie mort Yen fe promi moe bos acre vce opel then Ques es Quang fae is age Tabor Cage Se iscte VO Ng Thong setae poate Che TA Hifo sang oat att met oe Eafe mtu quite le fogsae Lye td se cet chreber uh ace Se rec Ye male Tried a "yard Than ‘ad et mle te atte Php Un er fatan Net monsgte Open Tog dane province SPs MAGS Dee Sa coe mares aut Bout: Sica ae rant Soe fa morte TS pose tater le naaion Apts svat ate un long sar asta dos lo montage Ven PE conta oe rate Sa tote ina fur eile a amen farce Van Ven e mantel Guing exe conde comme seca ie ie guoose Van Yen ctw commune Baus figue de Yen Ti a8 lors de son séjour a TU Sdn, High Quang fue snvit@ par emperour Ly Hug Tong 8 3g rendre dans Ts capitate, mais {i refuss. Selon le Thin Uyea Tap Anh il mourut en'1220 dans la montagne’ Yen Tit apres avoir pronaneé ce githi ‘Un dharma non-reel est une non-réalité, Ue pratique non-rélle gst aussi une non-réal Sion parvient & se dakarrassor de cos dai non-réalsvée, en sort de toutes les erreurs? Apris la more de Hign Quang, som dlacipe, le mattre Vi CChang™ devine chet de la pagode Vin Yen. En 1236, le maltre Vien Ching recut une visite inatte de Vemperéur Trin Th6l Tong, le premier empereur de la ‘ynastie des Trin. Tein Thi Teng. avait vinge ane cette Epoque. Mis sur le tone 8 1'3ge ge hult ons, ovale obtr Prout ce que son oncle Trin fh D9 lui commandait En 1256, remarguant que Ia reine hig Thénh n'avate pose enfant (alors que Chieu Thanh n'avalt que vingt ans), Th Dp'le presse_de prendre Ia femme de son rere Tran Libs, {ul Etat a princese.Thutn Thien, dja enceinte, Thi DO Youlait-qu'ur lls nase Immédiorement de TAS! Tong pour fssurer {p eontiqulte de Ia dynastic des Trin. Se révoleant ontre. cette politique inkumaine, Te Jeune empereur que I palais durant Te mult et se rendit dans Ia pagode Yen TW Dour se faire moine. Quand le mettre View Chtng reconnut empereur, 11 Tul demanda ce qu'l venait chercher dans la ‘montagne. Thal Tong répondt: "Je cherche le moyen de de- venir Boudcha, et rien dautre." Vien Ching ditt "Le Bouche he réside: pos dans la montagne: Ie Boaddha est dans votre onur. Si Votre esprit est tranqulle, 1a ume de la sagece Jallra: test le veal Bouddha, Votre Majesté n'a pat besoin {ele chercher dehors."® e‘Tendemain, Trdn Thi DS et tous les aujets de Mempe= reur se rendirent au mont Yen Ty pour implores Ths Tong Ge retourner sur le trOne. Ltempereur refuse. Thi BO insite trols ols, pus, notant que Mempereir ne voulait pas cBser, donna Novdre a ses sujts. de batir le palals royal sur place, dane la montagne. Tal Tong consulta olors le mattre Vien {Ching gil lu it: "Eeant rot dun pevple, on ne peut plus fulvre son propre d6si. 1 faut prendre comme désir te deat ‘iu peuple, HI faue prendre comme aspiration Vaspration du peuple. Maintenant que le peuple souhalte votre retour, com ment Votre Majesté peutelle ne pas revenir sur Te t70be? Je ‘ous demande done de retaurner 8 Ta capitate; mais Je vous Drie de ne pes thandonner les études et la pratique du Bout ‘hisme."= 29 -rén Tosi Tong estourna 8 eapltale et continua son «oie pollicis Mats it de sor moot pour etuler Te sti dd, surtout fe Boudsisme chyene dent W seat Soe eames ine. He Ceri deg ltver ar Jo Bouieise, contaeyoeuven, ot cite 1 Tnién Tong CH Nam (Guide mg Bowsthlone DhyEne) dont la protece nous raccate en BBt‘cate fancute vate de Tempereu 8 la montage Yn taal Tong eomya ae protiqur fe Doudelome cont sa vie TH uals eftmeme date eave polltquc Il €duqua ses ene Pee Sam Veaprit ds Bovadhisme Il Cra ase & fond Te (Gi lntsme, pensant que le Boudtiene’ et Te Confucianiame Settene ve gomleten Fis de dx ans apres sa vice 00 seo "yen TG, thal Yong invita fe metre Vien Chg & venir om a‘calesle pour eaminer ics tcktes dee stra nant de eae inprimer, A cet occsson, I pesenea au male 15 cour Figs Tong, Caf Nam, Vién Ching elicit Vve- Sereda cote ceanre et hl en recommande Tinprestion ef 2°Gtonon ane tes cercles boulhiques ‘e'b That Taper see Peatons avec Vien Ching, le conmunauté Yen i ovint de plu en plas ceive, Lea SCD Ding, dncpt de Vien Ching et tromtme patrarche iE pagoda Van Yan, frequensie Is capitate et devin un Sit Inime de Thsl Tong. tes mattres Tew Dao ct tue Tut ‘ipectivemone quntriome ec cinome patrirehes de ip [oC Van Yon enc des stjours dane Us capltsle pour ena For le Geustiowes ee cero 4 = a Vemperear Trén Nh Tong a6 fi, moine on a: Sin Maas ft Lame fc Lm ae Dp, ot tom se'ecbie patrorche defo communaute Yen Ta Cet lu i Fong f"secte ide Lam dane Te bu ae BA Sr Bows Game engage ct poputalre. Lt communauté Tree Lam qul Sattnar its pone dans ie tte ates suivante ex See nte de ta’communawts Yen TE Tenom de nelrance, de Nn Ong etait Ten Khim i dual tes sine Fempereur Trin fhinh Tong. I mogul tas, mont su ttre 3 ge de vngt sigs on {oer eon io bag to trenecing ms ere mone S"usreme et un ens : i pagods Van Yen 6u mont Yén TE fot constrle par in rote Beta‘vocts dayton VO Ne Tong,” fone, oy Vier” Tom'au ix® stcle, Crest dane cette pagede que Trdn Nin Jae fur ordome Dike superar Ge pagode Cale Tp tup, Je To cingulme géntration de i pagode, Tc Lam tut constr comme Te succeseur dep Pug 2 pagode in Yon cori Sat Solo siniome gntracin” Deput Fey ieee Torompercur dane les ordren te montagne Yen TEao Ball — % ig ‘=> sat som one grande renommée. Un emperear comme Trp S585 Ble ut vate repose Tes ivaronsstongoln app: AM pai ck la prompt Ia fod to son pope ne * te Bd sun facteurpaycologique ayant pour foncion non ere ann le but to tir ot saveqardr ie pays: Nan ion devait-attirer atten~ E Aer voulu se-servir du Bouddhlame dans un but politaue, mals OR pourrat dire ausst q'lls talent seulement soucteux 2'ap- Sigur le Boudhisme dans ta. ve politique “fruc LAm voulut créer une nouvelle secte dhySna qui do- salt repondre mics atx aspirations vietnomiennes. Cette {ete dhyna lo seule fondge par un Viewnamien deputs Tin {ouuction di Bouddhiome au Vietnam, absorbate toutes les {endances doctrnales & cetce Gpoque et revetalt ush un ca ffetire nationeliste. C'etait le ir des empereurs Trén de ‘ape culture vietnamienne indépendante de lo culture ioe es trols patrarches de Ia secte Tede Lam étajent en intme temps patriarches de Ia communauté. Yen Tu. Nous so- _ He OPIS Bi | BaSE fe age steno ext cone arc yee trayde Ding Tap Lye some I, eae par Pec bige Liste des vingt-trois patriarches ‘de ia pagoce Van Yen ign Quan ng (matte ational; i maitre national igs TROIS PATAIARCHES DE TA SECTE TROC LAK (aesain tise’ Gu Tam 78 tge tye, Edition 1943 ‘de 1'Asscelation Bowddhigue’ Gu Tonkin) pee2 . Tieu Deo (mattre national 5. Hue Tue (matte national: 6 Tra Nha Tenge 1: Php Loa (mattre nstionsl: 8. Huyén Quang (mattre national 5. An'Tam (matte ational 10, Pho Van Tinh Ly fmattre national; 1, Vo True (matte national) 12, Qube" Ne tmattre nations; 15, View Mints 1 Dao Hug: 18, Vian Naps 18. Téog Tr 17, Khu Thém (matteo notional: 18, Son Ding {mattre national 18, Hugg Sen: 20. Ta Dung (msttre national) 21. Tue Quar 22. Chin Teer 25, V8 Phin, Nous constatons que le vingtitme potriarche, le mattre Tet Dung, reou Te titre de mattre national Il tale done encore ef vie sous la dynastic des Tran ot fut le deraler Imattre nationsl de cette dynaste. Les moines suivants, Tut Quang, Chin Tri et Vo Phin, vivalene sole 8 la fin ge Ia dy hastie des Trdn solt dans la période de transition 6, soft fncore au dabue de Is dynaitie. des Le (concernant esc, fl Wexlste pas de document 8 notre connalsance!. ‘udu dea dyeste des L (100-1225), ts moines talent Tes gens les mieux insults 3 alent alder los emparours dans les affaires polltques, dueatives ct colturelles Il en éealt pas ainsl ‘rant a” dynastie des Tran: les empercurs Trin Gralent tous bien éduqués et instraits. is connaiseaent aves! & fond la doctrine du Bouédhisme. Us malntenalene des relations avec Tes moines non pour des raisons politiques ou siplomatiques mats pour des raisons spriteliex Thal Tong, Thi Teng, Nig ‘Tong. Anh Tong, et Minh Tong avatent tous une con nalssance solide du Boydahisme. II est particallbrement ttn Dortant. de noter que esprit de la compassion et de 1a toi Fance bouddhique aa pas engendr® le pessimisme et len tivisme. Lors d'une invasion ehinoise, Nhtn Tong convoqua tne assemblge. dea notables du paye: c'est la fameuse assem- blee, Di ‘au cours do laquelle tous les notables dlrent oui" 2 Ta résistance. Cect refléte bien Tateituse et Ia déter- mination au Bg Viet bouddhiste A égard de Tindépendance a Je, Thi Tong, premier emperr de la dynastic des Ten, ee une ambience dans lagi les tues ota prate va cr dahiome talent Geverucs importantes et sértuses thera sect Lav sleees busses ome mi leleto Tap Trung! Nhan Tong, Phap Loe et Huyen Pelt halen inspite de Ia vie de ThEl Tong et avatent con- Quang Cratderablement 8 la contrvction un Bal Viet Inde nt lorieus var sudiniome TrGe Lm était un Bouddhsme de rature sdotimennes indépendant du Baudaheme enol: Catt fe etna mrelicctuct de la ation Dal Viet I constituait le Reva une care ethane spent lem ue ce oranieme cat regu des infvences Etrangres, tl conserva Bowiertres propre Nguyen Leng ots "Au pont de ue de se gorge: comme au point de vue de organisation et de la 1s pent gommunart Tre Lam possate des tals carec- Meads gut Ta rendatent vietnamicnne, Elie visa 2 malf~ vee aa fortfier fa cultare paionale. Cest exactement & {ei “Je. cela que les ings, lors de Teur Invasion du Dal Fe Sacbur du xv sitcl, éralone determines 8 aetrulre Wiles ica structures cultarllesesfiges por Tes Vietramiens torture des cont cinquante années de le dynestie. des Tran ERNTaie empereur Ming envoys deux de sa inelectels x Sar et Xia Qing roystime Bgl Viet, afin de rasembler Mas is Tvres-de micure culturelle et hsforique vietamlens tes transporter dana la capitale- chinese. En" 1418, Tes ite chins aur Te Bouwdhisme, le Tacieme st te. Confuce flume furent eransportee au bal Vigt pour remplacer Tes ivres Mabtnpies Vane precedente: La politique Ming visane 2 e- Ure a culture gt Vee a sips Beaucoup eppauve heritage EElturel dea dynasties, Te ‘Une des falsons pour esquelies le Bouddhisme Trae Lam se pouvat pos contincr som développement au XV8. siecle Sitvon tdenutication avec ta fomlle regnate, des Td. Du- fone in dynstio des Ley Ip close dirgeante avait encore peur Be etour au pouotr des TrSn. En‘1460, le gouvernement on fa Terre de Changer te nom de Tram tn Ten Tous fs omnes et les femmes portant ce nom de femille devalent pore irom Trinh Cte ation visa spre 1 tos lige pour ta période de soir poltigue et Teligteuse des ‘dns Mls cate eapiatton 8 un Boscdhisme national cortina- Med subsister, AU Xvile eidele quand la dynastic des Le fur Gein en decln, cette nowalgie Tut renimée, Des rmtnos is tres comme, Chari Gise™ Commenctrent & reconstrulre le prestige de lo vocte Tide Lim, La tradition de Trae Lam sube ike de os jure au Vietnam eu Nord [contd on Page 48)“ HOMAGE TO OMYRNA MASTER VINITARUCI Ly This Tong You chose to,visit this, our Southern land, They say you've practiced: Ohyine for <0. Tong. You'spread a11 Budghes' faith throughout the word, You gather every heart in one sole source, Mount Lanke gions with splendor fram the foon, The boat of Prayfe floats on lotus. scent. When ever shall ve meet andy face to: faces converse sbout the riddle of all things? (Transiated fr09 the Chinese by Bujah Sanh Thing) 16 Binh 45 1 LES SOURCES DU BOUDDHISME DHYANA TREC LAM liS.oGpnmeie dee Uy (aebur au Xie siecl) les trois Due gnytna gu Del Vig (T9 NI Da Lily Chis” VO. Neon ser ee too Budhe™) einuenctrent ls ines te autres Teeiice Hibrt. La gecte T) Nia Lu Chi enseignaie aus S$ a'joctrinan devel sudan fou dbo mg ote Seencon (ou v0 le) gu étaient carctéi auefon mong Ity avait dos moines de a secte 19 NI Yo EI" chgt ceaiaione te reeuells Ing ye) se mattre Xu Bubecsedprimaient Gane a langue letraire do Kus Pact it demontre Viatluence de la secte Tho tng sor Pace Tp Ni'Bo Lit Chi Des moines de la secre Vo Ngon ‘Fane pratgunent Ie Tantisme qt eal un élement impor. Garae ie scte Ty NI Ba Li Ch, Les ecsels de Xye B04, {Produits dons lea cerces bouddhlaues par la secte Th Dah, Ent tro ents per la secte Uo\Ngon Thong. Durant Ie Site 'dacie ex au etbut ou Xinb seco les moines dune accte tenaione souvent habitr dans fa pagode aut ppertenalt 8 une Sire sect. Le mire Thing. Chit, de Te secte VO Ngbe ‘ng, par exemple, devine davon du’ monastre. Luc 78 ul ou uy songstere patrircal tree ancien de la sects T) Ni Da Ta'Chie Clee pour cette relson-ia que Thing Chiu pot ob fens les informations sur to sete TY Ni'De Ly Chl done i ‘rit besoln pour la compilation du Ram Tong Ty Psp D8, Sn racuctt des faite sur Ta transmission de Te lnpe pati Shle des 6coles dhyane ay Vietnam i.etmatre Thuthg Chiu margusit le péclode de transition enxre le Bouddhsme la dynastic des L9 (aut pest bre ap fale Te Bouthisme des trols sects dhyana ot Te Bouse S'la dnaaio den Tran (gu peut etre apple fe "Bowdhisme ‘Fane secte unigue": le secte Tre Lam). Parmt se diciples, on ompee le matte tin Guang (mort en 1220, foncateur de a tration Yen Td (pls tard conus sous le nom de Ta secte ‘ge Lam), Te mattre Thong Thiéw (more co 1228), et fe matte Thin Neh (more en 1210, gu tlont tele Js pis stres iatren‘de ce temps, Tous fes tals contibutent dreceement fu indrectement,& ia fondvion Ge iw wecte Tras Ltm, ane Sorte de commun bowddhigue ifife de le dynastic: des ‘rin, Les enselgnements dase des trts setey dyno de Ta syaate oy Lf rent transmis au Bouddhiome Trae Lam par ‘Thitng Chiu exes tres dvips. Lee vate des moles ‘ins, Indens ce betaine eu royeume Dai Vite au cours Ge in paste des Trén apporttent de nowvesur ements Sowdaleme chines, indent sibetain dans Te Bowaehame Tec tie46 IL LIEMPLOI DES CONG AN AVEC JES REMARQUES, [ET LES STANCES APOLOGETIQUES Les cong Sni®/ ou themes de mécitation étaient utilis et ‘ifuste par les premiers mstcres diytng dee Trén comme ‘Tel Tha Teng et Tub Teung The § plol de cos cong &n dans 1a continuation de la tradition de Vo Ngos Thong et de Thdo Dutne. ‘Tran Thai Tong fut le premier mattre dhyBna des Ten 3 composer des cong Gn 8 (usage des pratiquants du dhyéne Dans son Kha Hu Lye (Lecons sur le Vide), on trouve 43 ‘cing fn composts par Iui-meme avec des nifm (remaraues) fides Ke (atances apologétiques) Sgalement Gerits par ule rome, Thich Nhat Ha, dans son livre Clefs pour le Zen?) Sait Ig tradiction de ces 43 cBmg Sm. En vole) un ‘thine Le naftre national un Jour appolle par trols foie son assistant, FE par tzo1g fols eon ascigtant répond: "We, suis La. ‘vale ru," dit le aattre, "e'avolr a sceliggs ma en r6aité, c'eat tol aut Renarque Celui-2a saul qu boit sat exactenent si 1a boisson ext chaise on froide. Stance Cas daux partis ont 1e née talent— Sur gut faue-il s*appuyer poar une coma ep pourens ot mes entrailles sont expooés ‘Notre inspecticn, role Stone ao ema Go coxmais a prope Le maitre Tug Trung, neveu de Th6i Tong, composait aus- 1 des cong dn. On on tipuve encore teelze dans le reese {Tuo Trung Thee SI Ned Lye. Voie! son premier cong an {ul erate Ie-probldme de la production et de la. destruction des choses ‘hee {Ye Mahaparinirvana sfitra dit: “Tous Les Shams sont inpermanents; tous Les Gharmas Golvent subir la production et 1a destruction Romarque He gul est le sujet qui doit subir la pro Suction et 1a Gastruction? stance “Tous les dharmas sont impernanents. ‘tous les dharme doivent subir ia produc- ton et Ia destruction. 1a pluie tarbe en torrent dans Les trois ‘des. event couffle en rafales dans les dix ‘directions. es saints ot las idiots ne se trowent pas tel Begin ot 1 seems var, eas, ESRF ral cities Ses ee ogee pas, Cone abt vign et sun east SNE cinelecne ta prodactin stile gat sere Seal al Son 2 Spent site fara on senantre co veux Gotan orcteane, certiaara fas & s'€tarper 3 son coun de vied : col eisaeur do peintnge nest as encore S rala’en pest 068 voir fleurte Yes cori- ons Ste poms! ‘ nen tN Lye rene ane fo emg Me cong oe ee tam Te Le que mae Py hy eee Pacey dn hl eh ogres at ine Tag ca tgitues Comte one Teh Tak ac oh prop ning tr comme homes Ge ea is fer tren inet par fs ome IV, LIETUDE DES RECUEILS (NGiT LUC) DES ILLUSTRES MAITRES Dans tes cerces dhyling, les enselgnements des maftres illus tres et des patriarches sont meme considésés comme plus Pretiques que Tes textes de sUtras, Leurs paroles sont préciew- Semen notées et compllées ct constituent des Frecuells" (ng Iie tbs etude par Tes pratiquonts du dhyéna. Ces reeves taferment des cOng fn, des stances, des Temarques, des pa, Toles dyna, dos exhortations pour To pratique du dhyana, des [eametri on Page $0)SPRING Tre Lin Lithe wiTloes, fragrant Blossoms, Clouds, Floating bys Jing birds, shadows on the porch. Bid not the visitor talk about m dust Tean against the fence—adnire spring green. (ranclated fron the Chinese by Hsiah Sanh Thre)50 expisiences personees et des recommandations ‘x tempo des Lf, les moines erivaten. des stances, da potines et des lives, mas dew reeulls de cette sorte Weng {Stent pas Dans a" eradtion Troe Lam, los grands matter Taiscbrent toujours derribre eux des reeuellt- ene Somes or maltres go flssont ces recelly malleus lsiples Duran la ytaste des Trin ies recalls Tes plu wis ferent nga tv Lye (eaves vetnamtenne, Trén ThSt Tong = ring Te SF Ne Ee ose lernamiom "hg Tring - trai ie Lye outs vtmmieme, Ten Nit on ~ Thin Lam Tht Cy Nei? Lye (oeuvre vleamlen "Veda Nan TOngh ‘Dog Sich Lye (oeuvre vietnamienne, Php Loa; = Bic Num Ue focuere chnolse, Yuén Wa < Tuybe Dau Ne Lye Tosuvre chile, ‘Xu® Dah isn't (ocutre chines, 8 Kus = Dai Tue Ng Lp loca chile, Da Hel, 11 et probable que four cor reeueilsfurent Inlus dane vadiion dr Triptaka €sisée par Phép Lon. Au nombre dx eres vleamlenes vont stout pls tard Te Tan ie, ‘te Tom 72 Te Lye, ot le Ngpe Tien Tap. Le premier Feciell tate de 1 vies des rataues et des enrages dev Cmperears de is dynastic dee Ted, le deunleme es trots Imre patriarchs Trae Lam, et le tosibme des potmes et Fithds de Huyén Quang. set ae Ta Page i soe eae CaO gl a ta Mt a Pn ‘Tric Lam Trin Triéu Thién Tong Ban Hanh, écrit en chit eS Fete as cus pal Tn ong pendant loqualle il revit ses amis. bouddhistes pour une Prong Peon dhyana, Thien Phong out rester assez longcemps conser pour enselgner la doctrine de Lin Tsl, Permt ceux a Pintent disciples de Thien Phong, on vol Wilustre mat Senge? ql dovink pls tara wh metre notional, Hp vo Oe mentionn seulement deux noms parm! tes discipies Nation Bhong: Dal Ding et Nan Tus Dai Ding et Thal oe UMaiene a6 accples gu matere yo Vien, deualbme py Toa ara secke Yen Ta ovate qs requssent Mentone ware ‘Tison Phong, Linfluenee de le doctrine, Lin Ts fut toe Teante sur fo pensée ev Foeuvre de Trén Th Tong. Hee smpereur beaucoup medité sur fe theme de homme Ces Same situation (ie 2 fA) propose par le mattre Lin Tet Tea sane hoe at Lycs Poti un pote aul peut etre con Dat Gomme Te trait de sa, meditation sure thime: ‘hanno veal sane situation: un tas de chair = wei ane soe co oe sh ony ss eso : MORES eau toe moe rt ihe rene Pe sere see ls She Ban tt a eed Bes ian ra og be el ne Kb 2 tn iar fn reece go ymin sae Jn aga eras amber telat Sime dame ec Remar Touche! Feapper ne souris d'un biton qu'on peyvent pana stance "thors vrai sons situation n'est rien ‘auexerénent | a" us de bouihistes ont 6 perdus par wn tel. enseignament egarde ct cunsidire encore, Ne le vols-tu “done pas? ssn 1o battle d'argile marche oo 1a may ‘Te inisoe aucine pron. Le matere Tut Trang, cousin de Trdy Taal Teng, eualt 0 parttiper vax consultations dhysne. drigées par Thies Phong, Parcs gues de Venseignement Lin Tat sont tf88 prfondes sera See oeares*™ Lielement Lin Tal dot done ttre conse dere Mehame une dos sources Tes plus importantes di Boud- Ghisme tric Lam.52 Vi. LA PRATIQUE DU NIEM PHAT ‘On ne salt comment Ia methods de prataue ae Nifm Page {nwecatgg a nom de Bouche Amiebhe) Tt Introd ou Vietnam A 1a"pagoce Page Tih, dans la province de Ninh, on peut encore trouver no furs ine tote dy Boule aha Amefoha en pore tallse en 1097 sr Vordre de Perper fear Uf Thanh Tong On pevs voir cette date dans ane stele a pagode Pe Ticks On peut done dive que introduction Is methods Ni Pgs oD Vite dace fu Xt sce a plus tard. Le motte Knng UP ela secte Vo Neon 1 thot ‘en 11a acon te Tan Uydn Tgp Ah esiso aun une more statue etamleBhn en Bronze (a pagoge Guta Lite invocation du nom farina vise realise Ia concenta” on de teat refs (ar Le mete ene ll Yun ort le premier gu at edoice ai éébut du Ve sidcle, 7 = os ee ‘AU X@ siete, fe matre Yn Sk! di de la méthode Nim age une méthode chyna depuls ce jour, ia methoce, Ment Frgt commenca 8 etre lergement employee’ any tes cerclet dhyana Tew probable que Ta metho Nib Page a een rogue au Dal Viet su'dtbut Gu Rls lees, po apres Io ort de Yan shou, par Motermediare det molneschinls ul Vist” teront le Dai Vie et gu néeldbrent dans Tes monastSes ela sects Vo Nin Thong. Dane les certs Tea Tl Tong. on Fetrouye ton traces Gu Nigm PRA Thal Tong Eeriet oe son ire hoo tye un article si le Np Phe le consdre ‘comme Une méthode our purifier ies tals Kara (compe pe Foles expenses) ct pour derive les obstacle paysholopiqes iin‘ Ever la propre sature humine de Thome, Tes ‘Trang’ ‘ut use um gah aur le Nim, Phge : Te corps dove hasta sésias dans notre epee. sa limidze rayorne partout: Nord, Sud, Bst, cumsts Mais on cotte mult é!autorne tous les coders Dans son Thin Bgo YGu Hoe, en parlant de Trin NjBn Tong, Phép Loa laisse savoir qoe la communeuté Yen TH de sor fompe pati te Rip tg she in comritl teat en ain aboot at a Somat tai on Cass beset is tem di Sout, demanda $ un diseipl “Qsteatce qos Ia cengeésation eat en train do st le disciple répenait: Ih cengragation invoque, Le nom du zovaaha. St Boudin est vide, guest-oe qu'en peut inves? =e ne conprends pas, mattre, The Guest oalut qui vient de me dire qu'il ‘ eomprend pas? Le Nigm Phot est un element du Boudihisme TrGe Lam, mols ne devint un élément importane qu'a partir ou XIVE ‘dee. Durane Te XIls siete, lest Ta pratique de la médit- we Gur tes cOng an qui fut element fe plus important. Au empe de Fen, Quang, te Nim Phge devine eres populate Ffayen Quang aft B&uc-un mun § pris norme A To papode Bat Thép, sppels Bat Clix Phim Lien Hoa (ia tour Fetvpeut categories de lotus, Les pratiquants di Nig Phat Sochsitent renee av paradie du. Boudcha Amicabhe dans tes gu! sont class en neu catégories. Les molnes et les ‘irnent fe moun et invoguent te nom drAmitsbha et mn ies formuler taneiques, Ce moulin représente un sy revsme entre te Nigm Phat et le Tantrisie vil. LYELEMENT TANTRIQUE Llelement tangrique fut er66 important dans ta secte TP Ni Da Li Chl, Durant Is dynastie des LS, I continua tre im- portant, Mais au XIMB aitcle les maftres dhyana llustres com= fhe irda The Tong et Tup Trung ont pu éliminer cet element {1 Boudlame, Pour-éere qulle constatorent que cet element fut la cause des croyances supestitieuses du peuple, Mais 16 Temene tancrigue regevenalt Important parti du XIV8 sile, [edition du Tripttaka réallsfe ou siecle precedent par Php Loa a @6 contentr beaucoup de textes tantriques, car elle ve Basatt Sur edition de lo pagode PU Ning en Chine réalisé fous Ta dynastle dee Yusn qui avale pour religion «état te ‘Tantrime. Le Lomelsme, populaire en Chine en ce tempe-l2, 2°42 aussi beaucoup influencer le Boudehismevietnamien. Le Tam T8 Tine Lye nous révéle quen 1318 un moine ‘nen nomme Ban Be 6 Sa Tobe Lg tradulslt, par deeret m= Impsrial le texte tontrique Bgph Tn Cal Thi Cha du sens” crit en chinols, Le Dal Vige Si KS To’n Tht nous dit aus fue pendant. cette période dautres moines ce tendence tan- ffigue sont yenus du Tiber et de Vinge ister le Dal Viet, Le Imattre Hujdn Quang semble etre. considérablement influence Dar le Bodahisme tantrique. Nous savons quil a conseult fr gland Dac Thay enorme mouin 9 pies apple BAL Pham Lien Hoa ct gue les moines et los Taics ont tourné ce mmoulin-en récitant tes formules antriques.54 ee Tt ace es ae fete art a oa a een eae tee ne es cra eee ns ela arene ee te are ae thi chit nga qui fim thyc cp thy phép (la méthode de donner eae telegi elg acd See grin ents ee tng: fe ie a i as a Peppa dag rete pap erat Chin T& (distribution de nourriture sux &mes errantes et aux seit tanto ae tt Ca put ney prune Dal ee ang er nee eee ee Se i a abel . vill LES ETUDES DOCTRINALES A partir du XIVE elécle, I y eut un vral mouvement popu Taive pour les etudes bouddhiqees. La communaute Tete Lam alt bien organiese, Les cours aur fe doctrine et sur la disci pline mronastigue rent organises d'une maniere permanente ans les grandy monast@res comme Quah Lam, Van Yen, Vian 4iBame Bao An, eter. pour les molnes. Lee cours fare oF eigen ‘aust partout jour les las. Mae *pouddhleme dhvno, dang le passé, avalt soulgné seul neat Vimportanes di Toa Thién (meditation en position as MeN ec Tetude des eBng dn. Il avatt considéré. que etude Be Stes de. sitras et dee s)stemes doctrinaux etait nl m= % dove ni nécestaire, Cette attitude commenga & changer lr de Tran Nhn Tong. Les moines et les lafes commen- APerr a\euutler lee textes ct les aystomes de pensée boule SHEIS, ‘On oppelle ce mouvement le mouvement du synerétisme Gree dhylina ct envelgnement (49 4K — ZK), cect éeant un phéno~ ere ouveau dane la tradition dhysna. Les trois patrirches i's secte Tric Lam ont beaucoup contribue 2 ce mouve- Smt, Tous Jes trois ont emseigné des textes de sttras en de= Fors des mgd Iye ou des cassiques du dhyana, Les texces Comee Saddharma-pundarika, Prajti-paramita, Lafkivatr Savecomsska sont devenus trbs conmus, L'Avatamisoka est Bh Monee grandiose: L'explication dun texte comme /Avatash- ke dure pendant des mols, meme des années entitres. Le iitre Pap Loa a encelgné plusieurs fois ce texte. Selon le Fam Td Tne Lye chaque séance aie suv par aw moins x conte personnes, Ordinalrement, plus d'un miller de per- naeo essletatent 8 des seances organlstes pour Tétude Ge Havataisake.dirgee par Phap Lo ‘Deajtion du Tripitaka sout Io direction du maltre nations plo Phéc contribuait beaucoup & ce mouvement d'études fwodtiques, Des manele pour étude textuelle et systéma- tigwe de Bowddhisme talent rédiges et alffusés par Phap Los er luydn Quang pour repanare au besoin de étude du Bowd- ‘ame de ce temps, Le Tam T8 Thye Lyc en retlent encore fuelgues titres, dant Ie plupere sont des koa 3G” 1 Gant Phd inh {Selections des Testes de Sitras) par Huyén Quang: ‘ 2, Thich Khoa Glo (Mamet pour Etude du Bous- “dhieme).par Hye Quang: 3 Php Hoa Kinh Khoa 6 (Etudes sur le Saddharms- unger Gur) par Psp Loe 4. Liha’ Sia inh Khoa So (Etudes, sur te Lafkvar tira aitra) par hap Loa; ‘Bot Nh Tam Kin Khoa So (Etudes sur le Proj fnipframits hrdaya sutra) par Php Loo 6, Kim Cidng, Tring D2 La Ni Kinh Khoa So (E= Tudes aur le Vajrachieant stra) par Php Loa. Le Bouddhisme dhySne au Xive sidcle «'8tendalt done bien ee les études textuclles et doctrinales.og BLE DECLIN DE LA SECTE DAYANA TRC LAM nse demanie owen: pourl apres Feyen Govag hor 4 Bouddhisme garta, Esco que le male An Tay ae State de Hindn Quang 2a pase Vor ¥en fat enti serait la congrgaion? Mote avs eb eau So Slin'de le wecte ‘rn sone noense i Apts Trin Nha Tong, le Bosisne commenca a pera ie futon goer eda ‘inh Tog foe deme des ros Ta gu eaege focents bouts, Minh Tang aig en fea ce 4a beng, mai trata au peo Ser gee Hib Tate Mavlt aie in amd fo cee aie aaa He fhourat Sn 1341 8 Te de vngcls ans Sn rare ns Fret ac a one ee fe ie Ty DN, ard le pow jugulsa orton 138. Sane fy ae Sut Tong, en by dg avait par pu coniner fn ferzar, Sex sccameury, tes ampere rds Nake Tange Be Dub Tong, Trén Phe Db, et Teds Thugn Tog Elon lgates cambios de goorerters Le mint le share eee Fipton ravegeitt Te royoume, De tot 248s peplaton {Treva Lav deriva doin Syrstie de febr nee tigen pas fe Bouse x tale Incapebes heb 2, Ces eros avec e Champa et avec la Chine plow erent eye tana mone ot Sed Br siuation de gute, fete hnttion vaste de efor der. Non seulement le Bouddhisme he requ pas de" anton Ais ore‘ gouvernement mls les lassen free a rejnare Maree pout combate aatsaee Ses Seen iS Bal Nam Tigo Lat Ch Blea er kane Bye ae 1b regu For do mobile fs Solne pout pete Bsa reucance Cone Ses Cams ‘ter Migs vouline un colonsaion totale du Dl iu, Ron aelement au pole de vue paltgn ats Su oa pols: de we lure ‘rts Tr nein du Dg Vit eh 1407, ten Mings pate auarane ate police nine ot tat rigauruse, He Seles ihe Vonsence ne culture Veromietie pense se in aitare chinolae Warts pes eels, Liebsencaes culturll ravolle tone pour une Indjentone pale is woulalent ue fet Veteamons Phaeccee 3 i pens rongucseny eu cues choot ee pe ‘yuttme Feaucstion chine: Tus tes ines Sch far Is esnamion rent tawenbis 8 trssapares aa cep Chinas En aia dour Imelectucs chnass Ru Gof xia 7 st trent a8 Dg igtpou runs lx errs cents Erk icumiete esata ya ex se Mt pe etn du Trptakevitnamen " Ealic sous le dy- Dee ee te ica ae ace se oe ete ay Barge fen Se efforts Pose ce La ea eeaitges vetagnas mayen rete es Se cee a Sj Tun Tong CY Nam ot Te Bets Dlg Stim HOI Khon Vin de Tray Thai Tong, le Thach hae My ‘ag 1 thdan Lan Tube Chay Nad Lue le Dat eg TH TH, si, \2Tivee tan lige Lice Tang Gi a Pe ean Nise ong te Kim, Cg Trg DL La NL Tot Moe ch te hap im Kinh Kho Se, Lg Cl A ee Sieur Na Tam Kio Khon 80 Ie Ph Si ‘oe Mia icp aon Trg Tan Tp, le Mian Va ip 1 Nai Gof ve Php Loa, Te Ch Pm Ki te THe es Ge tang We yy Haye Qane oom et Cie Fetoutes Etc ier son saeme es tes fouddhiques de la dynastie des Trén. Il y en a d'autres qui SeugansS agnosie tatne exaemene ae i Sea grea sine ot courage de mes bout SUES Srauttdebu au 8ve stele qn earn nombre Semen con prvens 8s out te Tab Trang Thllog Ree Thc te hon tid Luc. lo Tam TB Thye Lye, et I ‘Théoh Diing Luc nous donnent heureusement une idée assez Bue Ee ation 'Bowtehiome Trac Lam Lr prowpenteelermeme’ est ne des causes dela teatce ans rane dT Anh Tog, on com pie tapas prope et rayomante de Thisrore du Boule s.Rlcitan" Us stpreur oft moi toue la cour Com Senit an Boudehamp, dep sllers do personnes sree Tones Le Tom 410" Tne Ie dt meme que eheqs sree hap ton Gevat refuser Te canddatre de milirs de peso bet a vile reo Portion Le sombre de ones Stinks par In sece Trt Lm cost salen ove 'bguinze Site portions ona ent carn et gate ul So Isic males bontdhaes tes fe enbton ea comminanté Fie Con Stee fear ps nnbren. Capel pe ra Sen po caus ofie docrsé par TEs Les"ces bla spe Fare apaeiet sant tous coe ape te cergnon sancioge par fa. 1 corripon dein comtuoasn dt tdgha deviot chose tale tne fia communauté deren trop nombres, uot ‘erin pagoten de llnge: ya avai ope motes ‘Tavalne"pas une formation monastigue et tne Education appro- Prke'i'y avait op de gene au be flor moines casese de lour olsvet€ et afin de se procurer de Ig noutriture dans tne période de la vie Economique difficile. A cause de ce fait, a orruption tale inevitable. On perdat Ta foi cas on voyalt partout des moines qui ne vémoignalent pas la fo! bow hique, das moines qul n'étaient pas dignes de ee nom. 5. Les Grudes bouddhiquet n'€taient plus profleables eux yeux des ‘gens qul aspiraient 2 une positon dans la soci Durane la dynastic des Let colle des Trin, les Studes boudahigues, confucdennes et taoistes Gtaiont @galement res- pectées par les Zowernements. La conneleeance de cea trols fyatémes de pensée était considésée comme la bare de la Culture humaine. partir du XV@ sie, les Etudes confucé= fennes devinrent Vobjet unigue de Vedueation, et le gouverne- ment choise des fonctionnalres en se servant des concours, Pour servir lo pays, le moyen des concours dovint la Vole unique. On s'adomalt aux Leteres, et ceux qul possédalent line bonne mémoire et'un calent de rhétarique éealent sélec- ‘onée pour gouverner." Les Etudes bowddhiquey servant pas cotte fn, Gtalent absndomécs aux moines. Liste asp Fant 2 Ta haute société poursulvate seulement des études con- fuesennes qui leur procuralent de Ia chance aux examen. Le Confuctanisme se présemtait comme Vote unique te salu pour te royaume- Sous 1e rogno de Tran Anh Tong (1299-1914), dee confuct- fens comme Teddng Han Siéu et L8-Quée commencérent 2 at- taquer le Bouddhisme. Le Quit, dans un texte. grave sur une stdle bouddhique dans 1s pagode Chiou Phe, s'Glevate contre Ta prospérite du Bouddhlsme et se plaignalt du manque de soutten du peuple pour le Confuetanisme, TrvGng Han Sie, Gans un toxte grave tur le stipa Linh T& sur la montagne Dye Thays! ie également dinctra Geogue, 2 y a beasooup de parscrnes Gil se servent du’ Bowtie pour tromper les (gens., Ts construisent des pegodes gut oocupent Sysas'S un cinailtne dy territoize ao payey ils ftruisent 1a vraie Vole, iis azpensant trop Grargene, ot cenauisent beavcoup trop de gone aux tenes." Les confucéens continudrent & condamner le Bouddhisme ron seulement a la fin du XIVE sigcle mals aves tout au Tong dy XVB sitcle sous la dynostie des Le. ‘Le Boudehisme, durant cette période, était décrit comme tune superstition gut nulsat a Ia Vole veritable de Contos. Sous le regne de Le Thnh Teng (1460-1497) Ling THe. Vink, tin-des plot grands intelectuele de T'épeque, fut bieme sans DItie par les cercles confuctens de son temps A cause de ses enropes vowdahiques Page Kiah Thgp Gioi et Thién Mon ihe En te an fare forces de retourer hla vie algae, Ep agus es totnes rents presenter 8 un concours des 1, esdchquex, Beaucoup torent foreés de retourer & la oad gos os soto enolate inte sna ane soos cates es loc adbent iain senqoen= i ie en Bune apt mre Fee ms'fare atmo fle os ee sete sate Sete polne de vue imalectuel et poitiue: Certs, Hea arn godvememental, ssa te prtsnce det acer we reuimee fe Bouddhlsme.semblate subir une veritable decor Sn cit ane ea creme pve Boe Sere mal pets Hyde Guang remem tae fo ita wate aes patie 8 fee cre Fre ci tns I oat te in, eve cays es Sets Gte Sent se pres dincs pr de si cl comatal po & Bis vr ran ee60 1s Selon 1s tidh Uyén Tip Why £1 appartiont 2 19 doueidne génér in acts 10th Wg don om eo Fouts ae ae Te Seat eating on hb ns se re ‘Tang (1976-1210). 1h Th - Soars “ho ig fs eno seyipoinlckes aie ace 1) ae ‘a8 atte ts pan fot rboee parte me ue ba ea oath pete Sits ce sae ik Pn pr aki se Shee Ghdrp i a an Se OS eee AD SE av = HER & RR 4: sn 2 he i ile at sf. garg 2a bp Mh Tet Sele eo i fd ae “Law REF So RG RA LH! oe 2% ho, HDi Kw e RK OH ee) RERESMAFRRERMR TLL RF IE BER AH OE RO dF by Hae WR AEE BSR (red Tt tng, os edt) seus ante chyna Tg est toa on #60 pat temas V8 deg daciole 0 afr il shg on Dine Lemoine HD toe cetera pout Yn Yes sopertiene 8s qatortone iin ne Wn ty oe hc ite ran» orn te etn pan 0k ati etic Gren tne Tf gt an Th yd tan Og Tee tdn tn Tra ot ogee eon 14 caste don Tes (ass ize), con non ee dh flay 1h cn after Fee sk tuk tne erect Gos atten ira fof Try et SeMGhgT ont Gig ek alter ratarl et cosadré pa Tn TE flee sen roe mat, i Ting ate ei coraannee proton So"Rare sonen gar nr Trg tro npion comer cae te Tr i ha commun aes oman ste Sen 11 Targa Sf tes Ti Trg ot file ad Satine th mie mal aby (oo cu, cent bare te Fee THES ene an re fe eh icelann ting contd 3 Tag pee TE SIS tote yf bs Sn tery ee Te Try foro Foscmrseh Uf (i eten t Sysetiy O a ode ep ay suelo inser cite Tl By TL Withee me Is gute dre Te iljne Thm Bre go pater $2 SuEtlone t eve ch atte ye lets Te Tow Ia The tn ee tee ‘Shae of tang ect consi por see urs vitie'@ In ecto cyl tie ine It maton 128, Hh sk ater stg yn ae eet abe Tao Stade cold par Pion at ow pn 9. ona gu har fs 3 ody 0a), Mg gy le Sr ro hg Be ‘Ep doe 1 Vt tn 9 la SF URE (SI 180), Ten Tora te on fn et Ube Tony ue (ls or ef hq Soy on Tew far are nua no. Ole Hg AR Vin Ty 8 ay SE tte tds hy ont rod be Tigre fli. cea Ope Wings Herta doc fo le tnpen ngs t ft om gute tesco gp, be setica eae Levine Ty faa (o> (SShevert Gags hotsice Wen tai) cungan ates Le tem SETLIS on tp ign at se come oF Heo Tago ksh 11 wot 8 sory ie tee at on Th hb eon Sv fat we rh de they fis & TH hia oo, pie tite rg te Ut, ro Ry ath ing co Td Td 26 Han Wr iS pn on gb a (de A) 12, ur Lar Wi man fei 3 Ly, Sng 1274s pe Ae OTRAS Ry a Ou ge pt de 82 oy or14 Era ce 28 aga Long Of au Le nant Yo 1h auteur de 1'Ae Sn tee Ubn tet Tei Ti rg ln 18, Evsurtait Vnitaneds Test foatee de In prone sect eye 1 Wintram apne Le sacte*1V Ma Ly Cx", Selene Tilo Od Tp tryst est originaize te "Ine Wu Sule Th seeive Be copitale ‘hinaisg 3 lame S62 En ST, aunts peradctien a Bousohane far Iewpareur chro 11 sn tari # fo tan ol pratt Ie en bec le sine gotrarce cura Lemaftze tg Cn Sut laze" omanction de eluivcly Il pact pour De Uletnans 1) rate ane pages Spin (Soa vlage Rg yy att Ss opi, province sé Wun) ety eset La prtique as yin Avert oe fearis (en St), i. sige Pp Kid come succneur Le sare 1) Nits Li cn cieinan equine ot ay Hite sacle Le alere¥ Say under woines aul soprterrnt Ia dacrawime peation nine snc. syn ou Vietronapelée Ie ste one Tidn Oh Tip feny ft at orsinise ce i aaftre BE Dnfgy Tl se saelt a Viatran on {20, hasta In ogee Kin Shy sto Le vllape Pigg aitesct "th Oy provioce Bde Men. Th murat en 86 abe sats rowd Che te 8 Hp Trg canta n'a ie Ousng eth Tht Le ane 9 ing, seilarsLusten nfeees dela sone, nourrent tue fine 1s prentze ott a HITT ote ‘do Olrge Une pte ota sre 1 Tn Oh Tp fem go aoe To Oleg eat lacile su naftee ful O54 oo 1a sect Yin Nene Enos fprcoe cu nfere Jad iy 2h Man Gf Lae oer Hoe ‘urge Frat sue son maze 0) Foymne 8 Oiamp pouy wren uy 1 fs fate paoelar. Le priser fu plus tard conte bun Ficierchergh es affair a) soe Up Sot, gan officer tat shan, Tho ing ie ss nly [rounle co poles pro- tecfan par ie Linuntses atten Qo] sar le tabey 11 lee uty 1 esoma ee Tautes te copay et lee eorlones ard 'officter 6 ictrins ce I'll sun a de 2a per-btenon sort 2 ort- Gite de I'eooe ayn as ag fnaée parle nalere ine shinole ‘AE nang & 20 fim LG side. U6 fin Teg, ehsigle oe Dray spprciot cattle 18, Le altro Mu 00, vant au Kd alsin, Gast un grad pte. sas & frist nese nasty etre teres zhu tthe Elta pot Le Zen, Seafrsy Pris 15 Bs ttn sll if ae soctn ey tu Oi VG a JUTE eile sar In prods Lag Oy aut 30 ce Yon BT ete ars coule Io eoion fee Lay Hho ried we [Edict oy arg Toho Sf gl te on 176 porte np sn, Ui Son Te Un Tit Texds 38) tho ln ete ln frog a tly rae sol elt em ir een bra (ote ng ent ence Sem yet estan ov Trperear a royaune Oh Vit prtiqit Pour tranmetice I'otnigrmnt cela ect Jo suls vende A Getta ocreson, amare rd ons ans chara pur gin et celeste ny) 2, Tlén Pang Th hy rae rg (Tb Porg at wn nlre sane). BBs how an palate deol pe Tes TM tng it srt Leu Panny (ice oo de comutation teri, 21, Thatlinepatiaree de In gece UB Stacine defy Vin 1 Eire ot ut sortie Ba pot eh TL Trg (11-127) On ete sa ee a te pat Int Tnge Sara lar sacra wietnntensy I et cent ie tsaraniaion directs un sitre Lin Tale Ue ram de Ran 1d aus ast one pa tun Se Ia pace de Yeaition He8 a Tang Tada Si Ue BREAK OD havo 8 BH Be ERR EH6 Tre eotbed Dine ios pesase my BRAM HY. Rs ten eh Thay yaa ie waite tet 4s alge cya nye fae aun id it Tg (i a i ih hig {rt commun mse ae tng mun Matce cya cue" tre flere sur Te TS Tngy 1 sue Be ogee Cdn ike Sule erate Goa elt avai, Le te ye Te Ini tv Tepe In eouereaten sure wise Ae HON et ML PE ser heres Gut eo tn ‘evo at ron ate ges" sed Go ene alt ‘ne inputs rt ators oe Soe ued i tal ‘Relay Heat cma Se vos oo annec nec ens eat ehut ya pon Se mame, 1 bes oy lal ot soit te ete en et Set come eta AL ope 31 atl tne ptsoobe oe a onteFeVne tof 9 em ree Was BH Fit iW RERRHRwA Hee ER A oh tyre ig par orem tro A Tn TL * SEED tes ng 6a The ae ptt on or ratdona Tefh ing go. It aut on TB 3 I'Spe oe tent Gn veton Ian sen guatre akan ot de rutBee dy royune aur tian au ovinon hrlors Cast en yale eson See Ie arte ae Te yk Le pst de aface de raters tices 3 1 gone Vr Yen pdaidn pa in onftee hth ang. Cotes ede 6h ircare to prota as Mb tot 18 sel8aton ewe @r te eS a 65 WE loos algae 1'tion de in steucture es testes, otf serie ion te i Sein ttl Pn near ft a Vn 3 a (8, Baca sect abn ue ol 0 esi rte Sees ain eee opie tan elena aik ot Neewd be tare 2 hy toh, tog WERE Wn toy oscteute 1. Sxin 4 Png are an Cg BY Ti 22 latee tu Saute or in page Pitan fut txaaporte on oro (eston Honus Ls capitate pur un saren de pridres en Te etFOLK HISTORY IN VIETNAM ‘Huynh Sook Thong lent and disruptive than in of the worl Teme sate i, a, Rutaide, especially the Chinese to the north and the Chi - {2 the south Alo, they had o\contend wth ter vn ot {he Tih an the Nguyen, betwen Coma sad see nniiists I is only natural that the ordinary peopl of Geet tte ete ae et SS Tee ay ome a orn fa ea ‘That strong see of the Pat, av marore in numerous lb eaten cane called "uk histor, which souls fe feel climate and orl thor of Vicon ae ee ae eee oe oe ee Scctimiate nite oft tons and cones wth Sh Biase While folk history is often a Geificaton af ctor o and noxional heroes and thus manifests the people's ed a tse tlt in thei stroggle for survival, Ie 2 com for relggets of trth buried Inside [ayers and layers of po 1200 ei And, wether i speaks Ih specifics or In ge ers scary Is apt to took with cold-eyed foals ce she structure OF power and bally ety INgs at te Confuctan scholars ever dared to hint atm writing lai fois to Vietnamese scholars who wrote in ChI~ sort A etould be polnted out that some of them attached note ee to folk mya nd fegends, which hey collected moving sometimes atated purpose of defining the etnic Wie Ptmate'Southern domain in controdstnction o che dent ohiane, Chinas [tthe fourteenth century, under T+ Nore Tad had repulsed several Invasions by the Mongols, LS piett Jan cecorded a score of tales of Vietnamese Kings, Re- Te Xone) goss in the Vite Biga U Linh TBp (A. Book of et at soe occult Powers tthe Vietnamese Doman). Toward Sori Op the Titeemh century, under the Lé dynasty whore ie er fad ied aficut war to free the country from {conte mination, rere appeared another corpus of folktales, Ming gor Nam Teh, Qui TSalcted Tales of Fxtrordinary tne tin Lingnanl In the foreword attributed to his, Va Being Mestianed the tractionlly strict and ight demar~ Quith Setueen a or history proper es truth and eFuyBO or ca ad Jogand a tiction. Despite hs endeavors t0 Bat~ yh Vietnamese centralised sate after she model of term eisruclan China, the great emperor Le Thénb-téng him Tr eat deap inerest inthe native language and culture “ei, spparety at his command, the oficial hstorian NEB eke to the trouble of gathering stories fom ancient sna circulated among. the peasants, and included thet times Comesentary when he cempied hs Bgl Vit SE KY Toda Td rhe Complete History of Bai-Vigd. ‘tymcven, writings in Chinese offer no more that carefully saleied fregments of folklore, designed to promate the iner~ SESS ee ating class or at Teast, never: meant to daserve SEE, Gheeata Vietnamese folk history must be Snvestigated Berlingo, complex of poputar belies and cults make ete tra traction. Soctsogiste of religion, for Instance, 105 Oe he ealtence, nd function of hnads of shrines Wu temp sacred to auch mytheel or legendary figures = a tem sed of Lae ge Long, Quan), the founding father Gr the Ylewames seam, the Heavenly King of Phi-dohs, (Pai babe Thien vadng), 2 three-year-old retarded toy Who Pree syemight to save tne country from Northern con- Fen a he Suine of Tdo-vien Mountain who won the Bat6s te of the floods against his arch enemy, the Water God (hd Tinh), and many historieal heroes or heroines tke the two Trig sisters, Lady Trigu, Marshal Uj Thums Kit, Gen- eral Tran Huhg Bgo, etc. Unless destroyed or banned such shrines and temples, associated with definite cults nd tes, Will perpetuate those mytis and legends in versions thet, sy liffer from one place to another but always retain the banc contribution of each divinity or hero to the commonweal Scull, Vietamese folk history Is above all embedded iv some- thing less substantial, yer more enduring, than wood OF stone, land that ls the spoken words In old Vietnam, the written and printed word, being ground: ced the Chinese’ seript, belonged to @ very small Eilts Che hese was the vehicle for all forms of official expressions when Someone wanted to write in the vernactlar, he or she hed {0 employ the chi nom or "Southern characters, the demotic feript which presupposed a thorough Knowledge of ‘Chinsse Ideograms. As printing. wes underdeveloped and publishing was severely restricted by the authorities, [tis clear that the reat majority of the Vietnamese people lived in @ world do- ‘oid of books and relied essentially on the spoken, vernacular o create, malntain, and transmit any kind of tradition How fo record and transmit tacts, thoughts, and. felings by mere speech, without material means of, preservation iat as the challenge. Ie was: met by choosing the form of specch which could best resist the erosion of time and change, whlch could achieve some degree of permanency, and that form of Speech was verse. Traditional Vietnamese verse lent leet ade mirably vo effortess and pleasurable memorization by. hap By combinetion of features: a rhythm, intrinsic to the Viet famese language, that favors the jamble or a regular alterna ton of stressed Syllables preceded by unstressed ones, the availability of both end rhymes and internal riymes; and lastly, @ musical arrangement of tones. Thus, out of neseaaty, eree’ arose a8 the undisputed medium for any stotement of fact oF opinion of feeling that aspired £0 lest beyond the: mo- mont when it was first made. That verse pervaded the oral tradition in Vietnam is Indicated by the presence of thousands Of proverbs and proverbial phrases which must be regarded at ‘minimal poems. Let's consider thie one. which possibly harks back to the remote past when Vietnamese. women had 4 far more important role than under « Confuclan patriaray: "The child misbehaves, the mother bears the biamot—Con dg cel mang. The saying consists of only four syllables, yet it ‘manages to include all the features of rhythm, thyme and tonal harmony that characterize full-fledged pct, fo on ofc mana 2m mstection in the form known as Iye-bét, or the "six-eight’ Eases tae date ind lin NS Fre eee oriaatl oat, seroma nce et a a foe ms made of connected six-eight couplets run in see Fat cael tices nating ache Rik verse contain much folk history, Its chief repository is Reeve mares aaa? a ae att a ee oe ori Se a a ee Pe cor eer ESM Saale tat Saale ioe ed en a Pe Pee preening os Hee ed Sera Es Be an ars Lae ilo SP Pp eae ea Ey Cnc tae Real ae iS Nt fa bt ofa rel ay Seer ens chee ish bo sabes Ghee Cte te Se fam the Chinese: "Whoever goes up to. Biep-thgng. ond L wi remember thot (hire U2 Tate bared she wat Nige troops” (Ai len Bito-thing Lam-sdu/ nhd LO Thai | opine npr e SPAMEibeart be Ups Le La who eariced hs ‘For « ter aisoslin of abeatet uceey seas theintratlon 12" Hartage of stnnese Poetry, elites 2g tastes Oy Holey Sern (Yoo Usuerity Pron he Hoven nd Lerany 173), 2B0 life in order to save bis leader from capture by the foreign nem, According to folk tradition, the. thankful king Le ‘Thai-té would later doeree that L® Lave death snntversary should be celebrated one. day ahead of his own, wich was to take place In the elghth month of the liner calender, hence this saying: "The. twenty-tist for L@ Lal, the twenty. Second for Le L9." (Him mbe LE Lal, im hal L8 Li. ifeneraly the people tended to associate the Le. dynasty in Its heyday with peace snd prosperity, st symbellzed By pro, Ite‘oftspeing In this couplet: Mn the. times of King Theta And King Th8i-tOng/ there were children to be held, childre to be garred, and children to bested by the hand” (Bot vue ‘Thal'w) Thai-tongy/ con be con ft-con bing con mang) Even Le Thin-tOn who ascended the throne under Lord Trinh Tong's aegis and whose reign ttle was Vinb-t, 1s fond Iy'remembered in folk verse because I610, the year of hi Coronation, was one in which the people enjoyed bumper trope: "When King Vinh-t) mounted the throne,/ pots. were a full of stale rice that children woulda't tough ij" (8 vua Vinie9 Tee ngoi/ cd gual dy nd con tré ching Sa) Le Thin-tOng proved the rare exception, Cor after the fifteenth century most L€ sovereigns suffered & precipitous decline in popular esteem and reverence. In the early part ff the sluteenth century, the Le dynasty produced incompe- tent rulers, at best, and degenerate tyrants, at worst, lke Uyrmue who was nicknamed King Devi (Vua Qui), like Tide ‘ae who was dubbed King Pig (Vua Lan). Here was the folk Terage of such monarchs: "King Le owns thirty-alx golden par ‘tole When he soes gles In the streets, he stares and Stares/ I” any one of them happens to be young. and lovey, the king locks her up n'a cage and carties her back to the coptal” (Vua Le bm 284 ean vag Thay Ret dt dng ngs ‘ngp nom pom./ CB’ do. Gog son son,/ vue dong cil hm de] dy ve kin) "This period saw the onset of a phenomenon that was to bbecome the salient festure of Vietnamese society before the fwentleth century: peasant revolts fed oF instigated bY a Ditious individuals, disgruntled scholars or disaffected mem- bers'of the Imperial family. The Brief Mge- usurpation and Its aftermath, especally the power struggle between the ‘Trinh and the Nguyen, instituted civil war as the norm, as a'way of life. For example, even though the Trinh recap” ured che capital and formally ended the usurpers' reign in 1392, Mac loyalists took refuge in their stronghold of Cac bing, against which the Tra had to dispaceh miltary ex peditions over the next seventy years. An echo of popular complinty hls folk poom cast the heron as the long-sut- Gime wire of» peasan-soaior sou to go to war suaiet KM allt "The Heron wades slong the river) Spo car" ES ice sing her husband off, amd she weeps and wall) lemon, eo back home and care for mother ant the chleren/ erin frek-my wey opto the streams and ily gf Cap~ {EP Com oi bs‘ ee pcg ps Shot afSnon/ Nang we mol cat cing con Ba anh a ibe now Ca0-bang. ion they fougat against the Mac usurpers, both the sy orcs nthe North and the Navn trds swore alle Tuner the Le dynasty. But hey exploited the cause of {sMreaoration so Dlatanty and treated thelr Le pretendors 12 Sioblly hat, sooner of later the Le mystique was Bound {8 tnuergo an sclipae inthe poople's minds From ths eye wear folore hes salvaged "comic character brea ty {ora Chdn (Chea Chdml 2 habits drunkard ‘who borrowed SE ee ae are mexeIgnevage is provera sumer "co bein debt Hike Lind Cnn og whl Ce Chom He treed hoe of, happy go-luciy Tush in thie saclghe Qustrain "The dingo {nina ow thiry-at golden parasol When Re dies and Ges down to bel, he wow ake ting wieh him) Lord Eda just tips and ippes iquor/ When he dies and goes tov 10 hel wl ho be In anyway outelsged by the king oF Enlqa? Vu Ngo bm niu tan vng./ChEe abe am dink chlng mang de qe/ haa Chin sing mig tee ChB Sting. Amen Cem gi von NgB?) Lord Chm was to ligment UF tdi Imoginationshe was an actual porson immoralzed a pathote clown although In 1532 he was to be proctalmed Sieror by Lord Ngunén Kit as LO Trang tng, he became fre rat of an unglorfous lie of igureheade st up by either ihe Neuyén or the Tejon so Invest their naked ambitions th {ome semblance of egitinacy TT the people withirew their alleglance from the decrepit toue of Le, they seemed losth to transfer fe to the sprart ters who cd iti to deserve ie In the North, where neo tem and eronyism were fampan, the Trnh lords bestowed the ttle of qubrreGng or prince? so Indacriminately spon ther relalveh ‘and fiends thot sagaste Jokes were colned {nd cireuated, such as this ones “He who drops a heap of {nein tip igi te worsh- gen thousand. genertions of gracen” a dng mor bat bing van dat qude-cong) To others Tho could tford corpay the Triah authorities sole miscella tou titles of nobly, rather cheaply according to thls cue ples "For ton strings of coppers jou get the title of ma2 L ISTORIC BATTLE scans AS PICTURED BY VIEMUMESE FOLK ARTISTS n qin! For five YOU get the ticle of count—nto isto be out wd by anyone ele?” (MMO quan tht Gage tw ha! Ni ser fule ba al ha hema?) ‘Teh Sam sed members of Bey in.partictlar,rew upon thomectvos the hats ot JSNC cnapprovsl and scorn He shred with his favorite wie ‘Blag Tn, Hud, a zeal for ulling Buddhist tempies and mon DEE co whl e was lee eager to sow Duddht compassion in poicics, Tho couplet seemed to malo a velled Comment in Ms dserepaney: Sven If yo Dull the nine sores Of 8 Soy would if So uch go as C0 ave one single IC” [Beaty chin chp phi-dl/ ch Ding lam phe cu cho mot Gi) Ofne TH, H's younger brother, Dog My L8ny wes ‘rredatory Teche snd sowed such terror among the populace ‘ule be earood the wickrome Cau Trt or Uncle Heaveny a8 (bikie couplet: "Oh It any (ge) 1s unlucky enough In this ela “ave wil ray Igo’ Uncle Heaven in he street an be pred oll by tum (Ay a woe ren FO) a ‘qu Tr bbe) Aror Tenn Sams deat is son Tek Bus sitcceded him. but wos too young to Tule~real power fal cos widow, Dip Thy Matsa one’ of his cage s0- ‘ite, Hodng Dinh Blo, abo known a Prine Haye Tete ittlomlp grew so intimate that it gave rise to charges of tchul orality spelled ost in this couplet: "al pace. of fia have eyes, but they mey_ os well bo bling! They Tet fre Huy come, in ane pow the Dowager” (Trim quan €& td and mail Be cho Huyequan vo sb Chih-eang) ithe’ South the guy ford id ot fore mech better wi the ple Nguyen Kb, ls own as Prince Ding anted co have Ms own ahrine bull In Thntehow an arcund 180 seated any peasants for Trg Tabor Ther reveatniont ar vented In ths couplet There's tose ad fess re as Sou Wer coch doy When will you ever be trough with carrying fees for Princo Bing” (Com in mBi ba mgt hdng./ Bao gi fam dt ong Bing cho vn) As a group, te Southern lor Sere accuses of paying for more attention to festivities and ‘ectacles than to tho people's needs, of spending too Much tester, for instance, wich ths couplet condemned: "Oh, {Ss sti over and sel? Actrtes are feented ke) Inte 'and gay eh lle folk work and slave." (At ot ng ig'ma cot Nagpe ving com hit, tol dol thn dan) Even after the Nguyén lords ecm over ll thet ene- ties uied the’ country end founded thet own dynasty, ce {luli nov eacape from poplar eriticum Gling ordered the ‘lomanting of old polacet nd shrines that reminded him of Sierecunie foes andthe contruction of now monuments to Nseit~he came infor this rebuke In folk verse: "He's desLyoyed temples, then he buds them oll over agin Why Som ayaa have co ane for poner and rab county ite sna Phi iy 18 i tan dn! Noa cp se tran gay hi} Mioemgng wes ortayed aan arbi trary, tnenitive monarch becaues in 828 ond 1858 em the wearing of skirts by women and caused’ reat hare mong oot people who could or afford to Bay cot fot te Bresrsded user: tin the eigth month he tng eet ‘Suts/ It forbade skirts and threw (woman)folk into a dither" itou don't go ot, you wil miss the market IT you mast fo) bow can Jou biog yourse to sip your husyans of hg ‘huss (Thang tlm coche yuo rey Clin ul dng tm a nan Rhone Sy ng Sgt Theat Citing soo Sang!) Butt of a the pres, mene Te die epparciy bore he brant of poplar canton and ited, He hed hun of sollte dod pasos bul man tolcum to be named vgn Non or Eterniy. an undertaking that took a heavy tollot lives and tn T868 provoked 8 Mat dyrcauichy pot vm Ths Coupee deplored the epsnde: Wha Tra"or eternity te his Eternity ie walle are tule of st ler tones es moats are led withthe people's blood” {gn Nien vg" nienolot/ Than yd May hoo inde dan] The sovereign was porsnaly Sled fe the Sard times the country was going torough*Snce the day Rae ‘mounted the throne/ not ohough rice hay fled the poy eR Gen nave ried lie eparower? When TYP8D drops ead the people wil enoy peace ond find I cay apa vo mokoya te ing.” (TW ngay Ty-de len ngbi,/ com ching dy ndi, eré_khbe he Sie iB hewn bm io an Tk was daring the Mge and postMge periods of incernecie suite lasting for Sores tht tis ellinoem saying obo iy"wes coed and gained wie curry ana aefowaete et tans win snd you Become King los ond you become’ ber fi (Base Tam ven, han am ge) Ar ngs were sor of tic ef thoir majety and gots, the poputor wish for hang even or’ vlentapteavaly wos given utveranc In tines of folk veree lke thoer in Wtich a poacetUl peasants prayer suddenly Tar mlway lc w rebels core: "May tear Ex'Tend rain 0 thac rie plants wil grow more earn/ ao thet the'water wil hme mre Tah and the ivr mare bate So thax canopies and ports il beak thelr ick) an fala Give end tedamchatr wl gt saiod with ud for eat {trot mun gion ttm ong eho nO theme cho Sg them thuyén,/ cho dd cho long gay then,/ cho vote cho eng ‘npr phen nhupm bin) Ceremonol parasols and Poangune ere embloms of power, wed oly by Kings and mandarin, “arried for their sake by humble folks who normally would eee ee or catching oF rowing hosts 8y force of a Fhe igwitesr creature could conquer the highest post, 8 ‘Bercunir implies Ina wv metaphor: "Head cocked, the Je ping on the ponds edges! Te threatens to snap at sea Ene hye (Con ee thin gic bP as LB I min sao teen 04) ofa hela and anmlists who wrote in Chinese oul jenove ell peasane revolts when many of them ad pose vet Eieats to the throne or even succceded only 00 well he the one Hed by the Tay-sd brothers. Dut such uprisings ter tactic general terms and always negtcly fled ere tise opposite perspective, we must tur to bits 8 Toa othvcrse ar In-some instances, to long narrative pooms ‘Mien oral tradition has saved from oblivion, Such evidence, Winover meager, gives ws the unmistakable impression that hows'pouteal comment and protest were. commonly practiced hong the peasantry through the medium of « type of folk Edjats Wown as ve. The ve bslad did not define Itself 0 telth by the forms it assumed, beceuse they varied but Its Pepose was to ful in-an iierate society the principal Paeions performed nowadays by newspapers and magazines tron less extent, by radio and television, to report and & ediortaltes Ve ballaists didnot intend thelr work so be ‘Recry or teratare but journalism, oral journalism, In which Bemcorn for style and rhetoric was overridden by the need e'hurry and get a story out while fe was sil hot news. Wherefore, thar normal best war ‘thelr village oF count thoy covered local quarrele or scandals, Instances of rk fei committed some Redman, dict che, of Ta fre, To compose setr pieces, they often chose simple, rode ferme of folk verse Ties of four oF tive syllables Sith tegular end rhymes. But, once In awhile, they set Thole sights higher, wanted to reach a wiger audience about ome event affecting s large area like a province oF even ine whole country, ip which caze they would adopt si-lghe Protected by thelr anonymity, v8 balladists produced folk history that eauiy turned Into anti-government, propaga Nostale prac or past soveretgs could be phrased In such Svayfas to point up the shortcomings of present rulers. Dut fhost dangerous was the propenity of ¥® belladsts to glorty {Rust rebelfon and rebels about whom we stl. possess hough ‘siceigne couplets and poems to suspect that folk it~ {ory often took such a subversive tack, For instance, @ few6 sicelght lines stil extant, probable remnants of @ much full ‘er account, depict the meteoric caroor of the pessant rebel Phan Bi Vann who, between 1821 and 1827 under Minh-mang irtually ruled vast tracts of the southeastern region of Noth ‘Vietnam Until he was captured and executed. This couplet links his uprising with the appearance of a comet which, nc- cording to folk belle, Invarlably portends great changes in the world "In heaven’ there if @ fringed stan Here Below, in Minh-gi6m Village, thore Is King Ba: VBnh.* (Tren tro) c& ‘ng 890 tua,/ Dut ling Mint-gi6m 6 vun Ba Vanb) But folk history would have ut belteve chat the Ideal and best= Toved of all those peasant rebels was one never mentioned In any oficial history, 8 lad known eimply ee Lis, Though a nom-person #9 far ss hsteriane who rely exclusively on written Focords are concerned, Central Vietnam bosete such a rich folklore sbost him, inchading a long, complece v® ballad, thet ‘we must conclude he did exist even if he fell short of some oF the virtues eserlbed to him he must have lived the: end of the eighteenth century in the area of Quing Scting like a Robin Hood, robbing the rich and helping. the poor, leading a band which included two older men, affece Eogiely sown as Father HB (Cho HB) and Uncle Nh (Cn ‘The fact that the vernacular, used in ditties and balleds to discuss things outside the purview of Confucian orthodoxy, ‘could ‘undermine and wreck the established order wer not Tost on the euthorities This oft-quoted proverb summed up thee suspicions and fears: "The Southern vernacular i. the father of villains and scoundrels" (Nom-na 18 cha mach- gue) The official designation for subveraive publicstions, ‘Menatsh words and fiendish books" (yeu ngO ya thi, Ws aimed at either folk verse orally transmitted or nda verse {in written and printed form, Such publications were forbid- den, suppreseed or destroyed. Rulers like Triah Tge end Trinh Cuang became notorious at book burners in theit a tempt at controlling the use of the demotie script to nrop- ‘agate ideas that could make the people think he unthin’- fable and upset the status quo. In 1663, Trinh Tye ordered Pham Cong Tr@ to draft-47 commandments pointedly tell= Ing the people how to behave and bidding them to avold Norooked words and strange thoughts" (ta thuyBt 3 doan. ‘Even though Vietnamese rulers wished to curb heresy by fovoring Chinese st the expense of the vernacular, they all came t0 find it impossible to communicate effectively with the unlettered masses without stooping to use the congue thse was supposed to "father villains and scoundrels, ‘Thus, ” in 1760, aout » hundred years after Teak Ty's 47 com te umets had been writen in tho language ot Confctus Eg promulgated, Trinh Doent commsiones NiO Dinh Tola {ei ansate them into aeeght verse and make them mare {e.tuuble tothe. common folks. The Nauyén rulers them ‘ives had to throw Ideological purity to the winds ond c- Snmodate with the rel world. T#-385, a lover of norm Saupe even'made a point of personaly rendering Into ‘Rinacular verse maxims and precepts Mlarmgny Had pened 1 Chinese forthe eaifeation of he subjects fe'vas the Intent of those In power to compete against sf baliadts or Tat historians om the laters own grounds Tat produced two long histories of Vietnam wetton in he fermaclor and In chat gultenental fol medium: stelghe {Sfse Other verse hstorion of the countey may have. been ompoted eh hopeful, wll be unearthed: For the time. ‘ein, there are only these two extant! the Thien Nom’ Na ige letronices of Heavey's Spu), writen under the} 28 the gt Nam Qube SH Diby Ca (A Verse History of Dale Nam whtten under the Nauyén. . Tat the making of the second poem was tepired by Newien authorities atthe highest level is beyond doubt a matter. fcoord At Ty.dte's Bobet, two court ofitaly Le Ng Ct {ne Trg Phe Ho, srefted iat version tn 1860" Ie wan tobe edlted and reritten by several other hands, but the fal product that emerged around 1805" and hay survived eo the DNQSDC bears sbove all the imprint of one write, Pg Din Toa “out the exact authorship of the TNNL is sil undeter alae, ottcial Trinh sponsorstip of the poem can be Infered from Some cite in the text. The asthor began by announcing that he wrote the history In respectiul compllance with orders {fom on high, Ho made only the most perfunctory reterences {othe achevementsof the Le dynasty? but ended with a Siaborate hymn of prate to the soveated "Tinh Lot rule plac ing the ord before the ing. Ho slo Tot us now that hag {edt civil service examinations, that is family had ways twioyed favors and bounties from sbove, Jeaing us to surmise that he was related In some way to the Trinh. Scholars have SBeculated thatthe poem must have been writen under Trinh between "1682 ana 1708. ‘Moat signisiant about the author's sef-revelatons is the fact tha he spent most of his feta the coutrioe, avey trom the capital, and his poom Uoroughy elles Ms furl eclgrund, While he was scholar well versed inthe Chie ‘ese class and oo iterate bumpin, be wes for less com18 iitced to sophisticated, civilized ways than the main author Gt the BNOSDC, Pham Dinh Tosi a court offic Tis no surprise that Phgm Dinh Tod's poem proves far Jess rewarding as folk history then the TNNL. He’ docs not overlook myths end Tegends, but he treste them with a de= fochment that amounts to ccepticism or downright dlsbelet, He follows the conventional, arthodae Interpretation of such events asthe ‘Trung sates" uprising, which he attributes £0 ‘Tring Tric's personol hatred of the’ Chinete_governor, Su ‘Ting, who had allegedly killed her husband. A 9 propagand- ist for the Nguyén dynasty, he saves the harshest words for the Tay-sin brothers~and since he castgates those rebel, he must praise the Chinese military intervention against then. His siyle is thee of Confucian gentleman who happens to rte in a folk medium, scrupulously avolding any suggestion ft vulgarity oF impropriety: its known that while going over fn earlier version by someone else he expunged a reference { Lady Trita's pendulous breasts and put some harmless ll- he tn thelt place. ‘That amazon's enormously dletended breasts are very much a part of Vietnamese folk history, but 2 Tastidious Confucian setolar has vo craw a veil over them, ‘of coutse. Inthe main, the DNQSDC ean be best upprecated 8s a literary work, distingulshed by the consistent lerance ff its verse and some faches of genuine beauty. On the other hand, the TTNNL ‘represents folk history at its most exaborant: 11s popular story-telling applied 2 al- Togedly of cerefiaby real adventures and characters, First of all, we are struck by the sheer size of the poem with Its 4.068 couplets or 8,136 lines itis the longest extant. poem 1 sixceishe verse. About four times longer than the DNQSDC, it Geals with a much shorter span of history, mostly relating events [om the Héng-bang period t0 the end of the Ming fceupation. Therefore, te can devote much more space to ‘each episode than the PNQSDC. To take a concrete example, the latter lsposes of che myth of the Heaveniy King af PA fg in about 20 linesthe TNL. gives Ht full narrative treatment with 254 line Despice some glaring, gaps—no mention of LF Thudag Kiet, for examplesthe author of the TNNL uses the By Vige Ky Toan ind 06 his offical souree, but oce mich farther ‘than Nad Si Lin in borrowing from folklore as he Incorpor~ fates more than twenty myths end legends ito his history. What's more Impoctane, he completely and unreserved fdopts the peasonte' bole In those fentaste stories as hi forieal facts, In miracles as divine interventions to help them I ther struggle for survival, against foreign aggressors In co rricolar. As a true folk historian, he rejects the official ‘fon that the Trung. sisters commited sulcide by drowning Sige ter defeat by Ma Yuan: no, the two women chose to wo neaven snd became goddesses who would make rain for My Meople. That national heracs were, first and last, unsoll= AY Jawiots and saviors of the poople is an accepted principle tek istry. So, im marked contrast to the official lstor- te phen Dinh Tos, the unknown folk historian of the TNL [ils the wish to rid the coungry of Toreign conquerors as the TiS Imotive deving. Tring Tre to revolt, not the personel fire to Tevenge her husband's death. From stare £0 finish, ‘Rhecxing the folk ethos, the poem Informed with the strong Some of common identity among the native people as "folks Sith black teeth" (nguBt ring. den) In opposition vo those out- [rs those inteuders fromthe north, those Mellows with Shite’ eecth”(UhBag FEng tring. fn traditional Vietnam, tooth= Siackening was more thon a castom=ie Was an ethnic ritual thot set the Vietnamese apart from all strangers with unloe~ lMered teeth, especially (rom the Chines ‘efore concluding this briet discussion of a long poem, lee's add thae its syle ie quite in keeping with the oral tea- tition Its lines are often coarse and awkward, yet they ex- fea tremendoos gosto because they aasimllate the mast at- Uective qualities of the folk idiom, making use of colorful proverbs tnd proverbial phrases, never taking refuge In pallid Eipemisme bot always calling a spade. spade. ‘The author tise demonserates his indifference to Confucian decorum BY frewing many of his literary allusions and refercnees not ftom the Four Books or the Five Classes but from such un ‘eros, uncanonieal works a8 The Romance of the Three King~ fms oe ‘The Tso, Chronicles. For 4 while, French conquest gave a fresh impetus to folk history. ‘The end of the nineteenth century and the early part Of the wwentleth, solve with anticFrench plots and moves ments, encouraged the composition of narrative poems singing the deeds of modern rebels or recapturing the feats of ane Sent heroes ag lessons and examples to the people who had to live under foreign fale once more. But sit-lght verse be~ langed to the oral tredtiog, and when the Totter died with the offleial adoption of qube-ngit or the romanized Vietnam- tse script folk history In verse faded into limbo as Well ‘Shmbolicaliy enough, the first major work printed in qube- gi and published. around 1925 turned" out to be the novel- Ration of a bit of folk history: the tale of Mal An Tlem vo, aceordiag to Jegond, lntroduced the watermelon into the Counery. But Nguyén Trong Thugt wrote hls Work, The Red80 Melon, in prose—a sore of break away Irom the old stilted prose that tried hard to routine of verse in vernacular tg. Tone essential respect, however, The Reed Melon ca ga, the tration of fa history, Tels bo'etfor to sbiee a —s ‘snd interpre ‘what happened, but © deliberate at." tempt to\make the pst nerve the presen, to We Gn help the living. In this instance, NpunEe Teome Thug ce plolted'an uncanny ‘oincisence ‘and turned Is tates | fegory the old tale of white irs trom the west a desert island seeds that would sprout and grow and bear’ | {ruts wih a'red pulp and Black seeds: The prose wee who eolaborated with the French colonialist inlet ik, Sed those frit fo beatiful Vetamene wohen tae ally portrayed as having "rosy chooks and black tec? a "lng den). Ts, he subtly urged his compatiots on A from he ecient’ of French ral 20 ler te bet Tench civilization and, without foraking tele eo lee, Wy, produce a synthesis of anand Wess 9 eaters nat ttned to the demands of today’s worles LA FAMINE DE 1945 AU NORD—VIET-NAM gw ‘tout tempe, la disotte est appre comme une fatali- “pdivctle Sax payne, vietnaiegny murat, co (Qi pave, pour Gu le probline Gy ia" subsistance Bie Stee Given insolible. Lrextréne exigulte. oe ttations agricoles ot 16 5 Eins du favitatllnent viement 3 Gir le cultivateur n'a pas @'gparones ot n'est 'vvabei dee capriges das saisens, sitdt la fected, parfois méne alors qu'elle est encore sur fied, 1 ole, vendre Je produit de ca riziare pour ayer son “inpSt et aoquitter ses contributions comm Bier, “ant le total en veainent celta. Gu'one Heslte manque ou soit asticitaive, que ses réserves felent. épuledes cu aétruites, soo. animaux de travail ‘Sie on décings pur l'eftet ‘des privations auxelies Tie mtgenappent ‘pas plus qie lui, I'infortuné ne mange plus fsa fain Gt ce voit contraint, pour 1a calmer, Gajaiter & tne ration de riz qui diminue. chagse Jour Juricots, gatates, grachides, plantes, racines. diver fee insacves veriés, etcws. Or, tres : Gre’ snondatione, dos ‘tysbons;, cu ‘des séchoressos a5- fsent les récoltes sur des Stendies parfoss consid tables, Le progessus de la fanine ost alors enclenché. fhe suite de Ivaction spéculative quientratne 1a péoa- aa se, une {dure mibite, so conerétisant ear une hausse S2elajlonone, “stempare “Qs pei du ts, La soul ine {stion, cui ‘est 1a régle pour les classes “les nolns Entities, clest-Aaice lat partie’ ls plus norireuso EF iPipopataelon, attoune bilntée age Soult. critigues sc, “polne rebustes “maurent vite. d'inanitiony tarde fe, cmaseés des carpusmis par 1a faim, des indigonts hsane on fouio wore les chafo-lisix’ doo’ provisozsy rion sange moins mal quatilours. ta porealies Ge encore egstavde pac" I'spoarition slimltante @'épi~ Guicn, Gary salle peplique mas exclusivenat Setmoindve séalstance A cortaines maladies Epiasniqus Eales “gin “ie. choléra. ole typiusy. la) Senutriticn pt on facteur susceptible de provaquer’ une plus grants Slepeivitd be plus, elle attaiblit In defense de organiene contro beatocyp 82 mlndies safecticues. ‘Crest autour doo années 40 que le spactre de 1a wine guette plus particulidrenent’ In” population fdcviotnesteme, Dans la périoae. 1936-1553, des Groniations consécutives ax ‘ruptures Go" digues “se iisent sane interruption, SSrastart: ancien Tonkin freaqio tot eobler er Isyt, atte année lly las hait Eovinces do Blcwnithy ‘Sie“glans, den, thing-yeny Riarpinn, “Sanetly, Thg-thp et Phle-yen compet. ties sedles 451.050 ‘mu de Sizidnes necoswerten par fee aan et pote dium million de aimistsés, tev poctes se) chiftrent 4 10,990.000" plastres indochinoisese langue dane lea i sous-prétectes dela provines Ge akernink, environ 20.000 payasne attanks. cont Saute Sia ‘endicltd, in nile’ temps, le cholare Bit ses ravages, Ogre son tunbro cate ah 30 nownee 183), "le Journal’ Titng Din Sinenbre 8965 cas G'intoce ton, dont 266 nortele, depuis lapparition de 1épi- isis Junqu'l tn fin ds ote Ge novenre- vais cect 1a grands fanine de T'amée St-afu (1945) guy Jbar gon amples sxceptionalie, semble svoie ‘ort’ d'une, manitre sndfidbila In nésoise au onple. Ti slagit’ d'une catastronhe eftroyable, ayant cauoé, Ggeirait-ony, de 1-500.000" 8 2,000,000, victimes “anese Yasteene 194d" ot” I'hiver 1985," at dant. le’ corte Ge nisttes phyeigues aed alsrit on ces tomes halla nants par in toooin feangate en avril 18 E™sa ‘urain). ven ront eo. file daterninable par factties, vielllards, enfants, hoanes, fen Mane de ‘ost Leur”squelette laisse ay ie84 chet es jeunes filles a 2"age od ta puleur te" souttre“nocune' infractions” Sarsétant dy feope "en tenga pour ferner “les ‘yeur de Wen feo" lears, tamd6" pour ne" plus’ so relever,, oe pour Te dépouitler o\queiqse hadllon snnemabie gel, purfolay te. recouvre” encore, A Wolr eet formes! himsines” pls hideuses que’ e plus. 254g dee aninauy, vols cee cadavets’recroqevs fav" bord de chemin, ‘Wrayant poor sétenente et pour Lincout “que quelques brine de patiie, os hogte Ge I'eapéce humaine? Be os Sotnes atrocas engendtées pir 109 soutfrances lune population. plewée per lee ‘peivations dang Ie éecepois Ig. plus nolt vont longtemps hanger" inagl fgire ces dctivaing. Elles one feumi a un sul fing 1 meiSre de” on secs) lara vd Site TWonfer "et ia fouryaise", 1946), Gtr encore. tne pinzaine dlecndes ‘orgs, 8 on ade, ea colle de ago récit ‘rank Bi tran ang (Enenbee", 1358) Be can HS cs Se Dig Tes tee du TBE (ected ri) de, 1945, 2"apoasi— DiLtDs ap cireonsarire 1°Stenioe Gu déaste eat pas Fue éyidante, alors quo I'ccogation, japcnaise ek Tsp évdnnents do goons ant cn dos conditiong elles sutelles actevent de. corpronettre ieniectiablenent the éecnonie § bout do scuttle, be lngay, le directeur cmmercial des Gustornages du‘Tokiny PMA. Besuchosne, Govait Goria le 12 octobre 19452 Lerreer commise pout te cin de 194b, et ete voit bed Gritke, "St est, probable gue tes gens uve de la fain on fberier (1905) seratent sores on moi, car's! étsit inposstble de faire Tevir les 300/080 tonnes qui ont anquds? Dea, bien des arnfes avant le Aéclenchenent do 4a guerte du Pacifique, de graves signes de degradation se sont ranifestés dang l'éooenie agricole de ia Gereleseptentriontie Go Vietan, lego. traduisent Ya fois par une diminution ela surface caltives en riz et, par une baisse de sa production, Second bys. de "L'iiochine profuctour “de "riz, derciére Ia Cochinehine, lo. Topkin fournissait dang une. année rmyenrs, pour la ‘pérlose ge 1919-81922, "2.100,000 fennes de" paddy (riz nen dcortigué) pour ine” surkace cultivée do 1.540.000 hectares. Mais, 3 partir de {bao, lee ehiftmes de prosuction woot’ s!inscrire. en Tnisser sprée 1957, la situation se astériore franche- pent Surface cultivée ea riz Paddy récolté 1937 1.230.666 1.606.297 1938 11372°505, 9sa-aar ise 11487000 18822200, 1943 1386000 17762000, 194d 12427°000 12680000, cotta récession s'explique, & Lexclusicn des fac~ tours ettra-Goonamiques tels gue Tes accidents clina- ESques, par une réjression constante dela. productivi— [2 fee “auite dela. stagation de la teduticue agri Coley le renenent 4 l'heotare a reomlé-de1J,6,quin- fox’ do padiycen 1930 8 13 en 1939 ct 12 of 1984," Or, te déricit do L'apport ‘Tizicole tend & s'accusor scant plot que ia) populaticn ‘tenkinoise “augeente fegulldrenent, “sraccroiseant’ au rye de 100,000 faiscances qicdentaires par an: 19 nenbre des habi- fants du Bfo-Vigt est ainsi passé 26,700,000. en 1936 8. 9.851.000" en 1944. Ia production do. paddy par tite dthabitant ou Tonkin’ diainuc done. snsworablanont: Clie tobe 3190 Kilogranmes en 1942, 100g en 1943 SHA70 kg en 1944, On eat loin de 1a ration moyenne spate 3, Valinwtaticn d'une personne Ear’ oy Evalue 2 300-337 ky 0 pad. fon agricole Footant neltemnt en arrifve ds 1 Qotsvenent, daogeas ‘Phique, ln popilation, en dépit dest caltsres complemen Eiiies, vie dla linite de a micSre. Il faut, pour Atsyret $a subsistance, falze appeal au riz du Sud. partir do 1941, la situaticn alimentaire est plus en plus tourdinent typothéquée parle drainage Ge ‘ia production des rizi@res iniochinoises vers 10 ‘pon, ‘Cimypize ax Soleil levant, dont les bosoins ‘en riz a0 font de plus en plus’ presente & mesure (qv ‘ses armies développont leur action sur des terri- Wires plus vastes co plus dloignss de" leur mse de Sépart, ‘obtient en effet, en Schanve do. son endgenant PPrespecter "ie souversineté frangaise sur’ 1" indo- Chine"; non seulement de s"implantar’ militatrenest au Tonkin et en Indochine du Sudy mais aussi de s'assi~ ts86 Fer ane part préponsérante des Gchanges extériesry G0. W'indochine, “Gotta airsisa du Japon" sur leg Sat sources vitales de I'tndochine entraine. une modifien. lon profonde de son Sconcnie, Par aulte Go i'l {son “des "comnications réguligres avec. la Frame, les inportations s*effondrenttapidenent, tants ea] faut faire face ax exigances Japenaises en ce gat conoerne Te els of et autres prentven, St diate part. tower. une solution a l'approvisicenmmet ace Produtts mnufacturés quien digit fos accords coment igure orem oVarcive pan 9 founir™ nuns suffisantes. “Tour “pallicr’ L'imixtion japoise ‘et les effets au déséquilite Sconcmaque, Ie geavernens général “de Windochine, l'amiral boco, tented, Staurer ‘un airigisne "Gonanique consistant en ure ploonten SA vatican on Sickie toujours plus Strott de la production ot des . avec 1a création d'organianes urs, comme pat exemple le Conité des Giréales, Etabli an, doses 1342 et dont ‘'organisne dexgcition agpelé Comtols Ges CExGales exerce le poncpole do l'achat dee récoltes de padiy.” An fur e€ S mequre que diminuent les test souross, "une réglanentation restrictive est Elifice gui interdit. lee Libres transictions sur dee prodises ge plus en plus navhreus ot en subocdonne 1 "utiliaatice une autoriention administrative. LHnterventicn arbitralze du ‘Gouvernement colonial dgns I'éconnio. rurale du Tonkin se fait, dale Tar Lobligation imposée aur paysans’ da faire dea cultures Sedystrielles, "parfols ay ditrinnt des. cultures sie yrieres. Cost Ge quo L'anizal Dosoux qunlifie "a'adeee tation "do Lageiculture indochinoise - pratiquamest axd0 “Jusgue-ia vers la mnoesiture (padiy ct eats) 2m gilgenoes nowylies do. 1a polyaulture’ 11 stagit lgvelopper inmédiatenont et rapidement” la caleare Ges plantes textiles, afin do aurpléer 4 la panarie Ges tissus, cotomaass ‘et coteries, be nfm, iarrée tgtal de ‘L"inportation des hydrocarbures et lears Srivés rend nécessaire la culture intonsive des plan ‘eo olfagineses, afin do. pamettre la fabrication es huiles, carburants et lutrifiants de remplacamne 4 ascayey le trangprt let le tealtenant™ doe Bro ts, sont confide 3 des captoirs, organisnes Prive Stroitenent “contrélés par "administration. “in trois ans, ln superficie par les cultures inustede Clits a plus qe ‘au Tonkin, passant da 16.650, 8 pectaces on 1942 8 2.546 Dectares en 1948 (pou 110 Se. tout entitra, elle est de 88.200 ha en guest? ha en 1944)31° & Superficée coltivée (en ha) Jou 1943 tous Coton 1.000 3.199 2.990 see 3000 181200121593 ante So ios ea krachide 5.000 4.600 4.809, Rein 8.300 14900182477 Stone 100 "25440 ‘3.219 te mega tee tt tiie tte regenera Sate oe, tees tte Pe ee Sut etl cea’ Gite seb, Smee it le mais, chassées des terres favorables, ee aan cere ee coetasemrs pe ete ar eet on ee Fe ele nea ee FS, See SS SS Seen eames octet oe Pe ee el ati, elle Oe ee same ie eit atte stots et, des résultats meilleurs que ‘cette annie, sons cosa nee nic St mecha as, ce eee See ia cea shes Soca 2 ce Sree oe ae ae al ae BEL PSE aah Sela act Sanneacché,, toute velLéité de panique os de mesure Elser! Far conséquont, Ain fin Ge 1942, 1s eee supérieur ay Tonkin éeide d'ioposer’ aut vill Invconstitution de rénorves de (aaiy, "proportional i - yabies Bla" Tvraison' mn nine tomo “gurelie xestre Ge mantire acaconieme la” Libre eistulaticn dea te et padlys entre les diverses provinces, nord.vie eset § Ivintérieu de chactne delies, Vadniniate Eion"‘coptraint le obltsvaeaur A Livier’ une "perc de sa récolte, ab prorata des’ superficies cultivecst ip Tonkin elt ainsi fournic, au cites des livraise cbuigatotves. do flay 130;208" tones on 1913, TBE fernes on 194%," Cag riquieitions Ge ris" officte prix Stposé, cependant, ne font pas entret on Lig Ge" cnpte Ia’ tausse des cote do production: alt fue IV indice a cult dela vio a plus gue triplé ert 1340 ct. 1963, lo pete officiel “d'actat Gat padly T 12 prediction, gprte me’ unique ot faible’ maoretia on 1941, nla Ste relieve que de" 258 environ eh 13 Elles ‘censeitsent donee” chasge. derasante pout is Population qui, en cas de muvaise récolte, ext. cbligét your effoctuer ‘cep Livraieons acheter’ Gu ie ae Tenarché dep peix Libres bemcowp. plus leer Ws autorités, ‘ndanmoine, ne smmblent. pas s"apercertt Gee nifalee i setioe, Yo réaidant epdrieur on Tein Se. félicitait inal des ‘bannes Gispositions de mmsso, Je 13 nal 1944: = ‘emonee du prochain prélévenent, our Ia récotte duo aois nfo pos sowievé de reactions. fiche: Ses. 11 aura ‘certes un peu de tirago ats Liveaison mais sone gravieé, Es récoite et anoenee royenne,” Je. pense ‘pouvoir obtentt ‘Les “80.00 Connea,prévues'et-nvotr pour le dewéme senestie Sn ravitaiitoment sufCianne,t7 Pourtant, mine "sane ces contraintes intolésables, 4a situation Gola paysannerie terkinolse ‘est. dover plus. que penile. ia. reduction dea en, Era lBleabe des ressuutoen oe txafasoont par un abet quilibre croissant du marche du riz, la. spéculatin St Loscalade’ dos prix. action da contrSie des. pt be fait le plus sowent’ que sanctiomer une hnukat Ge Vadninistration ne peut @viter."* Cleat “guter Sttet Te" gonflenert de Ta cinoslation fidvetsise, fassée. de 255 millions de" plastres le. Yer” janviet 3940 plus de 1.00 millions au ter janvier 1965, 69 06 une montéo scardnleuse do tous lee. pete , GAUI Piotiatien ford purtieulibewrane pechihs= dete las ble mak 19H, eaminstraticn E08 rvinite in ‘onmcmetion indivsaualie Fis, 22 rent an hilar par Jour on période romale, Pickles, quaseite Gia coneiaérée comme Ingurtl” 38) Srom94, ‘cette ration doit encore etre reduite rte: aa Sto gragmess, Liextension du marché noir Sion at al Wet ce Same te ta al lait $e oer ea Ted Ritomrssens es 1040 so or 600 2 te dat do 1565. z paste motion se complique avec larrét des epports fit ah Tecate de euivenie eur pessina Tes Seen eee Sees tar eiate pce us "SSS" bemkarGonmts ceions infligent So wosee Pee semeeagee tare ot au matériel roslant fe ecactlons apbtteo! en 195, fe tinkic ferro ONE RSE peatiguenint ineertongs entre. Ssiacn MIME Oty alors que 0 Gu nanan rovtier soak endor agi a et nis ah om DN eee ta a ce, ee Sree, ey ae arr mite sein oes eee ee Ce cite Se gee, i eee ae ele ee eee ce Je eee ee intel ed Dice, ot eee et cine Se ee, ee See in ae ee et ltt d'ume région & l'autre, au point qu'une scissicn ocono- ae pen 3 so 2 eee ee ip ee ore ee eran Bea edt aia wae ors tn eee ee i ee cee ewan nt ee ete nrg eee Se ret eee Ba MO es an te ware anc eee, mee eect Seg eel ie ee Ba a ae mle sa te a a Pager de ivordre de 154.000 tcenes par ramport1 He ase eas oe ae ae ae Sow caramel ee eo a See ete SE seeder tn Seem ee OS ates “pyeane FE EIS eclcteet fore oe ectiet SS aa 1S Sion s sore PEat constant de déperdstion de chaleur a Rleceur te mortalite levée pour de pavvres gene diapés dons de nisérables ‘deo dam de riz, or le froid 810 ues Legis, ow Site neurent provinces de tan-dinh, ‘Tfi-blnh, iba Rkinebtnn se. teonvect pari les plo nat une population de 1.259.738 personnes que chit, Gar province de fan-djshy oh estine en avril ES ga7.127 Le nombre dos fans iques.© 138 Covenne, quoditieme do 3.154 personnes, mortes| Bednar de frold au coite de Lhiver ans les deur Ge Sinoee de Nan-diah. et Thai-bioh; vers le milieu Fert toss, le nombre dea victimes y aurait atteint aNfotal’ effarant G2, 467,000." L'eftroyable calansté Sent auc enbl et iki-phiong des’ croupeaux dat anes; faiat Sm pieaie dy Toriein, on raraseo chaque jour cman sotiante-die cadavres recroqvevi és {Te tong des trottoirs. Te Moomité tankincls de soccurs (man Ch-t8. Bc~ sot ree des le 22 janvier 1985 pour ven Rho Six reocositout, 12 18 mars 1945 se fore 1'Ass0- Ugpion” Gentrale des oeuvres d'assistance sociale (f@egcagi od tB) qui prend on main la direction de IDPEEee contre Ia_misSre chaque jour grarsissante Lagainisteation premd quelgues. nesures, | dégrevant Geog aa agotone sinistréee dela réqulsition do Tig iticiel & pri ampocd, procédant 3 des distrib »)we ee ee HG arcu. ce Sores, atime tage 4 ore pl oa Se Rear get Aas Sea {ihe Be Ue pe enon wa, Se a Pe ae rd 2 Satie ole pe Sete Some Socks ear ge ti i cles det 5, Moe rick eg ie, Peis how om 3 on Gy Se most de 195 (la soperticie Gente do 1a she on ToS a . ee cM et cm, ie Seid fe me SRS HRT Re Se Soren inde dare cele lige Seiad Latmert Se ei te ead Seam le acy omer Spee ine canes Se oe opie Prien, de pees gue ert ite soca ees amass ex, ty tee Piece ome Sa ee eat a Serr elia Sais ie sialncnts Se hiner lite og prin mat ale tlogammess” lev peie dy ris 3 Bendij2* la hausse roe lope 6.00 Fi 8 Real ioe Ye quintal 2 la mi-nai” O'autres mesures ‘Ge cistae ee ee eee ee SERS I See eae pre ee Sra et cea Sh Sue moma Pulaetog oe ates ea svleentig, Se 1s ion ok, Bc eee soem cre Ge on a ee 1g ae Sees aie Ie creme LAE ihe) aS ee eo le Sine wee 2 ore, eave ee SUS sc pee meee, at Seeker peceel a Se 2 Sea Se ee ee eee aoe ee eee hear eS Tae eee % avis mnt et, ie we austen toe ote os, Pa iii er ee Soe eer Oe ele Tenn oe eet neat Grae eae ee ee st A ee eee a el Pe rene ates visant a Gelteteure ets partant, toute hausse artitic = cas aes at i ie gels a “eu cot, ae co ee, emt, Ta: & ‘Se bus, de, deciliter, Je ravitaillenent des Zeeiculiers, mais aucune société, aucune collectivite renics, Teie oe tts i, nasi Se ge a teat a Sit, oe Bila al oy ect Src a tates See, mem, 1 MON a fice stfaue eo veins oc, Soe ee Setter ee ee a os Se Sie oe og oat rth oan a eed feta 1 oe leer eae a eat Ae acl 4 Sas Stee face pr ta, oP cette ae ee aa Slama ge Seon Pes ee Se ie hag doe See id ect Oh ee Tse ee ee eee NU, eg ees ee So a en line es es ee St ie es ons ip pnsen oat Bob, SiR ad ME oe 2 jer avec les autorités japonaises en cochinchine pag he ie Bee eae GS Se ansport do TMomigetion. dian million Se, pfeassiteus 3 ok cu Trung. ecmpléter sea, monures de Lutte avarnemeny OH Py oevbte da $0 juliiee 1945 inst SI tne? gpa les pence avant we mo Se rea sre lassie ot aoe tg Pee SN a Soistance. an Bibbs ekson Set Cama Se prams, So erarbient Pep Ag "EUE masse oes caotrioter 8o ord, ts véritable élan de solidarité nationale prend flncey gull ge “conerétise pat la” creation “ain Grits contzal G2 Secours. aux nécossitau au ool du Vidt-tiag & fi, ot d'un Oomieé d'entraide aut sinise és u Blo-bp 2 Saigon. Dos. fonds sont recuet lis, des" chargenents de riz de collecto sont tranoportd far Jonayes et par charettes A fourane oud Palfer Pils 40 18 au nor, Ti “got “incontestable que ces diverses _ncsures, corjugules avec. nm ‘certalne acento qu'outorsee is entrée de Ja'noissoa au Se mots, pexmettont de ratrea fer ln situation, au woine pour Un temps. Si des fileg 5, miséreur so pressent encore, mais. moirs longues (quiauparavant, a "certains poines de distribution de 1h ‘soup pepulaire, le prix du riz sibit une baisoe sensible: Sle mi“juin le quintal de riz ne. ccdte lus que 260 piastres mur Le mach do -nBl.™! Gott ‘blioration, "un auteur” frengais ad Tadwtere, ‘len qu'avec quolgue Spit: a asciote fun reldiesenent de L'effort dea Ainaattes. qui coneinuenty‘crotent=i1s, 4 asgurer ie. Favitatttenent dee provinces iv not, "ts Hstribution de nos stocks par les Japonate, a récolte de mai 1945 ainsi qu'une intensifica” Elon des troneporee du ai al" nord por’ deo we- farce Sacaee gon nou Warton ps fu Yeast fre, apportent ane abondance passagére. qui explic que cette impression. Le but est renpli. ot les Anganites en arrivent A penser trés secievsenent ‘wits goat nies pour tre un grand peuple. *? le ‘épit n'est copandant que de courte durée, Lape proche dea saison’ es pluies arporte’ de nowelles Xngutdtudos, "tn Comité pour la provection et 1a" cure elllance dis digues eet or6 "avec four thche Tonge: {sation do la défense des barrages Se rotenve pendant In période des ‘crues, Came pour oonjurer le. feuvals| sort, une exposition aur les digues et leur protection ouire le 30 Juttiet a 1a Matson de I'thforsat ion a Mics ony et Te von ay grog 4 no vigliance ans relicho, los aiguee seroné Amin de. pre es. récoltes des avoges. causés par les. inontstionss ‘mn vaine dans, 1a Gawiitae quinznine d'acit, des pluice aiiuvienes s'abattent sur ies versants Gos tleuves qui srentlent rapidement pour “attoinsre a iengiy Te 20 du mois, is cote de 12,68, la plus forte Sanais 95 gone, D'imortantes prices souvent, dane Te sésga SE Rigen im whic gut glen a'tze mp BEE dee VEmeyeny lian, sina ot” thi blah a & ‘ "330.000, niente tae, “Tiucnaatien came See See athe lar te ap cepeéemteralt eer, ton’ de pSky. ia siete ae ee ee ed Ses Talc” ioe litle oe FS tats ans cian econo OEY 1S EP cenencoy comprensteant. par Ld nae Les me BF Seco Se Se tatty oye Gengith Gascen oe sees TS genta Seca Sp Loe era ia tain seems HSS tee prameiee Sia edcolte do ris) en coura ete use catteine Clgion tea weber tes tae ac done: tes rues chaque. jose. La pire owen Aston 1S"ponite Stone ee dase $B athens ete See oe ea ete tte enn inpuisance 2 so Si Ee inp tl a et aS enc ot wom ened at Seem ge woe lela OS BE, Titian SET so."cabien im lefrets (ote ait Cajact_ntegifie "iors scivices sagen pentia aeeaire fe tat comm ar Sicadecty at tte come in foxes police aan comlaee. : BOM SO eivitée_ principales as vigtticn es alte niaticabicn de ys a goiee Se tee ete, tos cen, tog 2m fa Mo tin callie forte av Jute Set, ene Oe ae ie tate le angers SF Spe fas eal te ooo oe ae nt ett orien Be Saree Ss Ae ee ce met 19 tatge Sr lata’,% vers 1a préparation du soullvenent général pour "ibe rer le faye du. jouy des inpérialiates frangate Japonais", Lorequ'ay lendemain du coup de force age ais Go 3,mare ‘1945 lls inventorient lee "oonist Crjectzves" que congnete ia situation, les air Gu Vige-wint cxpptent la famine, cause do la “haies (Gos nassos 3 1'egard Goa armées d'ocoipation Gil sian, bproprient le, riz pour leur propre ueage, al -nerbly Ges" trois “"ocmasions favorables" 3 lvorgani G0 la price préliminalze Ala sévolution, les autres “tant Ja crise politique qui Lie ‘les mit ‘auc Frangais ot aux Japonais, ot L'imninence 3 dlbar Guinentailié en Indochine avec I'entrée Ge la guia du Bacifique dans sa phaso aécisive.!" Tl n'est pee fexagéré Ge dire que los cumunistas dornent & Ia famine ‘ino: place prépanérante dane leur stravagie polities fet que la ‘cangwgne endo. sur Ia lutte contre la fain, ‘lus permettant co pranire 1a tkte d'un veritable tou! iment’ de la population, oxplique pour une large part accession du Vigt-Minh au pouvalr, Crest parm Te populations rurales gui ont particalsarenant’ soutfers ict ia pela eaie io Le Vigtokinh s'erpare “sans coyp fSrir du pate ans les jours. qui sulvent Ia capitulation du Jaen Je 15 aol 1945. La République dlaocratiqie du Vige: Nan est’ proclanée1a_2 septate, Four le nowesy fgouvernanent, le problane Gein sibeistance ‘constite, Ta grams Sprewve de force: deca capacité § vainere 1a famine va Gepandre sa exéaibilité, Las mots ordre intensification dela production", "pas un” pou ge terre incalte, pas un bras oisit™, of une canpege Gestinge au développement do ‘la prodiction vivre sont lancés, ta’ famine est. place, avec’ I’analphabt- Eleie “et Tinvasion, parm “les enwmis qu'il” fait Plus de. deux eillvons de nos compatriotes, nése dans “les régions “Tes plus prodactives,, sont forts de faim Le fanine, apros avoir’ fauchd ep deux Ciera de 1g population de Nan-djah, Tabs-bioh, “iene, MELGWdog, etesy a dresal 7 a Sas gi ae ee tide PES Se tee sath tn es maa! SoG Sght teens Si ee ne tia ee crore cute foraae et Shame stfiaane. “Le 19) Septembre 1246, le _oféral eee geatae cont Tabi Socrates [tee en L'ebsence de techniciens frangaia, désor ti et Maas der gat at alte nnaanite teste de nous ep faire endoaser ue: 1. Lea Japonais bone consommateurs de riz ont on outre aphcull eur cotte denrée ot dilapidé ao stocks pour la soudite, 700 Ore"ite Japonade one dtminué Jo. surface des riatbten to. loponsnt. i la place deo. culture MESS ireo" a Wer cttort de puorrey_ cotamont = 3, La récolte des derniers mois de 1944 eat deja dbticitaice de 200,000 tonnes 1. lbs Frangais bvineto ne purest Jonsis extcucer “eo propranses’ Go. aecoar prévaoy Geant SEeplocle “part leo aponaia’ ou des Annanites Tetapletorse Anat. te famive eat dovense trapi- Sefer WoUtin aveits it eee néconsattesussi de dire que le Gouvernement francais a pris des nesuros pour apporter’ sane. dial 4% Fiz" aux population y “Tonkin. qui est enack Gone nouvelle famine, fii En résumé, est bon a Stre diffuse tout ce" "Gui imilite en “foveur’ de notre retour dase fe pays et pernct de fatre choc A 1a propagane Quien “esti "de 1a situation & la fin de 19457 Le ViGt-Minh affimme que, pour Iensenble du territoire plaoé’ sous le contréle dizect da ‘1a République, Gésccre: Eique Gu vigesvam, la ‘réoolte d'hiver do 1945 28 faite dans Gs botnes conditions et celle au Se mol ge 1946 a obtena une ‘natte atswantation par Taoport J Maventguerre. ta quantité de vivres cbtena gil @quivaut 3°2.582.000 tomas pour la periods d'avant- (guerre, a pomig de noutralieer a “famine. “Tl est impossible de vérifier 1a wéracité do. ces “chiffress Nels il n'est pas cartain quo le triemphe de 1s revels ‘Hon sur le fain aurait pu Sere agsuré sana les’ efforts faits yar. les’ Francais pour ravitallier Ie ‘Torkin fen riz environ 20,000 tonnes par mois pastir de powenbre 1945""'-, car il fallait an cutre noursir es 200.000 horrias des troupes. chinolese »chasaées Gu désamenent japonais au rord du ‘Tée parallsle quis de plus, pillasent le pays en achasinant sur la ching Iationaliste tout ce Guile poweient enlever, Qual guiilen soit, af la situation alimantairo reste tfeic elie, ‘Tes gers ne meurent plus de fain as peinteaps fe Thee. Ge serait assurénent une erreur fordatentale que 0 considérer la. famine de" 1944-1945 come un facts Primordial crdant les conditions @'instabilité inilst Pensable’ aux caministes ‘vietnaniene pour mettre en lace leur structure politique tvolutionnalze, 1 inci Genco, de cette catastrophe aur i'éolution witérioire des Evéngronts est copendant indéntablo. ta. crainte Ge sn récurrence a laillours’ année’ vigt-Minh ottre en vellleuse, remantantnent, 28 politique de lutte contre le "fécdaliane”, Zl faut attending 1959 Pour voir le début ‘de Dapplication. dela. réform agraire radicale qui dovea anener l'Glification di 0 Thy la apace Sarena seta Lag tian done 1s peenilce woitié cu XIKe fer iletin de In Solel tee Cues Inicraios, te Rit st), pee 822, ee speek pot Dy Le Vitti sctalshe~ ie fern Se, tients Svs reer (MEN), cw Nos se x Frangatse. Part oe Sere et es ea ra 11 (1965-06). Sunset, te to Cm 2) subuiee ae ei Mor tno eri oo Smt 1 iy cation sgpst nd 7 eet Tae Fh in ar, men omar, SS, ten th Vetrninny or 2h erty ele de Te fms aes Eee Cran id, G's ote 38. ‘vas. re se 10, fs tina zor a ees as ms top yo at TEES STs ae aaTHEY STARVED, THEY STARVED... (061, 261...) Bing BS tn102 Nip Me fu hing bay bn ghd ats Gigng tee-HEng age tka ike dau’ enténg ning Chdy ma ehbe thas d&y gang PAL Sof ave’ tnbag dln tan ve Mes, 261 ty afc-aiang d6i_vé mandi 461 S’enaicbinn d62 tei Gia ida kodp duns fh ahitng xéc 461 xan nin, rong mang lfa, trong byi 1dm co quép. geal en es SEE Heege fgg on tds bp 28 Sh ath, Bir aade bet Engae Be gps oem ge ude an den x oo! xdgha df, mé h6p,lai, ring hin sfu.géu-ghise, Gia tye Gai traf khng cdn phan biét, hip aig mhau nt 18 nhdng thay nay ere ae (staph Baa he Eon na aan ipa, ar deep OSH ThE, miesey ce SAR ey eng, ign ode Pee SST SED LE Buh Sho. cater eae EaTngaMge fe Get Sa Ele peng 80 S91 BBS woe. abe Bike eg ants nim 8 s0ng SNe 261 ut nfe-giang 464 v8 Ha-nés 361 Sonai-binn'dst be ciara, RL ven ding apiing niin mg n-tndy dict ding ely Obng cul Stunted tbe, 6 'nlin ng Gud gong Ero ngivcbe, mii'néi'tanh nOngnfe khap khStg-gian. wos nenenber that third month, the yeer htaéu. She Ige-tfhg race eulured ite direst woe Te atlgase fottered romming Toads and strc, hen dropped from hunger not to rise again. ‘ey starved fron Bfo-gigng to Bindi. dey starved fron Meee to of. ong «1D highs fanisbed totes mnned, ‘ying curaed’up La oay in dust ent ithe HN hese raga th hollow syen one iT harsones spar of goal Been to outs Seat eras would Tonily weve end rope ann SOE Eo"petep ae at yor could a eee Soci ife latch of tuted, navied iz, Beiter of aani-gry sin veafped up the alle, Soot jutted grist like’ shoe on cont -nexde Ssh ccdhed doty otteakn against tm sien chon. SE'SEINy sur efor sonny young from old Ein loded The cane an ccbpoea Tork the ney ‘the ekeletans ith soe kin stilt clinging’ on, Hse‘ ot doath though not quite dead 88 ets Hvan'n'wesrd roms eit ond fey debe Gat tanned the etoach, pave the trie stench wuld hot Ieave you Mt Paine You Set opll pour appetite for many mento.) ‘foo sores one by one would slaepy extze Ttpoanl in twloeel snapes vith senting ee Sea Topo there Fonaines trate of tourey Fes wuthe sump a5 if an? oxyane pete Sone Ballon, Goed for daye, ootia’st211 180 © GEIS, Ales’ sur all the sore weals scar, ab Tony ty the fed, «os would offhand {RES "tatow gravee 20 Say thom an bake. starved from to Hiengi. By tint tain coli: Soatterod along the read, those sveret,tonbe were marked op riotous uals, fy swarming £1! Buch corpses ae interred pot deep enough fexhaled a fetid odor ell through epaces104 Seu, v2i ten mga ndge xi chan chan, at'ehit Hsing tis pmo chi sder Tei Ha-n6i cling nh pao ffnh khéc, Sees dpe tal face ood fot Sas Ces SES, EnvongoBE abe ooesege ere SEL BS Byted fon Soar coat 7 Sane) Hoovenlle So Sudha s Te SRE, meats daniel nbs Aeett nfs te. Has MSSSSECAEME Manse oh” eee fay chad tay ay tin nghe een 35 el wal Bay 20 TS ASS ES, fa eb cue ang chy aguoteeee Boop SE tan teh gin spin abs gah chan 2a cpgk Sah SF * dige TP day bing sae che erudng-xuyén, IB angaty bey "cie of afc "audh ch@t! ch8ti ch8t! Hai tridu ngwdi a3 cnt ip 12 ghdng nguOt gut nop nade vise, Bo Bits nEue gut non ne ge Eagan ie HE selag Ue 46 nude, Vide 390, vi mé-n6i ho dé. Nin fy, thud ake, ‘Tay cigg 46-n8 Het ga rdj, hag seach cd khoai ngé; Be hs EES Ange tee Sh fae bed She oho te cio daoh DS Be Seitraeh mate ee saa, ye aho-aiang 45s v8 wi-n8s, a: Monarcbinb'aai cbs Gia kas, Tam bigt qué-hudng, 18 gt Gy-tnée tién rhi-sge nop nto dvong ddt mide. ‘ing gia-dinh adevafu nnau 18 bude suoe showers drenched their rotted flesh ard bones, SSovering then to stree thou hore and there. Tnging the’ Sail of cides, the stench of tells, Tetons doe Song ast start ox mo. ifaw you'd gingerly posh your door jar AS GhoaeSt there wee cenoone. dead cutelao. Hos'Sorclngy oxcarte sneaking on thelr whasle Didi arin and pick those corpecs UP og stackel in hoape ike gertage dump, ig Git fvor each would sbioe sone bonesdry 1ohe aeranty era, ail efron, black and luo, Silver av de fimiting in the el SPeving for your notice, for Srald hots a shat? of breath ot [ogy stir of gasps, Ad tanry ey Setahaa‘humcs fury lsnane not guite dad. Fir suburbe opened row and sors of graves, Shich vorpees soon would F11) without a break, [nt clonde of flee would darken all that land, Shey died and Giei—two millien poople died. betp. throb with 26, ‘hey a11 ware sont end daughters of ViGt soll te tatored bard on rise oF sanioo fields” Fico grev_se lush ani green because they'd eveat {Hotnes Lived off the aveat thoy cared to shed. het year, wien both the Fronen and Japs ruled us, oth Wied’ tn robbing us of all our rice, he rica all gone, went yan and nelze a3 vell, then went cagenvm roote, banana Toots, Hothing to nibble on before next crops then finger burned thotr stomchs, they would chew Groce spethe oF dickvoed, swallow’ tray, hey starved-—and wild wont tanana Tor they starved Iey starved tron Ble gia to Hof. : ey Seed Aaa RESSA fo Ghalas, ‘hey left thetr land ant quistly dragged thee heels all through the country wandering back and forth. ole fanfliee provied together as they hoped106 ou Tee Lennie Soe ots cup vad Hidn thang nda sf héi-ci sf stng. Wig ae ETE EB: ee dete & BP Wa, Se g2"2, $8 BR, SEES Be a ngs fu dung x5" chge | Ging Lie By, cling txén tng eGn-r8, tOns doan xe chuyén-chd ghee yang e26h, théc cla dan den, théc cla nhiing nguoi dang enStdds vl’ engecain cay Phbee megs chdng: guy phn vane sat nayenste, gh ching don a8! age nae Crone bios Sts "dau thidyg, chda elng_ thdy bap gle, rong 'lgch=s¥ chia. bas 919 Cie ot Nag raga ngudt, vt ehve-diny ite oB Lbs, tabszas conn Sty Geet, daa thugs, ong le day’ dehg bat-ngde, d qué hades, ifr bapeaie taser fends carttg 2B Ui" trba"hae’ wang 00 Sp 8p bel, carsngdo thon blo hau a SePves hrs gut Gi Kping v8 nay thay’ 811 Ii "nda gue, chkeg cBn al 38 Meiers Ta nhG mit 064 th’4-K den UBL. Gign idm ano gr idi TA Sha thy, So HG sae Se ag Guan sao age’ at Cogent SHEP" 26s, My at 38u thing ba, aon ane aft Sibeg tac uel ae CL Lae nadng, hing thay ma thBt-tnél day dung, r8t ng abe Rhbng doe dete 281 ty Bac-giang 464 vé Wa-ndi, G5 ovmhai-pinn d3i tOL Gia tas. Tg alent) 107 eee acai mint, tet ee cr Sri Gaiters Bebe Be ae ae hae fe eae ela eee BEAN La wera sats eambile, along thove selfeane busy roada levaye ot ‘rocks would carry golden Flee, the grain fren peasants eho deta starving’ thon, Bo Grain coloulaliste bad cobbed ten of. Fert ot that paddy woald be squandered off, Epi in warehouse part of st vould aprile I, soe of woes, wine nen hd naver Eornoy thie ou the aden tev bad oped ‘Re nillion people late ehe end they Io Bai cn tho bay hot with ouch wretched deaths hue on ths aatSve aolly serene wnst elds, Saguee rhco Wo cong Ins oe viele boner crop of goin Frnt, foto fragrance augure pletty, nasmehy good 15 it thooe'sho sent could ot get taney elas Brome was lett to Foup sipe, stooping eare: ope SVnattay a a oe eis aes a Wee ee cat ordi Rae ele eaten Sica Gamer det ee er Fcc sip ava scarvot fro Be-gye to Mo. hoy starved fron TREiCbioh 9 Giovida. (Grastatd frm the strana by Huon Siem Tha)