1. What is the principle for measuring the earth resistance value?

The fall of potential method: Consisting of injecting a known alternating current

through the electrode under test and an auxiliary current probe and plotting the
ratio of V/I = R as a function of probe spacing x. The potential electrode is moved
away from the ground under test in steps of 10%. A value of resistance is
obtained at each step. The resistance is plotted as a function of distance in
ohms at which this plotted curve appears to level out is taken as the resistance
value of the ground under test. This level out will be potential electrode at 61.8%
of distance between ground electrode under test and auxiliary electrode. This
was established by E.B.Curdt’s for small hemispherical electrode.

Earthing tester reading Ω

Distance between
station earth (P1C1)
and potential Earth Pit No 1 Earth Pit No:2 Earth Pit No3
electrode (P2) mtrs

3 5.59 4.46 14.92

6(20% R1) 7.04 5.00 16.12
9 7.64 5.43 16.68
12(40%R2) 8.06 5.77 17.09
15 8.34 6.10 17.19
18(60%R3) 8.69 6.40 17.37
18.54(61.8%of30) 8.78 6.47 17.40
21 9.00 6.73 17.60
24 10.08 7.02 17.93
27 11.14 7.84 18.56
Remote
Electrode(C2) from 30m
30m 30m
station ground
(C1P1)
Result:
Ave. Of 5.43+5.77+ Average of
Ave. Of
Fall of Potential 6.10+6.40+ 17.09+17.19+17.37
8.06+8.34+8.78+
Method 6.73+7.02 +17.60=17.46
9.00= 8.545
=6.242
8.545 6.242 17.46
E.B Curd’s Method 8.78 6.47 17.40
(R3-R2) (R3-R2) (R3-R2)
Slope Method µ=
(R2-R1) (R2-R1) (R2-R1)
8.69-8.06 6.40-5.77 17.37-17.09
8.06-7.04 5.77-5.00 17.09-16.12
0.69 0.63 0.28
1.02 0.77 0.97
0.6765 0.8102 0.28
From the chart Value -
0.6013 0.5785
=
Remote electrode -
60.13% of RE(30) 57.85% of RE(30)
(RE)30m =
18.039m 17.355m
Value = 8.69Ω 6.40Ω

Analysis of Result
Fall of Potential 8.545Ω 6.242Ω 17.46Ω
E.B Curd’ts 8.780Ω 6.470Ω 17.40Ω
Slope Method 8.690Ω 6.400Ω -
Remote electrode (C2) at 30 mtrs from earth pit (C1P1).
Earth Pits are conventional type back filled 2Ft all around the electrodes.
Earth Pit No1: Located at A & B colony 50mm dia 3mtrs Long GI Pipe.
Earth Pit No2: Located in 33KV Substation 100mm dia 3mts Long GI Pipe.
Earth Pit No3: Near DG Set New 60mm dia 2mtrs Long GI pipe.

2. As per the measurement method, the potential spike is put closer than
the current spike from the earth pit. What will happen if we change the
position of the spikes?

Interchanging potential electrode and current electrode the value of resistance

will not change.

3. Can we pour water on the spikes before we check the earth resistance
value?

A good digital earth tester (Reputed make) shall have an indicator for high
current loop resistance or high contact resistance at potential probs. A few
spoonful of water may be poured around the probe, which has been hammered
into ground, to get good conductive connection between probe and soil around
it.

4. Is it necessary to isolate the earth pit from the electrical circuit before
measuring the earth resistance value? If Yes then why and if NO then why?

Not necessary. The modern earth testers of reputed make are meant to measure
this live. Taking shut down of a station is not that easy. It requires lot of
procedure and is expensive.

5. How to check the earth resistance value in rocky soil or where earth pit is
installed in sandy soil or where there is no place to put the spikes (area
surrounding the earth pit are made of concrete / flooring is done)?

In case earth at the site of measurement is rocky, it may not be possible to

hammer the probes into ground, if attempt is made to hammer a probe into
ground, cracks may develop around the point of entry of the probe into ground.
This results in high contact resistance in the current or the potential loop and
shall result in erroneous results. A good digital earth testers of reputed make
shall have an indicator for high current loop resistance or high contact resistance
at potential probe. If cracks develop around the probe, the hole should be filled
with wet mud and the probe should be stood in the mud. In case probes cannot
be hammered into ground, holes should be drilled into ground and these may be
filled with mud or cement or bentonite slurry into which the probes are erected.

6. If multiple earth pits are done then what is the best practice to connect
with the electrical circuit? Whether all earth pits should be connected to each
other then final connection is made with electrical circuit or all the earth pits have
to be connected individually with the electrical circuit?

In multiple earth pits, all pits shall be connected to each other and then final
connection is made with electric circuit. The inter-connecting flat shall be laid at
least 500mm below the ground level and brought above the ground level and
connected to earth electrode.
 7. What is the minimum accepted earth resistance value for different
applications? Are these resistance values mentioned in any standard?

References: US AID INDIA Book

The earth resistance shall be as low as possible and shall not exceed the
following limits

Power stations (generating station) 0.5 ohms

EHT Sub-station 1.0 ohms

33 KV Stations 2.0 ohms

D/t Structure 5.0 ohms

Tower Foot resistance 10.0 ohms

Page 92 – Modernisation of power distributions – Same as above.

IEEE standard 142-2007 chapter 4 page 164 – Resistance in the 1 ohm to 5

ohms range are generally found suitable for industrial plant sub-station and
buildings and large commercial installations.

Lightning arrestors ground resistance for protection of buildings and allied

structures – Less than 10 ohms …… Clause 12.3.1 Page 32 IS 2309 : 1989.

8. How to check the soil resistivity? Minimum how may readings should be
taken and at what points for a correct measurement of soil resistivity value ?

a) Equally spaced or Dr. F.Wenner Arrangement

b) Unequally spaced or Schelumberger – Palmer Arrangement

A set of readings taken with various probe spacings (2m, 5 m, 10 m, 25 m, 50m)

gives a set of resistivity which, when plotted against spacing, indicates whether
there are distinct layers of different soil or rock and gives an idea of their
respective resistivities and depth. This has to be repeated in all directions of the
site i.e., horizontal, vertical and diagonal.

The mean value is calculated. In case the values lies within +/- 30% of mean
value (70% to 130%) the soil is considered to be uniform (Homogenous soil).
 • CASE STUDY:

SL.NO a R ρ

Meters Ω Ohm-Meters

1 2 4.33 54.412

2 3 2.60 49.009 min

3 4 2.35 59.062

4 5 1.986 62.392

5 6 1.652 62.279

6 7 1.462 64.301

7 8 1.305 65.593 max

ρ Average 59.579

130% of ρ Ave = 1.3 x 59.579 = 77.453

70% of ρ Ave = 0.7 x 59.579 = 41.705

Minimum & Maximum value lies within 41.705 and 77.453

The Soil is Homogeneous.

9. What is multi layer soil measurement and why it is required?

There is nothing called multilayer soil measurement. The vast change in

measured resistivity with depth is called Multilayer soil.

The measured apparent resistivity depends on the resistivity of various materials

through which the current passes, it is the average of all those resistivity. As the
electrode spacing is increased, the current flows through a greater volume of
material both horizontally and vertically, and the deeper material is of high
resistance (lower conductance) the current flow lines will be deflected upwards
and the current density in the near surface volume element will be increased. If
the deeper material is of lower resistivity (higher conductance), the current flow
line will be deflected downward and the current density will be decreased.
 10. Which type of earth tester should be used for measuring the above? Digital
meter or Analog meter?

Digital meter of reputed make. Ground resistance is directly proportional to the

soil resistivity, hence measurement of soil resistivity by accurate meter of reputed
make is very important. In grounding the value of soil resistivity is most important
for estimating the ground resistance and surface potentials (mesh, step and
touch).

Make Model

Megger DET 2/2

Fluke 1623 & 1625

Chauvin Arnoux 6460, 6462 & 6470

Kew (Kyoritsu) 4106

11. Why there is always a difference in the measured resistance values

if measured with different earth testers even if all are calibrated ones?

This is not true in case of reputed make digital earth testers. This may be true
when compared with analog to digital earth testers of reputed make.

PARAMETERS ANALOG METER DIGITAL METER

Accuracy 2% of reading in entire range
5% of full scale and shall be effective hence very accurate and high
above 25% of full scale. At 25% of resolution
reading absolute error is 20%. Not
accurate and low resolution

Voltage 250V hand cranking Micro processor based 30 to 50 V

automatic reading

Frequency Fixed (60 to 90 HZ) Variable. In automode it selects

test frequency with least amount of
noise
Displays the high spike resistance.
High Spike Do not indicate
resistance
Do not indicate
Open circuit Displays current circuit
open/potential circuit open
12. How to calculate current carrying capacity of an earth electrode?

Current caring capacity of an earth electrode depends on 1. The total surface

area of the electrode in contact with earth 2. resistivity of the soil and 3. duration
of fault in seconds. The formula for current caring capacity (Current density) is:

Current density = 7.57 X 10³ Amp / Sq-m

√ρt

ρ = Resistivity of the soil (assumed uniform) in ohm-m.

t = Duration of fault in seconds.

13. How does earth electrode geometry affects the earthing system?

The total surface area coming in contact with earth is the criteria.

14. How to calculate the number of earth electrodes required for any
particular application?

This depends on the fault level the calculation is as follows:

Calculation of No.of Plates required:

For Example:
The total surface area = 0.6 x 0.6 x 2 sq.m = 0.72 sq.m
Fault current = 6 kilo amperes
Duration of Fault = 1 sec.
Soil Resisitivity = 100 ohm - m
Current density = 7.57 X 10³ Amp / Sq-m
√ρt
= 7.57 X 10³ = 757 Amp /Sq-m
√100X1
One Plate will carry 757 X 0.72 = 545.04 Amperes

To carry 6 kilo amperes No.of plates required = 6000 / 545.04 = 11 Nos.

Calculation of No.of Pipes required:

For Example:
The total surface area of a 3 mtr long 80 mm dia = π x 0.08 x 3 sq.m = 0.754
sq.m
Fault current = 6 kilo amperes
Duration of Fault = 1 sec.
Soil Resisitivity = 100 ohm - m
Current density = 7.57 X 10³ Amp / Sq-m
√ρt
= 7.57 X 10³ = 757 Amp /Sq-m
√100X1

One Pipe will carry 757 X 0.754 = 570.778 Amperes

To carry 6 kilo amperes No.of plates required = 6000 / 570.8 = 10.5 = 11 nos.
 15. How to calculate the resultant earth resistance value of the earth
electrodes if more than one pits are required to be installed?

Multiple electrodes in parallel yield lower resistance to ground than a single

electrode. Multiple rods are commonly used to provide the low grounding
resistance required by high capacity installations. Adding a second rod does not
however provide a total resistance of half that of a single rod, unless the two are
several rod length apart. A useful rule is that grounding systems of 2-24 rods
placed one rod length apart in a line, hollow triangle, circle or square will provide
a grounding resistance divided by number of rods and multiplied by the factor F.

Multiplying Factors for Multiple Rods:

No.of Rods F

2 1.16

3 1.29

4 1.36

8 1.68

12 1.80

16 1.92

20 2.00

24 2.16

16. As per general practice or Indian Electricity Rule what is the

minimum number of earth pits that are required for different applications; i.e.
Transformers, Generators, Circuit Breakers and Panels etc.?

Minimum number is two for above equipment body earthing. In case their panels
are in the same line totally only two numbers are required, one on either side and
an earth bus can run connecting two electrodes and the body of each panel can
be connected to this earth bus.

For transformer and generator neutral the number of electrode required depends
on the a) resistivity of the soil; b) the duration of fault in seconds; and c) fault
level in kiloamperes. The calculation is as described in question 14 above.

17. What are the reasons for getting high voltage between neutral and
earth points? How to correct / attend to this problem?

a) Due to the unbalance in phase voltages.

b) Due to the over heating of neutral.

c) Due to poor earthing (High value of ground resistance)

Remedies:

a) The loads are to be equally distributed in all phases.

b) Increasing the conductor size of neutral from half the phase size to full
phase size. This is required because of too many single phase loadings.

c) Maintaining low value of ground resistance.

18. It is observed that even after having good earthing system in place in
any factory, when a lightning strokes occurs even some distance away / lightning
falls somewhere near the factory premises,that damages the electronic circuit &
communication system of the factory. What may be the reason for the same and
how to address this problem?

This may be due a) to the improper selection of lightning arrester whose

coverage area may be less. B) There may be several earths of different ohmic
values and they are isolated. They are to be bonded.

19. How to do the conductor sizing?

Conducting Material Current rating 1 sec Current rating 3 secs

Copper 205 amperes 118 amperes

Aluminium 126 amperes 073 amperes

Iron (GI) 080 amperes 046 amperes

The fast acting circuit breakers operates in 0.2 secs and the fault clearing time of
back up protection system ensures greater safety margin of 0.5 secs. In general
for safety 1 sec duration is considered in India. The current caring capacity of the
material is as follows:

For any other duration rating is: 1 sec rating amperes.

√t
Where t = Duration of fault in secs.

20. How to calculate the effective soil resistivity value when 50 Kg BFC
(Resistivity < 2 Ohm Meter and PH – 6.4 to 7.8) is added in to it?

Earth enhancing material reduces the soil resistivity (Thus the ground resistance)
by 10 to 90 %. Earth enhancing material is very useful in high soil resistivity area
(Rocky Area). Where the soil resistivity is more than 300 ohm – m.

For example. In this place if a pipe of 80 mm dia 3 mtrs long is installed the
ground resistance will be

Pipe / Rod Earthing:

 100  4l
Rg  log e ohms .
2l d

Rg = 79.746

By using above earth enhancing material ρ will be 10% of 300 i.e. 30 ohm – m
and Rg = 10% of 79.746 i.e. about 8 ohms.

21. What is electronic earthing?

Earthing of the metallic cabinets housing electronic equipment, essential for

safety of personnel and equipment, is similar to earthing of other accessible
metal structures and housing / enclosures in the station. It is called protective,
Safety or Equipment earthing.

Earthing of the electronic equipment for functional reason is called functional,

logic or circuit / signal reference earthing. It minimizes unwanted electrical
signals (Electro Magnetic Interference or EMI) that might interface with the
functional of the equipment and cause component damage. It also prevents
accumulation of static charges on the equipment by providing a low impedance
leakage path to the earth for the same.

22. What is Faraday Cage Earthing and how and where it is done?

Faraday Cage is totally a shielded room the walls are covered with GI Chicken
mesh and this mesh is grounded. The measurements carried out in this room is
free from unwanted signals. In this cage no external signals will intervene.

23. What is coil earthing and how and where it is done?

Coil earthing is called Petersen coil, it is used to protect the transformer. It is

connected between transformer neutral and ground. This comes under system
grounding not under protective grounding.

24. The calculation to work out the number of earth pits required for any
application for above type of earthing?

Depends on the rating of transformer.

25. What is ESD earthing? How it is done?

Static electricity is generated by the movement of electrons, which occurs when

unlike materials are in contact with each other and are then separated. When two
unlike materials are in intimate contact, electrons from one material move across
the interface to the surface of the other, and their counterparts (Protons) in equal
numbers remain on the other body; and attractive force is thus established as
equilibrium is achieved. When bodies are separated, electrons produce electrical
charges on the objects separated which show as an increasing voltage between
the two surfaces.

Static electricity may be generated by the following:

a) Pulverized materials passing through chutes or pneumatic conveyors.

b) Belt drives when belts are of non conductive materials.

c) Gas, steam or air flowing through an opening.

d) Motion that involves charges in the relative portion of contacting surfaces,

usually of unlike materials, liquid or solid, at least one of which usually is a
poor conductor of electricity.

e) The human body is a low humidity area may accumulate a dangerous

static charge of several thousand volts by contact of shoes with floor
covering or by working close to machinery that generates electricity.

ESD can severely impact the performance and reliability of electronic equipment.
A site can experience failures from ESD and not immediately be aware of the
problem since voltage levels that can cause component failure are below the
perception threshold of the individual. Meters are available to measure the level
of static charge on personnel and equipment. Recommended practice is to
measure static charge on personnel, furniture and other such items located in the
vicinity where the sensitive equipment is being operated. If equipment failures
are caused by ESD, recommended corrective measures include the following:

a) Maintaining proper humidity levels in the equipment area.

b) Using antistatic wrist straps and mats on floor and work surfaces.

c) Replacing static – generating items, such as chairs, and Styrofoam and

plastic cups, that aggravate the ESD problem.

d) Training operating personnel to discharge themselves before operating the

sensitive equipment.

The minimum value of relative humidity (R.H) that is required for effective
control of static electricity is difficult to determinate and will vary with the
process and the surrounding conditions. However, it is believed that where
the R.H. is maintained in the range of 60 to 70% at ordinary indoor
temperatures static accumulations are not likely to reach dangerous
proportions.

ESD earthing is nothing but normal earthing and the down conductor (earth bus)
is run in the lab and each equipment body is connected to this as mentioned in b)
above.

26. How to revive an old earth pit / pits whose resistance value is more
than the permissible limits?

Where the earth pit is provided and its earth resistance is 50% more than the
commissioning value, the pit is to be treated after re-filling salt and charcoal, as
specified, and if required, damaged and corroded electrodes may be replaced /
rectified. Special care is to be taken to physically examine and test the neutral
earthing pit / electrode of power transformers.
After 10 years of installation, the treated earth pits with vertical rod electrodes are
to be inspected by digging on sample basis. The damaged / broken electrodes
need to replaced.