Solution. We are given that f (7) = 40. We are asked to find f (15). We must find k.

We have that
5000
40 = f (7) = if and only if
1 + 1249e−7k

40(1 + 1249e−7k ) = 5000 if and only if

124
e−7k = if and only if
1249

124
−7k = ln if and only if
1249

124
ln 1249 ln 124 − ln 1249
k=− =− .
7 7
5000
We now have that f (t) = ln 124−ln 1249 and f (15) ≈ 508. �
t
1 + 1249e 7

6 Integration
6.1 Antiderivatives and the Rules of Integration
Considering the rules of differentiation, it might seem apparent that there exists an inverse opera-
tion that takes the derivative of a function backwards to the original function. Given the quadratic
function q(x) = 3x2 , for instance, we could recognize q(x) as the derivative of the cubic function
p(x) = x3 ; likewise, we could also recognize q(x) as the derivative of x3 + C for any constant C.
We formalize this notion through the study of antiderivatives and integrals.
Definition. We say that a function F (x) is the antiderivative of a function f (x) on the interval
I whenever F � (x) = f (x) for all x in I.
Prove that the given capitalized functions are antiderivatives of the given lowercase functions.

(a.) F (x) = x4 + x2 − 1 and f (x) = 4x3 + 2x for x in (−∞, ∞)

(b.) G(x) = xex and g(x) = xex + ex for x in (−∞, ∞)

1
(c.) H(x) = ln 3x and h(x) = x
for x > 0

Recall that when we introduced the notion of a derivative, we did it to answer a question about
the velocity of a magnetic levitation train given its position function. We introduce antidifferenti-
ation and integration now to answer a question about the position of a magnetic levitation train
given its velocity function. Because antidifferentiation and integration provide the operations in-
verse to differentiation, our studies in the subject are vital in application problems.

Antiderivatives of a Function. Let G(x) be an antiderivative of a function f (x) on an interval

I. Every antiderivative F (x) of f (x) on I must be of the form F (x) = G(x) + C for some C ∈ R.

64
By the above theorem, the antiderivatives of a function f (x) on an interval I are precisely the
members of the family of functions whose tangent lines have slope given by f (x). We note that
there are infinitely many antiderivatives of f (x) — one for each real number C.

Quadratic Antiderivative. Prove that G(x) = x2 is an antiderivative of the linear function

f (x) = 2x on R. Express the general form of an antiderivative F (x) of f (x).

Proof. We note that G� (x) = 2x = f (x) for every real number x, hence G(x) is an antiderivative
of f (x) on R. Using the above theorem, it follows that F (x) = x2 + C for some C ∈ R.
Definition. We refer to the process of finding the general form of an antiderivative F (x) of a func-
tion
� f (x) on an interval I as integration (or antidifferentiation). We use the integral symbol
to denote the operation of integration, and we use the symbol dx to indicate the variable of in-
tegration. Explicitly, if F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), then we write
�
f (x) dx = F (x) + C

to indicate that the indefinite integral (or antiderivative) of f (x) with respect to x is equal to
F (x) + C. We refer to the function f (x) as the integrand, and we say that the real number C is
the
� constant of integration. Of course, if f (t) is a function of t instead of x, then we have that
f (t) dt = F (t) + C. We refer to x and t as dummy variables, therefore.
Use the integral notation given above to write the antiderivatives of the following functions.
(a.) f (x) = 4x3 + 2x for x in (−∞, ∞)

(b.) g(t) = tet + et for t in (−∞, ∞)

1
(c.) h(u) = u
for u > 0
�
Solution. (a.) By the original example, we have that (4x3 + 2x) dx = x4 + x2 + C. �
�
Solution. (b.) By the original example, we have that (tet + et ) dt = tet + C. �
�
Solution. (c.) By the original example, we have that u1 du = ln u + C. �
Our next task is to develop some basic rules for integration. Given that the rules of differentia-
tion are fresh in our minds, this does not prove extremely difficult with a little thought.
�
Indefinite Integral of a Constant. We have that k dx = kx + C for every constant k ∈ R.
d
Proof. We have that dx
(kx + C) = k, as desired.
� xn+1
Power Rule for Indefinite Integrals. We have that xn dx = n+1
+ C for n �= −1.
�
d xn+1
� (n+1)xn
Proof. We have that dx n+1
+C = n+1
= xn , as desired.

Using the Power Rule for Integration. Compute the following indefinite integrals.
�
(a.) x3 dx
�
(b.) x3/2 dx

65
 � 1
(c.) x3/2
dx
� x4
Solution. (a.) We have that x3 dx = 4
+ C. �
� x5/2 2x5/2
Solution. (b.) We have that x3/2 dx = 5 +C = 5
+ C. �
2

� 1
� x−1/2 2
Solution. (c.) We have that x3/2
dx = x−3/2 dx = − 12
+ C = − x1/2 + C. �

Indefinite
� Integral of �a Constant Multiple of a Function. Given a real number k, we have
that [k · f (x)] dx = k · f (x) dx.
� d
Proof. Let f (x) dx = F (x) + C so that dx F (x) = f (x). We have that

d d
[k · F (x)] = k · F (x) = k · f (x),
dx dx
�
hence we have that [k · f (x)] dx = k · F (x) + D. Choosing C so that D = k · C, observe that
� �
k · f (x) dx = k · [F (x) + C] = k · F (x) + k · C = [k · f (x)] dx.

Our above proof relies on the fact that the constant of integration C is arbitrary, hence we can
choose it to be anything we want. We will use this absorption property in the future to write any
constant multiple k · C of an arbitrary constant C as the same arbitrary constant C.

Integrating Constant Multiples of Functions. Compute the following indefinite integrals.

�
(a.) 2x3 dx
�
(b.) 7x3/2 dx
� 5
(c.) x3/2 dx
� � 4 � � 4
Solution. (a.) We have that x3 dx = 2 x4 + C = x2 + C.
2x3 dx = 2 · �
� � � 5/2 � 5/2 14x5/2
Solution. (b.) We have that 7x3/2 dx = 7 · x3/2 dx = 7 · x 5 + C = 7 · 2x5 + C = 5
+ C. �
2

� 5
� � −1/2 �
Solution. (c.) We have that x3/2
dx = 5· x−3/2 dx = 5· x− 1 +C = −5· x1/2
2
+C = − x10
1/2 +C. �
2

Indefinite
� Integral� of a Sum �of Functions. Given two functions f (x) and g(x), we have that
[f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx.
d d d
Proof. Use the fact that dx
[f (x) ± g(x)] = dx
f (x) ± dx
g(x).
�� 1
�
Integrating Sums of Functions. Compute the indefinite integral x3 + x3/2 + x3/2
dx.

Solution. Use the above theorem with our previous calculations. �

We have just studied the exponential function ex and the logarithmic function ln x, so their deriva-
tives should be fresh on our minds. Using these derivatives, we have the following two theorems.

66
 �
Indefinite Integral of the Exponential Function. We have that ex dx = ex + C.
� �
Indefinite Integral of the Power Function x−1 . We have that x−1 dx = x1 dx = ln |x| + C.

Combining these two theorems with the other theorems we have just learned, we can now solve
more interesting and complicated integration problems.
�
Integrating a Function of ex . Compute the indefinite integral (2ex + x3 ) dx.
�� �
Integrating a Function of x−1 . Compute the indefinite integral 2x − x3 − x12 dx.

Our aim for this chapter of the text is to determine the original function f (x) given its derivative
f � (x) and as little information as possible beyond that. Often, we will know the derivative of a
function, and we will first seek the general form of the original function. Using some observation
about the value of the function at a point, we will then develop a particular solution.
Definition. We refer to an ordinary differential equation as an equation in which the un-
known is a function that is related in some way to its derivative(s). We refer to a general so-
lution of a differential equation as any function that satisfies the differential equation. Constants
in this function are arbitrary; however, upon imposing some initial condition f (x0 ) = a, we
obtain a particular solution of the differential equation.

Quadratic Initial-Value Problem. Given that f � (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 8 and f (1) = 9, find f (x).

Solution. We have the general solution

� �
�
f (x) = f (x) dx = (3x2 − 4x + 8) dx = x3 − 2x2 + 8x + C.

Upon imposing the initial condition that f (1) = 9, we find that

9 = 13 − 2(12 ) + 8(1) + C = 7 + C,

from which it follows that C = 2. We conclude that f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 8x + 2. �

Circulation of Magazines. Current circulation of dog-enthusiast magazine the Weekly Woof is

3,000 copies per week. Growth of the magazine is projected as 4 + 5t2/3 copies per week t weeks
from now. Predict how many magazines will be in circulation 125 weeks from now.

Solution. Let m(t) denote the number of magazines in circulation. We have that m� (t) = 4 + 5t2/3
and m(0) = 3000. We have the general solution
� �
�
m(t) = m (t) dt = (4 + 5t2/3 ) dt = 4t + 3t5/3 + C.

Upon imposing the initial condition m(0) = 3000, we find that 3000 = C. We conclude that
m(t) = 4t + 3t5/3 + 3000, hence we have that m(125) = 4(125) + 3(125)5/3 + 3000 = 12875. �

67