LST - TST - Sequence

Lecture 21-23
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

Low-Stand System Tract

LST is bounded by:
• Subaerial Unconformity & its Marine

Correlative Conformity at the base
• Maximum Regressive Surface at top.
(Restricted to all sedimentary deposits

accumulated during the stage of Early-Rise
NR)
Clastic Depositional Systems

Channels cut into slopes (may form Levee-Channel
Complexes)

• LST forms during Early stage of BL rise
when the Rate of Rise < Sedimentation
Rate (NR).
• Depositional processes/stacking patterns

are dominated by low-rate aggradation &
progradation across the entire
sedimentary basin.
• As accommodation is made available by
the rising BL, Low-Stand Wedge may
include depositional systems, from fluvial
to coastal, shallow-marine and deep
marine.

Regional architecture of depositional
Systems & Stratigraphic Surfaces during LST

Splays
• Crevasse splay is a sedimentary fluvial
deposit which forms when a stream breaks its
natural/artificial levees and deposits sediment
on a floodplain.
• A breach forms a crevasse splay deposits,
similar in pattern to an alluvial fan deposit.
Once the levee has been breached the water
flows out of its channel.
• As the water spreads onto the flood plain
sediments will start to fall out of suspension
as the water loses energy.
• Slope Channels which are erosive, can
set up a variety of stratigraphic traps due
to pinch-outs.

Slope-Fan Exxon Model
• Slope-Fan in terms of Exxon model, is a

fine grained unit with channels-levees,
deposited after the Basin-Floor Fan.
• Followed by LST Prograding Complexes
which are usually slope & delta units which
pinch out at the shelf edge.
* Exxon Model was developed for Gulf of

Mexico Basin & fits well there, in other
basins, sometimes SF’s, are difficult to see.
Channels cut into slopes (may form Levee-Channel Complexes)

Depositional processes/products of LST
- As compare to FSST, sediments of Early-Rise NR are more evenly distributed between
fluvial, coastal and deep-water systems. Sand is present in fluvial channel fills, beach,
delta-front system & submarine fans. Low-stand prism expands landward via fluvial
aggradation & onlap.
- Aggradation on the continental shelf in fluvial to shallow-marine environments reduces
the amount of sediment supply to the deep basin, thus turbidity currents of this stage are
dominantly of low-density.
LST deposits typically consist of the
coarsest sediment fraction of both non-
marine & shallow marine section.

• Trapping of the coarser sediment within
aggrading fluvial-coastal-shallow-marine
systems at the onset of BL rise, reduces
a) Net amount of sand supplied to the deep-

water environment
b) Sand/mud ratio of the sediment load,
transported by turbidity currents.
• Resulting LST sediments of Basin-floor
submarine fan complex, are fine-grained as
compared to underlying Late FR deposits.
• Comparing high-density turbidity currents of
Late stage of Forced Regression, the deep-
water portion of the LST is dominated by low
density turbidites .
• Due to lower sediment/water ratio, low-
density turbidity currents, are under-loaded
on the continental slope (high-energy relative
to sediment-load), resulting in channel
entrenchment instead of aggradation.
• Beyond the toe of slope, (on the basin
floor), LST turbidity currents may become
overloaded with energy drop due to
decreasing seafloor gradients.
• As a result, basin-floor setting can record

aggradation of leveed channels during
LST NR.
• Increase in rate of BL rise with time, &
energy drop contributes to the overall
fining-upward fluvial profile.

• Typical examples of LST fluvial deposits
include amalgamated channel fills (low
accommodation systems) overlying
subaerial unconformities which may
accumulate within incised valleys.
• LST fluvial sediments begins to
accumulate within topographic lows, and
assumed to fill incised valleys (at least
partially).

• Sometimes, LST fluvial deposits are
missing from the stratigraphic architecture
of incised valley-fills, due to either non-
deposition/erosion during Transgression.
• In such cases, fluvially-cut surface at the

base of incised valley, is turned into a
Transgressive Surface of Erosion and
incised valley may be entirely filled by TST
deposits.
Petroleum Plays
• Rising BL during the LST Normal
Regression, provides accommodation
across the entire basin.
• Sediment indicate a concentration of the

coarsest river-borne sediment within fluvial
& coastal depositional systems, forming
the Best Reservoirs, with the highest
sand/mud ratio.
Petroleum Plays
• Net decrease in sediments available for
deep-water gravity-flows & reduction in
sand/mud ratio in submarine fans is
caused by trapping of sand within
aggrading fluvial-shallow-marine systems.
• Shelf-Edge deltas continue to prograde

the upper slope, with development of a
topset in response to coastal aggradation.
Petroleum Plays
• Petroleum plays of the LST are diverse in
terms of origin and syn-depositional
processes, ranging from fluvial to coastal
and shallow-deep-marine systems.

Regional architecture of depositional systems & stratigraphic
surfaces during LST

Petroleum Plays
• LST is the most favorable among all
systems tracts due to relatively even
distribution of reservoirs across the basin.
• LST fluvial deposits (amalgamated
channel-fills), form the best reservoirs of
the entire fluvial portion of sequence.
• Equally good reservoirs may form in
coastal, shallow-water and deep-water
environments.
Petroleum Plays
Key for recognizing LST wedge on
seismic lines
• Presence of Topset (instead of offlap &
truncation, typical of FR) associated with the
shelf-edge deltas.
• Landward from shelf-edge, fluvial reservoirs
are typically represented by channel fills.
* (Best fluvial reservoirs of entire BL cycle, with
the highest sand/mud ratio)
Petroleum Plays
• Shelf-edge deltas, prograding upper
continental-slope, also trap significant
amounts of sand, forming good reservoirs.
• These NR shelf-edge reservoirs are often

topped by high-amplitude reflectors on
seismic, due to strong acoustic impedance
contrast arising from TST & HST shales
above underlying LST sand-rich reservoirs.
Petroleum Plays
• River-borne sediment continues to be
delivered to deeper basin but in decreasing
amounts & with decreasing sand/mud ratio in
response to increasing rates of BL rise
• As more & more sand is trapped in
aggrading fluvial/coastal systems,the
submarine fan receives less & less sand,
which generates fining-up trend in Slope-
Fans.
Exploration Risk
• Main risks for the exploration of LST
reservoirs relate to seals & source rocks,
especially toward the basin margins e.g.
Erosional Truncation
• However, even within a shelf setting,

fluvial, coastal & shallow water LST
reservoirs may be sealed by overlying
TST shales.
Exploration Risk
Such risk decreases towards deeper part
of the basin:
• LST turbidites,(which travel farther into

the basin relative to the Falling-Stage
gravity flows), stand a good chance of
being in direct contact with TST/HST
source & seal facies both below & above.
Coal Resources
No significant coal deposits are generally
associated with LST.
• LST is defined by high sediment-supply in

an overall low accommodation-space
• Such environmental conditions are
generally unfavorable for peat
accumulation.
Transgressive System
Tract

Clastic Depositional Systems

Transgressive System Tract
• TST is bounded by the Maximum
Regressive Surface (MRS) at the base &
MFS at the top.
• TST develops during the stage of BL rise

when rates of rise > sedimentation rates at
the shoreline .

Transgressive System Tract- Log Model

TST & Source Rock Potential

TST recognizable from:
- Diagnostic retrogradational stacking patterns

- Overall fining-upward trends within both marine
& non-marine successions.

“Clastic Hierarchies”
www.bui.edu.pk Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
By: Raheela@cpgco2
• Rates of creation of accommodation are
the highest, thus TST is expected to
include the entire range of depositional
systems, from fluvial to coastal, shallow-
marine and deep-marine.

• TST fluvial & coastal deposits may be
thick, due to the high sedimentation rates
& available accommodation
• Trapping of large amounts of terrigenous

sediment within aggrading fluvial-coastal
systems results in a cut-off of sediment
supply to the marine environment .

Regional architecture of depositional systems & stratigraphic surfaces during TST

Triggered by the lack of sediment supply & regime of hydraulic
instability during rapid BL rise, the shelf-edge region is
subjected to non-deposition/sediment reworking.
• Thus, TST tends to be composed of two distinct wedges separated by

an area of non-deposition around the shelf edge:
- one on continental-shelf consisting of fluvial to

shallow-marine deposits
- one in deep-water setting consisting of gravity flow

deposits and pelagic sediments

• Both wedges shift toward basin-margin
during Transgression, following general
retrogradational trend, by onlapping the
landscape & the seascape, respectively.

• Gradual expansion of Transgressive
depozone in a continental-shelf setting is
associated with Fluvial Onlap (leading
edge of TST wedge).
• Such predictable trends could be altered if

fluvial processes are influenced by
climate/tectonics (other than BL changes).
• Within the deep-water portion of the basin,
TST deposits are often seen onlapping the
continental slope, forming a TST slope-apron
(wedge) associated with Marine Onlap.
• Coastal Onlap is another important stratal

termination,(diagnostic for transgression)
forming within the continental-shelf based
TST wedge.
Regional architecture of depositional systems and stratigraphic surfaces

during TST

• Due to rapid accommodation creation during
transgression & water table rise in parallel with the
BL, fluvial portion of the TST often contains well
developed Coal seams.
• TST fluvial deposits may form a significant portion

of Incised-Valley Fills.
• Where Incised Valleys from previous stages of
BL fall are not entirely filled by LST deposits, their
downstream portions are turned to estuaries at the
onset of Transgression.
Contrast
between LST
fluvial &
overlying
Transgressive
estuarine facies
may be seen in
well logs, at the
contact.

Satellite image showing a River-dominated, prograding delta, in an
overall Transgressive-setting,(case B) Mississippi delta. High sediment
supply from river causes the delta to prograde inspite of Transgression.

• Sediment supply to the shallow-marine
environment is limited during
Transgression, as most of the sediments
are trapped within rapidly aggrading fluvial
& coastal systems.

• Additional sediment for the shallow-marine
environment is provided by processes of
wave erosion in the upper shoreface, during
transgression
• Some of the sediments are transported
landward to form back-stepping
beaches/estuary-mouth complexes
• While some are dispersed seaward on the
shelf by storm surges/tidal currents to form
sheet/ridge/wedge-shaped deposits.

Coastal to Shallow-Marine Deposits of TST.
-Back-stepping beaches(open-shoreline
settings)/estuary-mouth complexes (retrograding river-
mouth settings)
-Transgressive-lag deposits overlying wave-
ravinement surface that forms in upper shoreface
- Sand sheets/ridges within inner shelf environments
due to storm/tidal currents
- Healing-phase wedges(distal) fill low areas of the Outcrop, associated with
seafloor. As the fallout rate decreases with distance in wave-ravinement surfaces,
a seaward direction, geometry of bedding surfaces showing Transgressive-Lag,
changes from concave-up (shape, inherited from the BTS (plant debris in this case).
youngest regressive clinoform) to flat & eventually
convex-up.
• Sedimentation in marine environment
tends to heal the seascape profile, leading
to formation of healing-phase wedges in
low areas of the seafloor.

TST shallow-marine deposits may also
include transgressive lags & shelf-sand
deposits with a sheet/ridge-like geometry.
• Both may form excellent regional reservoirs
encased in shelf fine-grained seal facies.
• Overall thickness of the shallow-water portion
of the TST decreases toward the shelf-edge,
where TST deposits are commonly missing.

Depositional processes/products of Early TST
- Rapid rates of BL rise, trigger retrogradational facies shift on continental-shelf,
where most of the sediment is trapped in fluvial, coastal and shallow-marine systems.
- Wave-ravinement processes erode the underlying NR shelf-edge deltas/open
shoreline, continuing to supply sand for deep-water turbidites of low-density type, are
under-loaded on the steep continental slope (flow energy > sediment load) causes
entrenchment, but become overloaded on the low-gradient basin floor (sediment load
> flow energy).Low-density turbidity flows travel farther into the basin.
- Healing-phase wedges & estuaries are typically/diagnostic for Transgression.
Depositional processes/products of Late TST
- Most of the terrigenous sediment is trapped in the fluvial, estuarine, deltaic,
open shoreline & lower shoreface deposits.
-Additional sand is incorporated within shelf macroforms (sheets/ridge)
generated by storm surges/tidal currents.
- As BL rises rapidly during transgression, hydraulic instability at the shelf
edge generates mudflows in the deep-water environment.
- Top of all TST deposits is marked by MFS.
Petroleum Plays
Petroleum Plays of Early Transgression
• Related to continental shelf-based

transgressive wedge & deep-water wedge.
• On the shelf-edge, the best reservoirs are

concentrated along the coastline, being
represented by back-stepping beaches
estuary-mouth complexes/retrograding
deltas.

TST may consist of two distinct wedges, one on the
continental shelf & other in the deep-water
environment, separated by an area of sediment
bypass/erosion around the shelf edge.

Petroleum Plays

Petroleum Plays
• Landward from the shoreline, petroleum
exploration potential of TST is moderate to
poor due to extensive development of fine-
grained facies due to rapid rates of BL
rise.
• Fluvial reservoirs are represented by
isolated channel fills, levees, and crevasse
splay deposits.

Petroleum Plays
• Rapid increases in water depth lead to shelf
edge instability, resulting in mud-rich gravity
flows (fine-grained outer-shelf sediments).
• Sand/mud ratio of the gravity-flow deposits

accumulated in the deep-water environment
during rising BL (LST NR to Transgression)
records an overall decrease, from turbidites
to mudflows, resulting in fining-upward trend.
Petroleum Plays
Petroleum plays of Late transgression
• Concentrated in fluvial to shallow-marine

depositional systems (TST wedge,
developed on the continental shelf).

Petroleum Plays
Late Transgressive fluvial/coastal & lower
shoreface reservoirs are similar to those of Early
Transgression, except the shelf-sand deposits
referred as Transgressive shelf macroforms.
• According to Posamentier (2002), these

macroforms are thought to have formed by erosion
& subsequent reworking of sand-prone
deltaic/coastal plain deposits by shelf tidal
currents...
• Macroforms have significant exploration potential
being commonly sand prone and tend to be
encased in shelf- mudstone seal facies.
Petroleum Plays
Main contribution of the TST:
• Accumulation of source-seal rocks

• TST shallow-marine shales, form regionally
extensive covers across continental shelves,
which can be used as reference for
stratigraphic correlation
• Can be easily identified on 2D seismic lines,
based on their transparent seismic facies.

Seismic Facies Calibrated with a GR Log.
-Regionally extensive transgressive shale can
be mapped on seismic line as a transparent
facies.
-Can form a stratigraphic marker, to be used
for regional correlation and is bounded by a FS
at the base and by a MFS at the top which
itself is overlain by regressive (HST) deposits.
Coal Resources
TST is the best option for Coal Exploration
Time of end-of-shoreline transgression marks the peak
for peat accumulation & subsequent coal development
because the water table is at its highest level during
Transgression.
• The condition, accommodation > sedimentation is a

fundamental prerequisite for significant accumulations
of peat deposits.
*Condition is necessary but not sufficient, as vegetation

growth depends on climatic conditions also.

Coal Resources
• Assuming all favorable conditions are
fulfilled, the best developed coal seams
are expected to overlap MFS.
• Timing of MFS is also relatively late in the

stage of BL rise, (means that denudated
source areas now supply less sediment
than in the earlier stages of BL rise).

LST - TST - Sequence

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Lecture 21-23

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• Subaerial Unconformity & its Marine

• Maximum Regressive Surface at top.

(Restricted to all sedimentary deposits

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• Depositional processes/stacking patterns

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• Slope-Fan in terms of Exxon model, is a

* Exxon Model was developed for Gulf of

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

a) Net amount of sand supplied to the deep-

• As a result, basin-floor setting can record

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• In such cases, fluvially-cut surface at the

• Sediment indicate a concentration of the

• Shelf-Edge deltas continue to prograde

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• These NR shelf-edge reservoirs are often

• However, even within a shelf setting,

• LST turbidites,(which travel farther into

• LST is defined by high sediment-supply in

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• TST develops during the stage of BL rise

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

- Diagnostic retrogradational stacking patterns

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• Trapping of large amounts of terrigenous

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

Regional architecture of depositional systems & stratigraphic surfaces during TST

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• Thus, TST tends to be composed of two distinct wedges separated by

- one on continental-shelf consisting of fluvial to

- one in deep-water setting consisting of gravity flow

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• Such predictable trends could be altered if

• Coastal Onlap is another important stratal

Regional architecture of depositional systems and stratigraphic surfaces

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• TST fluvial deposits may form a significant portion

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

• Related to continental shelf-based

• On the shelf-edge, the best reservoirs are

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2

www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2