Literature review

2.1 Introduction

The word superstition derives from the Latin words super and stitio which
when put together reveal the meaning of 'standing still over' or 'one who
stands in awe' (Subramuniyaswami, 2002). Latin speakers made use of the
word supersitio to refer to things that were greater than usual or beyond
normality (Steiner, 1999). Dictionaries commonly define superstition as a
belief or practice which is based on irrationality, or as a fear of the unknown,
and different fields including popular psychology (Shermer, 1998; Vyse,
2000; Wheen, 2005), abnormal psychology (Devenport, 1979; Brugger,
Dowdy, & Graves, 1994; Shaner, 1999; Nayha, 2002), philosophy (Scheibe
& Sarbin 1965), and medicine (Hira, Fukui, Endoh, Rahman, & Maekawa,
1998; Diamond, 2001), have commonly described superstitions as irrational
mistakes in cognition. However, further studies have suggested various
additional approaches that characterise this concept.

Superstitious beliefs, magical thinking and other paranormal activities have

existed in a variety of cultures since the beginning of times (Jahoda, 1969),
and can be divided into three types: religious, cultural, or personal. The word
superstition is quite ambiguous and can only be used subjectively. While for
a Roman Catholic, the belief in reincarnation may be considered as
superstitious, for an Atheist all religions are a form of superstition.

According to "American Folklore: An Encyclopedia", anthropologists refer to

superstitions as a folk belief, popular belief, or folk science. They consider
superstitious beliefs to be a gathering of cultural traditions developed in pre-
scientific societies used to keep doubts and uncertainties about the future
under control (Brunvand, 1996). Superstitions were also generated to deal
with misfortunate incidents, creating the power and possibility of controlling
things and events in life that one was otherwise unable to explain, manage
or control. Shermer (1998), contends that superstitions are a product of
adaptation to a general 'belief engine' which has developed to moderate
anxiety and to allow people create causal associations; with those endorsing
behaviour-related superstitions conditioning other people to follow their
paths by proving them with reinforcing emotional reactions when behaving
accordingly, leading them to link those positive feelings to the superstitious
behaviour (Tinbergen, 1963; West, Griffin, & Gardner, 2007).

Superstitious rituals or beliefs are generally invoked either to keep away bad
luck, or to bring about good luck, and even if a lot of superstitions have
cultural and social connotations and are passed on from one generation to
another, others comprise more peculiar beliefs or rituals. Various research
has been done to shed light upon the foundation and function of such beliefs
(Frazer, 1922; Jahoda, 1969; Vyse, 1997), identifying several factors that
are linked to superstition and magical beliefs, such as motivation,
personality traits, and cognition, as well as emotional instability,
demographics, and social influences (Vyse, 1997; Zusne & Jones, 1989).

Gustav Jahoda, the author of "The Psychology of Superstition" proposes

various characteristics that surround the word superstition. He points out the
importance of temporal and spatial relativity and gives examples of how in
ancient times it was common to believe in things such as fairies and
witches, and therefore to attribute unexplainable matters to supernatural
forces. He also mentions people's unjustified emotions, thinking and
ignorance, which can be very subjective as they depend on the individual.
Jahoda finally defines superstition as: 'every belief or action that a rational
man of the present from the west culture considers as superstitious'
(Jahoda, 1969, p. 48).

Peterson (1978) possibly gives a more understandable view, as he explains

different types of superstition which include:

Belief in unspecific bad consequences; like for example - spilling salt or

opening an umbrella indoors.

Belief in unspecific good consequences; like for example - catching falling

leaves, or finding a horseshoe.

Engaging in protective rituals; like for example - crossing fingers, or touching

wood.

Belief in specific consequences; like for example - right-handed itch foretells

money is coming in, itchy left palm means that money is going out.

By some authors, superstitions have also been defined as attitudes

depending on affective, cognitive, and behavioural aspects (Saenko, 2005).
The affective aspect involves different emotions related to superstitious
matters such as fear, joy, anger, etc. The cognitive aspect would include
knowledge, classification, anticipation of consequences, and also the
planning of one's actions. The behavioural aspect would comprise the
various rituals and other symbolic acts, such as spells or curses, carried out
by people for protection against misfortune or to realise that what is wished
for. Additionally to this, each superstition has its particular object that is
linked to a specific happening and its consequences, and a feeling that
results from these consequences which is automatically associated to the
particular object or act that are connected with that object. For example, a
black cat (object) crosses your path on your way home and when you arrive
you find out that you've been robbed (happening); this gives rise to a
mixture of negative emotions including anger, fear and despair (feeling,
which is then associated with the object). Žeželj, Pavlović,
Vladisavljević, and Radivojević (2009), also states that 'when a person
who has adopted a certain superstitious belief faces a concrete object of
superstition, it automatically triggers associated evaluations, driving a
person to feel and behave accordingly' (p. 143,144).

Albeit the perceptible relation between attitudes and superstitions, one

cannot associate superstitions solely to attitudes, for the reason that while
superstitions are usually based on irrational groundless thinking and the
actions correlated to them are rather specific and fixed, in attitudes this is
not always the case (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005). Prišlin (1991) also presents
opposing conclusions; while proposing that one can depend on attitudes for
a very reliable prediction of behaviour, he also suggests that attitudes do not
have a predictable value. This contradiction arises for the reason that
individual behaviours carried out in a particular context are influenced both
by general attitudes as well as by an extensive series of moderating
variables (Ajzen, 1982).

Recent research indicates that despite the progress or advance made in

different societies, superstitious beliefs remain prevalent in different cultures
and communities around the globe (Newport & Strausberg, 2001). Some
survey studies report a high degree of belief, interest and involvement in
superstition (Gallup & Newport, 1991; Ross & Joshi, 1992); people still seem
to want to rely on mythical beliefs to understand happenings and to control
their surroundings, even though their different religious beliefs,
socioeconomic or educational status.

Although superstitions can be resultant of an observational learning process

(learned behaviours), they can also originate by chance, for example, if a
person uses a particular pen for an exam were he/she does particularly well,
the individual may continue to use the same pen for other exams in the
belief that the pen was responsible for the positive outcome (Codrington,
2006). According to B.F. Skinner, this is described by means of 'operant
conditioning' - the perception that positive or negative reinforcements
determine behaviour. Skinner concluded that people's actions are reinforced
by positive repercussions, encouraging the recurrence of certain rituals or
repeated behaviours hopefully leading to other positive results (Skinner,
1948). In the same way, superstition is formed when people trust that a
specific behaviour will bring about a specific result even if there is no actual
link between the two (Vyse, 1997).

A further process by which people may become superstitious it that of the

self-fulfilling prophecy. The thought and fear that bad things will happen add
anxiety and apprehension, giving rise to confusion, uncertainties and panic,
leading the individual to perform poorly and faultily. Peoples' selective
attention on particular days such as Friday the 13th makes individuals more
alert and sensitive to the things that are happening around them than on any
other day, with the conclusion that people might think and believe bad things
are happening only on that specific day.

While some superstitions are widespread all over the globe and common to
many countries (such as, keeping fingers crossed or knocking on wood for
good luck, or 7 years of bad luck for breaking a mirror), one can clearly
observe that some superstitions are specific to particular cultures. For
example, because the number 8 is considered to be lucky for the Chinese,
the Bank of China was opened on what is considered to be the luckiest day
of the century, that is on 8/8/88 (Lip, 1992), and because the number 4 is
considered to be unlucky, many of the buildings in China do not have a
fourth floor (Wiseman & Watt, 2004). Other Chinese superstitions involve
the colour red for good luck and putting up mirrors in houses to ward off bad
luck (Simmons & Schindler, 2003), while Indians believe that looking into
somebody else's mirrors could trap part of your soul in their house, giving
power to the owner of the mirror to manipulate and control your soul (Oman,
2005). In Ireland, as well as India, people believe that the devil lingers in
houses that are no longer lived in and therefore break windowpanes for the
devil to get out. People practicing Hinduism do not work during Rahu Kalam,
which is a certain part of the day considered to be unfavourable in the Hindu
Almanac (DuBois & Beauchamp, 2007). The fishermen of New Guinea also
adhere to certain beliefs and engage into complex magical rituals for a
guaranteed successful fishing trip (Malinowski, 1954), and Russian maidens
put handmade green-leaf garlands into water to see whether they will live to
get married; should the garland float, or die unmarried in a short time;
should the garland sink (The Theosophical Movement, 2009).

Like in other countries superstition has a rather significant position in the

Maltese society as it is portrayed in our culture strongly influenced by
supernatural beliefs, rituals, symbols, stories and traditions still carried out
by many to this day. Although the pagan influences embodied in our culture
and society (Cassar, 1996; Zarb, 1998) research indubitably shows the
strong relationship between superstition and religion depicting tendencies
towards a superstitious religiosity in Maltese Catholics (Darmanin, 1999b).
External locus of control has also been associated with higher degrees of
superstition while internal locus of control creates this sense of power and
control over positive and/or negative happenings, this illusion of control
(Vyse, 1997).

https://www.ukessays.com/essays/theology/superstitions-superstitious-
beliefs-and-their-effect-theology-religion-essay.php