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model that explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the life cycle) of mid-latitude cyclones, and
introduced the idea of fronts, that is, sharply defined boundaries between air masses.[38] The group included
Carl-Gustaf Rossby (who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of fluid dynamics), Tor
Bergeron (who first determined how rain forms) and Jacob Bjerknes.

Observation networks and weather forecasting

In the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century a
range of meteorological instruments were invented - the
thermometer, barometer, hydrometer, as well as wind and
rain gauges. In the 1650s natural philosophers started using
these instruments to systematically record weather
observations. Scientific academies established weather diaries
and organised observational networks.[39] In 1654,
Ferdinando II de Medici established the first weather
observing network, that consisted of meteorological stations
in Florence, Cutigliano, Vallombrosa, Bologna, Parma, Milan,
Cloud classification by altitude of occurrence
Innsbruck, Osnabrück, Paris and Warsaw. The collected data
were sent to Florence at regular time intervals.[40] In the
1660s Robert Hooke of the Royal Society of London
sponsored networks of weather observers. Hippocrates'
treatise Airs, Waters, and Places had linked weather to
disease. Thus early meteorologists attempted to correlate
weather patterns with epidemic outbreaks, and the climate
with public health.[39]

During the Age of Enlightenment meteorology tried to

rationalise traditional weather lore, including astrological
meteorology. But there were also attempts to establish a
theoretical understanding of weather phenomena. Edmond This "Hyetographic or Rain Map of the World "
Halley and George Hadley tried to explain trade winds. They was first published 1848 by Alexander Keith
reasoned that the rising mass of heated equator air is replaced Johnston
by an inflow of cooler air from high latitudes. A flow of warm
air at high altitude from equator to poles in turn established
an early picture of circulation. Frustration with the lack of discipline among weather observers, and the poor quality of
the instruments, led the early modern nation states to organise large observation networks. Thus by the end of the 18th
century meteorologists had access to large quantities of reliable weather date.[39] In 1832, an electromagnetic telegraph
was created by Baron Schilling.[41] The arrival of the electrical telegraph in 1837 afforded, for the first time, a practical
method for quickly gathering surface weather observations from a wide area.[42]

This data could be used to produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region near the Earth's surface and to
study how these states evolved through time. To make frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a
reliable network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the Smithsonian Institution began to establish an
observation network across the United States under the leadership of Joseph Henry.[43] Similar observation networks
were established in Europe at this time. The Reverend William Clement Ley was key in understanding of cirrus clouds

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