Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
1
CONTENTS
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO TITLE
SYNOPSIS
LIST OF FIGURES
NOMENCLATURE
1 Introduction
2 Literature review
3 Description of equipments
3.1 Battery
3.2 Spurgear
3.3 Motor
3.4 Controlunit
3.5 Solarcell
4 Design and drawing
5 Working principle
6 Merits and demerits
7 Applications
8 List of materials
9 Cost Estimation
10 Conclusion
Bibliography
Photography
3
LIST OF FIGURES
4
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Number Title
1 Overall Diagram
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NOMENCLATURE
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NOMENCLATURE
A =Area of model(m2 )
H=Height (m)
L=Length(m)
P=Pressure (N/m2)
V=Volume (m3)
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SYNOPSIS
8
SYNOPSIS
Solar energy means all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun. It
provides daylight makes the earth hot and is the source of energy for plants to
grow. Solar energy is also put to two types of use to help our lives directly solar
heating and solar electricity.
For this project the conversion of the solar energy is done by the solar
panel and the solar panel is auto tracking according to the movement of sun.
The control mechanism carries the inverter, battery charger Indicator and LDR
Auto tracking Mechanism.
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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
10
CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION
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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVAY
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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
SECOND GENERATION
THIN-FILM CELL
Second generation materials have been developed to address energy
requirements and production costs of solar cells. Alternative manufacturing
techniques such as vapour deposition and electroplating are advantageous as
they reduce high temperature processing significantly. It is commonly accepted
that as manufacturing techniques evolve production costs will be dominated by
constituent material requirements, whether this be a silicon substrate, or glass
cover. Such processes can bring costs down to a little under but because of the
13
defects inherent in the lower quality processing methods, have much reduced
efficiencies compared to First Generation.
THIRD GENERATION
Despite the numerous attempts at making better solar cells by using new and
exotic materials, the reality is that the photovoltaics market is still dominated by
silicon wafer-based solar cells (first-generation solar cells). This means that
14
most solar cell manufacturers are equipped to produce these type of solar cells.
Therefore, a large body of research is currently being done all over the world to
create silicon wafer-based solar cells that can achieve higher conversion
So,
2. Low cost of silicon based solar cells or the factors considered in choosing the
solar cell.
SOLAR POWER:
Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that influences
Earth's climate and weather and sustains life. Solar power is sometimes used as
from solar radiation. Since ancient times solar energy has been harnessed for
secondary solar resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and
or photovoltaic means, space heating and cooling in active and passive solar
buildings; potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting, hot water,
thermal energy for cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial
purposes.
15
The purpose of gear mechanism is to transmit torque & rotation between
two shafts. Spur gear is cylindrical in form and has teeth, which are of involutes
form in most cases. There are several kinds of stresses present in loaded and
rotating gear teeth. Each gear tooth may be considering as a cantilever beam,
The bending stress is highest at the fillet and can caused breakage or
fatigue failure of tooth in root region. Calculation of the tooth load is done by
Lewis equation and dynamic tooth load by Buckingham equation. The four
major failure modes in gear systems are tooth bending fatigue, contact fatigue,
parameters are find out with respect to that module. Then Failure Load is found
out with respect to static and dynamic condition. A 3D model of the designed is
made on PTC Creo2.0 and further analysis of the gear is done in solid works for
16
CHAPTER-3
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
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CHAPTER-3
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
BATTERY:
Battery is use for storing the energy produced from the solar power. The
battery used is a lead-acid type and has a capacity of 12v; 2.5A.the most
inexpensive secondary cell is the lead acid cell and is widely used for
commercial purposes. A lead acid cell when ready for use contains two plates
positive plate (anode) is of Lead –peroxide (PbO2) which has chocolate brown
colour and the negative plate (cathode) is lead (Pb) which is of grey colour.
action that takes place forms lead sulphate (PbSO4) on both the plates with
water being formed in the electrolyte. After a certain amount of energy has
been withdrawn from the cell,both plates are Transformed into the same
material and the specific gravity of the electrolyte (H2so4) is lowerd.the cell is
To charge the cell, direct current is passed through the cell in the reverse
direction to that in which the cell provided current. This reverses the chemical
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process and again forms a lead peroxide (PbO2) positive plate and a pure lead
Lead–acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, are the
oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight
ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high currents
means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These
features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor
vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.
Lead–acid batteries (under 5 kg) account for 1.5% of all portable secondary
battery sales in Japan by number of units sold (25% by price). Sealed lead–acid
batteries accounted for 10% by weight of all portable battery sales in the EU in
2000
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Electricity generation
POT (POTENTIOMETER)
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resister with a sliding contact that
forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side
and the wiper), it acts as a varible resistor or Rheostat. Potentiometer are
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commonly used to control electrical devices such as a volume control of a ratio.
Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position tranducers, for
example in a joystick.
Potentiometer are rarely used to directly control significant power (more
than a watt). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g
volume control on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic
circuits. For examble a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the
switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps.
Potentiometers are sometimes provided with one or more switches
mounted on the same shaft. For instance , when attached to a volume control,
the knob can also function as an on/off switch at the lowest volume.
APPLICATION OF POTENTIOMETERS
Potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very
wide variety of equipment functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in
consumer electronics has declined in the 1990s, with digital contols now more
common. However they remain in many applications, such as volume controls
and as position sensors.
AUDIO CONTROL
One of the most common uses for modern low-power potentiometers is as
audio control devices. Both linear pots (also known as “faders”) and rotary
potentiometers (commonly called knobs)are regularly used to adjust loudness,
frequency attenuation and other characteristics of audio singals.
The ‘log pot’ is used as the volume control in audio amplifiers, where it is
also called an “audio taper pot”, because the amplitude response of the human
ear is also logarithmic. It ensures that, on a volume control marked 0 to 10, for
example , a setting of 5 sounds half as loud as a setting of 10. There is also an
anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply the reverse of a log pot. It is
almost always used in a ganged configuration with a log pot, for instance , in an
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audio balance control. Potentiometers used in combination with filter networks
act as tone controls or equalizers.
TELEVISION
Potentiometers were formly used to control picture brightness,contrast,
and colour response. A potentiometer was often tremendous impact, the acute
education need created by them and provides a glimpse of the major application
area.
IC 555 TIMERS
The IC SE / NE 555 monolithic circuit is a highly stable controller capable
of producing accurate time delays or oscillations. Additional terminals are
provided for triggering or resetting if desired. In the timing operations, the time
is precisely controlled by one external resistor and a capacitor, by the operation
as an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both
accurately contributed with the external RC constants.
MICRO CONTROLLER
A microconroller is a complete microprocessor system built on a single
IC. Microcontoller were developed to meet a need for microprocessors to be
put into low cost products. Building a complete microprocessor system on a
single chip substaintially reduce the cost of building simple products, which use
the microprocessors power to implement their function,because tye
microprocessor is a natural way to implement many products. This means the
idea of using a microprocessor for low cost products comes up often. But the
typical 8 bit microprocessor based system, such as one using a Z80 and 8085 is
expensive. Both 8085 and Z80 system need some additional circuits to make a
microprocessing system. Each part there is cost of money. Even though a
product design may requires only very simple system, the parts needed to make
the system as a low cost product.
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To solve this problem microprocessor system is implemented with a
single chip microcontroller. This could be called microcomputer,as all the
major parts are in the IC.Most frequently they are called microcomputer
because they are used to perform control functions.
The microcontroller contains full implementaion of a standard
MICROPROCESSOR , ROM, RAM, I/O ,CLOCK,TIMERS and also SERIAL
PORTS. Microcontroller also called “system” on a chip “or single chip
microprocessor system"”or computer on a chip.
A microcontroller is a Computer-On-A-Chip, or ,if you prefer a single chip
computer. Micro suggests that the device is small, and controller tells you that
the devics might be used to conrol objects processor or events. Another term to
describe a microconroller and its support circuits are often built into, or
embedded in the devices they control.
Today microcontroller are very commonly used in wide variety of
intelligent products. For example most personal computers keyboard and
implemented with a microconroller. It replaces scanning, debounce, matrix
decoding and serial transmission circuits. Many low cost products, such as toys,
electtic drills, microwave ovens, VCR and a host of other consumer and
industrial products are based on microcontrollers.
MOTOR:
D.C.MOTOR PRINCIPLE:
A machine that converts direct current power into mechanical power is
known as D.C Motor. Its generation is based on the principle that when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. The direction iof this force is given by
Fleming’s left hand rule.
WORKING OF A DC MOTOR:
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Consider a part of a multipolar dc motor as shown in fig. when the terminals of
the motor are connected to an external source of dc supply;
(i) The field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles.
(ii) The armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole
carry currents in one direction while all the conductors under S-pole
carry currents in the opposite direction.
Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of paper
and those under S-pole carry current out of the plane of paper as shown in fig.
Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic
field, mechanical force acts on it. Applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear
that force on each conductor is tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise
direction. All these forces add together to produce a driving torque which sets
the armature rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of the brush to
the other, current in the conductor is received and at the same time it comes
under the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently the
direction of force on the conductor remains same.
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PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION:
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A
current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed
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in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the
current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As
you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and
South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and
South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness
the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external
magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a
magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet
or winding with a "South" polarization).
Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (armature), stator,
commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors, the
external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets. The
stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well
as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle
and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of
windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the
commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the
rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.
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The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings
are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the energized winding and
the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will rotate until it is almost
aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the
brushes move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding.
Given our example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current
through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic field,
driving it to continue rotating.
In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles
(three is a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the
commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole motor, if the
rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field
magnets), it will get "stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a
moment where the commutator shorts out the power supply. This would be bad
for the power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet
another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would exhibit a high
amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce is cyclic with
the position of the rotor).
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So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design,
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There's probably no better way to see how an average DC motor is put
together, than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as
well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly good motor.
The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the same model
that Solarbotics sells) are available for (on 10 lines / cm graph paper). This is a
basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2 brushes and three commutator contacts.
The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite
common, and has a number of advantages. First off, the iron core provides a
strong, rigid support for the windings -- a particularly important consideration
for high-torque motors.
The core also conducts heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the
motor to be driven harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core
construction is also relatively inexpensive compared with other construction
types.
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But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron
armature has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration. This
construction also results in high winding inductances which limit brush and
commutator life.
In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a
'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire itself for
structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and the permanent
magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have much
lower armature inductance than iron-core motors of comparable size, extending
brush and commutator life.
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LIMITAION OF THE DC MOTOR:
We never aim at achieving maximum power due to the following reasons:
The armature current under this condition is very large – much excess of
rated current of the machine.
Half of the input power is wasted in the armature circuit. in fact ,if we take
into account other losses (iron and mechanical),the efficiency will be well
below 50%
SPUR GEAR
two shafts. Spur gear is cylindrical in form and has teeth, which are of involutes
form in most cases. There are several kinds of stresses present in loaded and
rotating gear teeth. Each gear tooth may be considering as a cantilever beam,
31
The bending stress is highest at the fillet and can caused breakage or
fatigue failure of tooth in root region. Calculation of the tooth load is done by
Lewis equation and dynamic tooth load by Buckingham equation. The four
major failure modes in gear systems are tooth bending fatigue, contact fatigue,
parameters are find out with respect to that module. Then Failure Load is found
out with respect to static and dynamic condition. A 3D model of the designed is
made on PTC Creo2.0 and further analysis of the gear is done in solid works for
32
INTERFERENCE IN GEARS
teeth. m= d/N
2) FACE WIDTH: The width along the contact surface between the gears is
3) TOOTH THICKNESS: The thickness of the tooth along the pitch circle is
4) ADDENDUM : The radial distance between the pitch circle and the top land
5) DEDENDUM: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the
6) PRESSURE ANGLE: The angle between the line joining the centres of the
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SOLAR CELL:
Cells are used for powering small devices such as electronic calculators.
Photovoltaic arrays generate a form of renewable electricity, particularly
useful in situations where electrical power from the grid is unavailable
such as in remote area power systems,
Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, remote radiotelephones and
water pumping applications.
Photovoltaic electricity is also increasingly deployed in grid-tied
electrical systems. Similar devices intended to capture energy from other
sources include thermophotovoltaic cells, betavoltaics cells, and
optoelectric nuclear batteries.
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represented in commercial production, accounting for 89.6% of 2007
production
FIRST GENERATION:
SECOND GENERATION
THIN-FILM CELL
Second generation materials have been developed to address energy
requirements and production costs of solar cells. Alternative manufacturing
techniques such as vapour deposition and electroplating are advantageous as
they reduce high temperature processing significantly. It is commonly accepted
that as manufacturing techniques evolve production costs will be dominated by
constituent material requirements, whether this be a silicon substrate, or glass
cover. Such processes can bring costs down to a little under but because of the
defects inherent in the lower quality processing methods, have much reduced
efficiencies compared to First Generation.
35
therefore costs. These technologies do hold promise of higher conversion
efficiencies, particularly CIGS-CIS, DSC and CdTe offers significantly cheaper
production costs.In CdTe production represented 4.7% of total market share,
thin-film silicon 5.2% and CIGS 0.5%.
THIRD GENERATION
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SELECTION OF SOLAR CELL:
Despite the numerous attempts at making better solar cells by using new
and exotic materials, the reality is that the photovoltaics market is still
means that most solar cell manufacturers are equipped to produce these type of
solar cells. Therefore, a large body of research is currently being done all over
the world to create silicon wafer-based solar cells that can achieve higher
So,
2. Low cost of silicon based solar cells or the factors considered in choosing the
solar cell.
SOLAR POWER:
Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that influences
Earth's climate and weather and sustains life. Solar power is sometimes used as
from solar radiation. Since ancient times solar energy has been harnessed for
secondary solar resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and
37
or photovoltaic means, space heating and cooling in active and passive solar
buildings; potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting, hot water,
thermal energy for cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial
purposes.
PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY:
1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi
conducting materials, such as silicon.
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3. An array of solar panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of
direct current (DC) electricity
ULTIMATE AIM
The solar based air cooler machine can be widely used in homes,
cooling. In highly humid climates, evaporative cooling may have little thermal
comfort benefit beyond the increased ventilation and air movement it provides.
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CHAPTER-4
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CHAPTER-4
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CHAPTER -5
WORKING PRINCIPLE
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Block Diagram:
WORKING PRINCIPLE
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D.C. storage is given to an inverter and this inverter inverts 12V D.C. to input in
to AC output, step upped in to 230V. The 230V AC supply is given to the lamp .
45
CHAPTER -6
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CHAPTER-6
MERITS
ENERGY SAVINGS:
By the use of tube light we can save about 40% of energy more than that
of discharge lamps and it is possible to get a better illumination at the street and
this energy can be utilized at required hour and due to this there are following
advantages.
By the use of tube light the colour determination will be better.
By the use of this light the hard beams would not be there so that
accident due to this is avoided in the road.
It has comparatively longer life than others.
The energy consumption comparatively lesser than the other.
It can be placed for illumination at any position.
it’s construction is simple and requires less maintenance.
Since it is not a point source, the illumination level will be higher
i.e., the illumination is throughout its length, and the size of the
tube is 1.2m.
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CHAPTER-7
APPLICATIONS
48
CHAPTER-7
APPLICATIONS
Solar modules are a good source of electricity because they are reliable
simples to operate and do not require fuel.
The main application for solar electricity is in remote sunny areas that
have no main electricity and the supply of fuel for generator is unreliable or
expensive.
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CHAPTER-8
LIST OF MATERIALS
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CHAPTER-8
LIST OF MATERIALS
The various factors which determine the choice of material are discussed
below.
1. PROPERTIES:
The material selected must posses the necessary properties for the
a. Physical
b. Mechanical
d. Chemical
Cast ability
Weld ability
Bribability
Forge ability
Merchantability
Surface properties
Shrinkage
2. MANUFACTURING CASE:
3. QUALITY REQUIRED:
4. AVILABILITY OF MATERIAL:
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Some materials may be scarce or in short supply.it then becomes
obligatory for the designer to use some other material which though may not be
a perfect substitute for the material designed.the delivery of materials and the
5. SPACE CONSIDERATION:
6. COST:
materials.
53
CHAPTER-9
COST ESTIMATION
54
CHAPTER-9
COST ESTIMATION
1. LABOUR COST:
Lathe
Drilling
Welding,
Grinding,
Power hacksaw,
2. OVERGHEAD CHARGES:
=4000+1000
=5000
=1000
3.TOTAL COST:
=4000+1000+1000
=6000
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CHAPTER-10
CONCLUSION
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CHAPTER-10
CONCLUSION
A solar lamp also known as solar light or solar lantern, is a lighting system composed of
an LED lamp, solar panels, battery, charge controller and there may also be an inverter. The
lamp operates on electricity from batteries, charged through the use of solar photovoltaic
panel.Solar-powered household lighting can replace other light sources like candles
or kerosene lamps. Solar lamps use renewable energy with infinity supply which is cheaper
than standard lamps. In addition, solar lamps reduce health risk as kerosene lamps have a bad
impact on human health. However, solar lamps may have higher initial cost, are weather
dependent.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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PHOTOGRAPHY
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