Batteries - the most critical part of UPS Systems

Introduction :

Battery is the weakest but the most important part in all types of UPS systems. Various
battery types are available in the market with their own merits/demerits. An
understanding of various operating parameters, maintenance requirements and cost is
vital in choosing the most advantageous battery for the application. The following
paper is a comprehensive analysis of various types of batteries, the factors affecting
their life and merit & demerits of each type of battery.

In UPS applications mainly three types of batteries are used namely:

Vented / Flooded Lead Acid batteries

Sealed maintenance free batteries/Valve Regulated Lead Acid (SMF/VRLA)
Nickel Cadmium (Ni-cd) batteries

For UPS applications SMF/VRLA batteries are the most popular and hence are widely
used. Hence, in this detailing, mainl emphasize has been put on these type of
batteries.

Vented / Flooded Lead Acid Batteries:

There are two types for lead acid batteries namely tubular and Plante. The difference
between the two is the construction. For tubular battery normal life is 8-10 years. The
Plante battery is both mechanically and electrically more durable. The normal life for
Plante batteries is 15-20 years. Because this type of battery generates corrosive fumes
when charging and because the sulfuric acid electrolyte does evaporate to some
extent, these batteries must be used in a special room, which is well ventilated to the
outside and kept away from delicate electronic equipments. It needs separate
room/racks with acid proof tiles for installation. Because of evaporation, it needs
regular maintenance to check specific gravity, to add water and acid. These batteries
can withstand high temperature, voltage, and deep discharge with minimum damage
to itself. A notice should be exhibited in the battery room prohibiting smoking and use
of naked flames. These batteries cannot be transported in charged condition and
therefore need charging at site. Typical initial charging of the battery will take about 55
to 90 hours. Nominal cell voltage is 2V/cell. The charger for this battery should be able
to provide the first charge at 2.6 to 2.7 V/cell.

These type of batteries are typically used for UPS Systems of very high rated capacity,
typically engaged for plant application, wherein maintenance and space is not really an
issue.

Sealed Maintenance Free batteries (SMF):

These are also known as Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries. These batteries
are the most popular for usage with UPS systems for computer or commercial
application. Being Sealed, these batteries do not emit any fumes and hence can be
very well installed next to electronic equipment. These batteries also can be housed in
a close enclosure if necessary. These batteries are also maintenance free and avoid
any hassels of checking specific gravity, adding water or acid, etc. These batteries
have a relatively lesser life of approx. 3-5 years. The life expectancy typically depends
on the number of charge/discharge cycle experienced by the batteries and the ambient
temperature in which the batteries are used. These batteries are primarily the most
popular for commercial applications due to "Install and Forget" approach.

The Performance and service life of these batteries can be maximized by observing the
following guidelines:

1) Permissible operating temperature range of SMF batteries is 15 deg C to 50 deg C,

but using within an operating range 5 C to 35 C will extend service life. Below - 15 deg
C, the battery changes its chemical composition and cannot hold a charge. You will
enjoy longer service life, if batteries are operated in ambient temperature range of 20
deg C to 25 deg C (68F to 77F). At lower temperature they have longer life and lower
capacity while at higher temperature they have higher capacity and lower life.
2) A good rule of thumb when determining battery service life in relation to
temperature is that for every 8.3 deg C (15F) average annual temperature above 25
deg C (77F), the life of the battery is reduced by 50%. Therefore warranty of the
battery should be ideally reduced to 50% for every 8.3 deg C (15F) increase in
operating temperature above 25 deg C (77F).
3) SMF batteries are designed to have a float voltage of 2.3 V/cell. This means that a
12 V battery (with 6 internal cells) has a float voltage of 13.8 Volts. Most of the battery
manufacturers recommend float voltage of 2.25 - 2.3 volts per cell. When there are
more cells (generally >120) in series, to compensate for higher temperatures, float
voltage should be decreased by approx. 3 mV per cell per deg C above 25 deg C. It
should be increased by the same amount when operated at a temperature less than 25
deg C to avoid undercharge. The Cutoff voltage is 1.67 V/cell for high rate of discharge
(<30 minutes). For low rate of discharge it is recommended to change it 1.75V/cell or
even higher to 1.8 V/cell.
4) It is recommended that SMF batteries should not be left in totally discharged state
more than 72 hrs. The batteries may get partially or fully damaged due to
SULPHATION if charging does not start within 72 Hrs from totally discharged state.
Sulphation is the formation of lead sulphate on negative plates which acts as an
insulator and has a detrimental effect on charge acceptance.
5) In normal float / equalize use (2.25 to 2.35V/cell), gas generated inside battery is
recombined into negative plates, and return to water content of the electrolyte. Thus
electrical capacity is not lost because of this recombination. There is no need to add
external water, but due the corrosion of the electrodes battery will eventually lose
capacity.
6) At ambient temperature of 30 - 40 deg C, the shelf life of batteries is 5-6 months
only. A freshening charge must be given to the batteries every 6 months, if needed to
be stored for longer periods. Batteries should be kept in dry, cool place. At ambient
temperature of 20 deg C (68F), the self-discharge rate is 3-4% (approx.) of rated
capacity per month. The self-discharge rate varies with ambient temperature.
7) SMF batteries are equipped with a safe, low pressure venting system, which
operates at 7 psi to 10 psi (can vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer),
automatically releasing excess gas in the event that gas pressure rises to a level above
the normal rate ensuring no excessive buildup of gas in the batteries. Resealing is
automatic once the pressure is returned to normal. The life of the battery is reduced
significantly if the batteries gas.
8) Cyclic life of the battery depends on ambient operating temperature, the discharge
rate, the depth of discharge, and the manner in which the battery is recharged. The
most important factor is the depth of discharge. At a given discharge rate and time,
the shallower the depth of discharge, the longer is the cyclic life.
9) Failure mode at the end of life includes a) Capacity decrease b) Internal short circuit
c) Damage to container/lid d) Terminal corrosion e) Reduced open circuit voltage.
10) The IEEE defines "B" (Bend of useful life) for a UPS battery as being the point
when it can no longer supply 80 percent of its rated capacity in ampere-hours (AH).
The relationship between AH capacity and runtime time is not linear, a 20% reduction
in capacity results in a much greater reduction in runtime. When battery reaches 80%
of its rated capacity, the aging process accelerates and the battery should be replaced.
Some UPS/ Battery manufacturers define "B" (Bend of useful life) for a UPS battery
when battery capacity reaches 50-60% of its rated capacity.
11) Mixed use of batteries with different capacities, different makes should be avoided
as it will cause accelerated aging of the whole string.
12) If two or more battery groups are to be used, connected in parallel, they must be
connected to the UPS through lengths of wires, cables or busbars that have the same
loop line resistance as each other. This makes sure that each parallel bank of batteries
presents the same impedance to the UPS as any other of the parallel banks thereby
ensuring correct equalization of the source to allow for maximum energy transfer to
the UPS load.
13) The normal life SMF battery will support approx. 200 charge/discharge cycles at
25 deg C (77F) and 100% depth of discharge.
14) The term "B" (Bend of useful life) for a UPS battery refers to the fact that these
batteries do not require fluid. But preventive maintenance like checking for cracks and
deformation of the container & lid, electrolyte leakage/spills tightening of the
connection etc, particularly for higher AH capacity batteries should be done to prevent
any damage.

Nickel Cadmium Batteries(Ni-cd):

Ni-cd batteries do emit hydrogen and oxygen gas, products of electrolysis, but there
are no corrosive gases as lead acid batteries, so these can be installed near electronic
equipment. Water consumption is relatively low and so therefore maintenance is low.
Normal service life is 20-25 years. These are most expensive of the various types of
batteries previously discussed. Initial cost may be approximately three times that of
lead acid battery depending upon their AH capacity. These batteries do not experience
the severe shortening of life when operated at elevated temperatures and perform
better at low temperatures than do the lead acid batteries. Nominal cell voltage is 1.2
V/cell. The battery chargers and inverters have to be designed to operate with low end
cell cutoff voltages and higher recharging voltages needed for such batteries. These
batteries occasionally demand boost charging and typically find their applications
wherein UPSs support critical equipment in hazardous environment such as chemical,
fertiliser, cement industry.

Merits/demerits :

As spelled earlier, all the above discussed types of batteries have their own merits and
demerits. Let us now look at them individually.

A) Vented / flooded Lead acid batteries:

Merits :
1) Most economical among three types of batteries.
2) Life is higher than SMF batteries.
3) Robust- not much sensitive to temperature.

Demerits :
1) Needs periodic maintenance- twice a month.
2) Emits corrosive fumes.
3) Needs special battery room with acid proof tilling.
4) Cannot be transported in charged condition, initial charging takes 55 to 90 hours.
5) Needs specially trained persons for handling due highly hazardous sulphuric acid.

B) Sealed maintenance free batteries/Valve Regulated Lead Acid (SMF/VRLA)

Merits :
1) No maintenance as far as water filling, specific gravity check etc are concerned.
2) Can be shipped in charged conditions so ready to use.
3) User friendly.

Demerits :
1) Leaving batteries in discharged state for longer life will reduce life significantly or
can damage them permanently.
2) Very sensitive to temperature
3) Service life lowest among the three types
4) Costlier than flooded / vented lead acid battery

C) Nickel Cadmium (Ni-cd) batteries :

Merits :
1) Moderate maintenance
2) Higher service life
3) less sensitive to temperature
4) Fumes not corrosive so can be installed near electronic equipment

Demerits :
1) Most expensive among three types
2) Cannot transported in charged conditions
3) Need to consider compatibility with charger and inverter.

Summary:

As UPS battery replacement is expensive and it is the most vital part in UPS reliability,
certain factors which are directly affecting the life of the battery, should be given
proper attention. Cyclic life of the battery depends on ambient operating temperature,
the discharge rate, the depth of discharge, and the manner in which the battery is
recharged . Shelf life of SMF batteries is 5-6 months only for ambient of 30-40C. The
IEEE defines "B" (Bend of useful life) for a UPS battery as being the point when it can
no longer supply 80 percent of its rated capacity in ampere-hours (AH).