Mechanism in human movements

This paper focuses on a sensory-motor control mechanism in human reaching movements from
the perspective of robotics. By formulating a musculo-skeletal redundant system which takes into
account a nonlinear muscle property and performing numerical simulations, we suggest that the
human-like reaching movements can be realized by using only simple task-space feedback
scheme together with the internal force effect coming from nonlinear property of muscles without
any complex mathematical computation such as an inverse dynamics or some optimal trajectory
derivation. Firstly, we introduce both kinematics and dynamics of a three-link serial manipulator
with six monoarticular muscles and three biarticular muscles model whose movements are
limited within a horizontal plane. Secondly, the nonlinear muscle property coming from a
physiological study based on Hill's muscle model, is taken into consideration. This nonlinearity
makes it possible to modulate the damping effect in joint-space by considering the internal force
generated by the redundant muscles. By utilizing this feature, the end-point converges to the
desired point using only simple task-space feedback control scheme, even thought the system
owns both the joint and muscle redundancies. Finally, we illustrate numerical simulations to show
the effectiveness of the control scheme, and suggest one of the direction to study brain-motor
control mechanism of human movements

ANATOMY OF A WALK

Walks are very complex. Not only do the feet have to move across the ground, but the hips, spine,
arms, shoulders and head all move in sync to maintain balance in the system. Though complex, if
you break down each of these movements joint by joint, the mechanics of walking become clear.

Let’s break down a basic walk, step by step. For clarity, I’ve animated a simple skeleton so you
can see exactly how each joint moves.

THE FEET AND LEGS

The feet and legs propel the body forward. To keep your character looking natural, you should
always keep the joints bent slightly, even at full leg extension.

The walk usually starts with the feet

at the extended position – where the
feet are furthest apart. This is the
point where the character’s weight
shifts to the forward foot.
 As the weight of the body is
transferred to the forward foot, the
knee bends to absorb the shock. This
is called the recoil position, and is the
lowest point in the walk.

This is halfway through the first step.

As the character moves forward, the
knee straightens out and lifts the body
it’s highest point. This is called the
passing position because this is where
the free foot passes the supporting
leg.

As the character moves forward, the

weight-bearing foot lifts off the
ground at the heel, transmitting the
force at the ball of the foot. This is
where the body starts to fall forward.
The free foot swings forward like a
pendulum to catch the ground.

The free leg makes contact. This is

exactly half the cycle. The second
half is an exact mirror of the first. If it
differs, the character may appear to
limp.

THE HIPS, SPINE & SHOULDERS

The body’s center of gravity is at the hips -- all balance starts there, as does the rest of the body’s
motion. During a walk, it’s best to think of the hips’ motion as two separate, overlapping
rotations. First, the hips rotate along the axis of the spine, forward and back with the legs. If the
right leg is forward, the right hip is rotated forward as well. Second, at the passing position, the
free leg pulls the hip out of center, forcing the hips to rock from side to side. These two motions
are thentransmitted through the spine to the shoulders, which mirror the hips to maintain balance.
When the feet are fully extended, the hips must rotate along the axis of the spine. To keep
balance, the shoulders swing in the opposite direction. From the front, the spine is relatively
straight, but from the top, you can see how the hips and shoulders twist in opposite directions to
maintain balance.

At the passing position, the front view shows the hip being pulled out of center by the weight of
the free leg. This causes a counter-rotation in the shoulders. From the top, however, the hips and
shoulders are nearly equal angles.

At the extension of the second leg, the hips and shoulders again are flat when viewed from the
front. From the top, however, you can see the rotation of the hips and shoulders has completed.

THE ARMS

Unless the character is using it’s arms, they’ll generally hang loose at the sides. In this case, they
generally act like pendulums, dragging a few frames behind the hips and shoulders.
Even at full extension, try keeping the arms slightly bent at the elbows. This will keep them
looking natural.

THE HEAD

In a standard walk, the head generally tries to stay level, with the eyes focused on where the
character is going. It will then bob around slightly to stay balanced. If a character is excited, this
bobbing will be more pronounced. The head may also hang low for a sad character, or may look
around if the scene requires it.

Running Mechanics

Running or jogging is an activity that is very helpful to fitness trainers in helping clients reach
their goals. Whether it is a means of cardio to lose weight or improve speed for an athlete in his
or her sport. Also, much like any other activity, it can be very simple or very technical and
complex. The purpose here is to show two main concepts. The first is being able to teach proper
form and general guidelines related to running as a fitness instructor would to their clientele. The
other reason is to use the knowledge of running and relate it back to the weight room for your
strength workouts. This will allow you do prescribe exercises that can help problems a client may
have or need to work on.

Jogging Mechanics

Jogging is meant for everyone, but there are a few exceptions to every rule. Depending on the
individual, the level of intensity or starting point may vary. However, the mechanics are the same
for everyone. Jogging is not nearly as technical as people think. Many of the things described
here are just proper form issues that will in turn prevent injury.

• Standing tall - big open chest, slightly leaning forward, 85 degree angle

• Arm swing - move from the shoulder, elbows roughly stay at 90 degree angle the entire
swing, fingers relaxed, hip to cheek no more

• Foot striking - heel to toe, center of the heel

• Leg swing - speed changes leg swing and length, leg swings forward and back in a
straight line, not out to side at any point, legs make a small circle

Sprinting Mechanics

Sprinting is much more involved than jogging is, but the better the form for both jogging and
sprinting the better a person will be. Basically, even though there is more going on when
sprinting, performing the proper technique is crucial both types of running. Also another factor
that distinguishes sprinting from jogging is force production. Sprinting is all about generating the
maximum amount of force when in contact with the ground and spending the least amount of
time in contact with the ground as possible. Still another concept to consider is that there are
different phases when sprinting, and each phases form changes slightly.

Acceleration Phase-start to 10 yards

• Body position-45 degree angle

 • Arm swing-same as jogging, but recommended to always go hip to cheek

• Leg swing-straight forward and back in a straight line, knee drive forward hip height, leg
extension back slightly behind hips when contacts ground

Max Velocity Phase-10 yards and beyond

• Body position-up tall like jogging form

• Arm swing-same as before

• Leg swing-changes from forward and back to circles, circles much more precise than
when jogging, butt kicker, knee punch, leg extension, pull

Common Improper Running Form Mistakes

Upper body hunched over

Crossing center line of body with arms

Too much arm swing

Long back kick

Shuffling feet

Hip and leg swing

Over striding