Date 3-Apr-17

Lecture-31: Transmission line Model

Line Model
 Transmission lines are represented by an equivalent circuit
model on a “per-phase” basis.
 The terminal voltages are expressed from the line to neutral or
what is known as the phase voltage.
 Thus a three-phase system is reduced to an equivalent single-
phase system.
 The model is used to calculate the voltages, currents and the
power flow which depend on the transmission line parameters
and the length of the line.

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  The voltage regulation and losses can also be calculated from
the model.
Short Line Model
 The capacitance of transmission line may be neglected if the
line is less than 80 km long or the voltage is less than 69 kV.
 The short line model is obtained by multiplying the series
impedance per unit length by the I R jX
S I R
line length.

Receiving End
Sending End
𝑍 = (𝑟 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿) × 𝑙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 VS

SR
VR

 The figure shown depicts a short

line model.(𝐿 = 0.2 ln 𝐷𝐷 𝑚𝐻/𝑘𝑚)
𝑠
Figure: Short line model
 Where:
2
 Vs : sending end phase voltage;
Is : sending end line current;
VR : receiving end phase voltage;
IR : receiving end line current.
SR3φ : Apparent power at three phase load
 The receiving end current is given as,
∗
𝑆𝑅3𝜑
𝐼𝑅 =
3𝑉𝑅∗
 The sending end voltage is given as,
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍. 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅

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 Since the capacitance is neglected hence we have stated the
sending end current same as
IS IR
the receiving end current.

Receiving End
Sending End
+
 The transmission line may be VS
ABCD +
Parameter VR
represented by a two-port - Model -
network as shown in the
figure with parameters Fig. Two port representation of
transmission line
marked as A,B,C,D. Notice
the direction of currents. The receiving end current is directed
outwards unlike the 2-port of the admittance type network.
 In terms of these four parameters the two equations for
sending end voltage and current becomes,

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 𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴. 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵. 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶. 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷. 𝐼𝑅
 In matrix form the above equations may written as,
𝑉𝑆 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉𝑅
[ ]=[ ][ ]
𝐼𝑆 𝐶 𝐷 𝐼𝑅
For short line model the parameters of the matrix have the
following relationships,
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍. 𝐼𝑅 ; 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐴 = 1; 𝐵 = 𝑍; 𝐶 = 0; 𝐷 = 1
 Voltage regulation of the line may be defined as the
percentage change in voltage at the receiving end of line
when the load varies from no-load to full load.
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 |𝑉𝑅,𝑁𝐿 | − |𝑉𝑅,𝐹𝐿 |
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑅 = × 100
|𝑉𝑅,𝐹𝐿 |
 Where, NL is subscript for no-load and FL for full-load. At no-
load the receiving end current 𝐼𝑅 = 0, thus
𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑅,𝑁𝐿 =
𝐴
 For short transmission line, A=1 thus VS

𝑉𝑅,𝑁𝐿 = 𝑉𝑆 .

IZ

IX
δ
 Voltage regulation is a measure of
O
θR VR
line voltage drop and depends on the IR
IR
load power factor.
Fig. Phasor diagram of lagging
 Voltage regulation will be poor at low power-factor load condition

6
 VS
lagging power factor loads and may be
negative for leading power factor loads.

IX
IZ
O δ
 This situation is demonstrated by the IR VR IR
θR=0
phasor diagram shown next for three
Fig. Phasor diagram unity power
cases, lagging, unity and leading power factor load condition

factor loads.
 After calculating the sending end VS
IR
voltage and current the sending end

IX
IZ
power is obtained by the following
expression, O θR δ IR
VR
𝑆𝑆,3𝜑 = 3𝑉𝑆 . 𝐼𝑆∗ = 𝑃𝑆,3𝜑 + 𝑗 𝑄𝑆,3𝜑 Fig. Phasor diagram of leading
power factor load condition
𝑆𝑅,3𝜑 = 3𝑉𝑅 . 𝐼𝑅∗ = 𝑃𝑅,3𝜑 + 𝑗 𝑄𝑅,3𝜑
 The line losses are given by,
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 𝑆𝐿,3𝜑 = 𝑆𝑆,3𝜑 − 𝑆𝑅,3𝜑
 The transmission line efficiency is given as,
𝑃𝑅,3𝜑
𝜂=
𝑃𝑆,3𝜑
Medium Line Model
 As the line length and the voltage increases the charging
current becomes appreciable and IS R jX I
L IR
the capacitances must be +

Receiving End
+

Sending End
considered.
VS
 Lines over 80 km and below 250 Y
2
Y VR
2
km are referred to as the nominal-
- -
𝜋 model as shown in the figure.
Figure: Nominal-π model for medium
8 length line
 R jX

 Using KCL the current in series impedance is

IS IL IR
+

Receiving End
+

Sending End
designated by 𝐼𝐿 is represented as, VS Y
2
Y
2
VR

𝑌 - -

𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅
2
Figure: Nominal-π model for medium
length line

 Using KVL the sending end voltage is expressed as,

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝐿
 Substituting for 𝐼𝐿 we obtain,
𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍 (𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 ) = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅
2 2
 The sending end current is
𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝑉𝑆
2
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 Substituting for 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝑆 we get,
𝑌 𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = (𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 ) + [(1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅 ]
2 2 2
𝑌 𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = [ + (1 + )] 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅
2 2 2 2
𝑌 𝑌 𝑍𝑌 2 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = [ + + ] 𝑉𝑅 + (1 + ) 𝐼𝑅
2 2 4 2
𝑍𝑌 2 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = (𝑌 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + (1 + ) 𝐼𝑅
4 2
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑌 (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + (1 + ) 𝐼𝑅
4 2
 Therefore the matrix representation of the two equations is,
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 𝑍𝑌
𝑉𝑆 (1 + ) 𝑍 𝑉𝑅
[ ]=[ 2 ][ ]
𝐼𝑆 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝐼𝑅
𝑌 (1 + ) (1 + )
4 2
 Therefore the A,B,C,D parameters are:
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐴 = (1 + ) ; 𝐵 = 𝑍; 𝐶 = 𝑌 (1 + ) ; 𝐷 = (1 + )
2 4 2
 Comparison with the impedance model of two port parameters
results in following analysis,
𝑉1 = 𝑧11 𝐼1 + 𝑧12 𝐼2
𝑉2 = 𝑧21 𝐼1 + 𝑧22 𝐼2
 From above

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 𝑧21 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 − 𝑧22 𝐼2
1 𝑧22 1 𝑧22 ′
𝐼1 = 𝑉2 − 𝐼2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼2′ = −𝐼2
𝑧21 𝑧21 𝑧21 𝑧21
1 𝑧22 𝑧11 𝑧11 𝑧22
𝑉1 = 𝑧11 ( 𝑉2 − 𝐼2 ) + 𝑧12 𝐼2 = 𝑉2 − 𝐼2 + 𝑧12 𝐼2
𝑧21 𝑧21 𝑧21 𝑧21
𝑧11 𝑧11 𝑧22
= 𝑉2 − ( − 𝑧12 ) 𝐼2
𝑧21 𝑧21
 If we define the determinant of the transformation matrix as,
∆𝑧 = 𝑧11 𝑧22 − 𝑧12 𝑧21 ; then, 𝑉1 can be written as,
𝑧11 ∆𝑧 𝑧11 ∆𝑧 ′
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 − 𝐼2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2
𝑧21 𝑧21 𝑧21 𝑧21
 Therefore,

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 𝑧11 ∆𝑧 ′
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 = 𝐴. 𝑉2 + 𝐵. 𝐼2′
𝑧21 𝑧21
1 𝑧22 ′
𝐼1 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 = 𝐶. 𝑉2 + 𝐷. 𝐼2′
𝑧21 𝑧21
 Hence for the impedance model of two-port network we may
write,
𝑧11 ∆𝑧
𝑉1 𝑧21 𝑧21 𝑉2 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉2
[ ]= [ ′] = [ ][ ′]
𝐼1 1 𝑧22 𝐼2 𝐶 𝐷 𝐼2
[𝑧21 𝑧21 ]
 Therefore the condition for symmetry in terms of the two-port
z-parameter network is,

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 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒; => 𝑧11 = 𝑧22
 Therefore for symmetric system
𝑧11 𝑧22 𝑧22 𝑧11
𝐴= = ; 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝐷 = =
𝑧21 𝑧21 𝑧21 𝑧21
 Therefore 𝐴 = 𝐷 is required for symmetric system condition.
𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
 Since 𝐴 = (1 + ); and 𝐷 = (1 + ); in the above A,B,C,D
2 2
– model for the medium line, hence we may state that it is a
symmetric model where input and output impedances are
equal.
 Further the network is a linear, passive, bilateral two-port
network. The determinant of the matrix is,

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 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = (1 + ) (1 + ) − 𝑍𝑌 (1 + )
2 2 4
𝑍2𝑌2 𝑍2𝑌2
= 1 + 𝑍𝑌 + − 𝑍𝑌 − =1
4 4
 Thus the determinant is unity and the inverse relationship is
given below:
𝑉𝑅 𝐷 −𝐵 𝑉𝑆
[ ]=[ ][ ]
𝐼𝑅 −𝐶 𝐴 𝐼𝑆
Long Line Model IS I(x+Δx) z dx I(x) IR

 For performance + +

Receiving End
+ +
Sending End

of lines above VS V(x+Δx)

yΔx yΔx
V(x) VR

length of 250 km
- -
the effect of the - -
Δx x
l
15

Figure: Long line with distributed parameters

 distributed parameters should be considered.
 A one-phase of distributed parameters is shown in the figure
of length 𝑙 − 𝑘𝑚.
 The series impedance per unit length is shown by the lower
case 𝑧, and the shunt admittance per phase is shown by the
lower case letter 𝑦, whereas the impedance is stated as
𝑧 = 𝑟 + 𝑗 𝜔𝐿.
 The shunt admittance consists of two elements the shunt
capacitance and shunt conductance hence the admittance is
stated as, 𝑦 = 𝑔 + 𝑗 𝜔𝐶.
 Consider a small segment of line ∆𝑥 at a distance 𝑥 from the
receiving end of the line.

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 The phasor voltages and currents on both side of this
segment are shown as a function of the distance.
 Applying KVL we can voltage along the line as,
𝑉(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 𝑉 (𝑥) + 𝑧. ∆𝑥. 𝐼(𝑥)
𝑉(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑉 (𝑥)
= 𝑧. 𝐼(𝑥)
∆𝑥
 Taking the limit as ∆𝑥 → 0, we have
𝑑𝑉(𝑥)
= 𝑧. 𝐼(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
 From Kirchhoff’s current law,
𝐼 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 𝐼 (𝑥) + 𝑦. ∆𝑥. 𝑉(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
 Hence,
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 𝐼 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝐼 (𝑥)
= 𝑦. 𝑉(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
∆𝑥
 Taking the limit as ∆𝑥 → 0, we have
𝑑 𝐼(𝑥)
= 𝑦. 𝑉(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
 Differentiating the above differential equation for voltage we
get,
𝑑2 𝑉(𝑥) 𝑑𝐼(𝑥)
2
=𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Substituting the derivative expression for current in the above
equation we arrive at,

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 𝑑 2 𝑉(𝑥)
2
= 𝑧 𝑦 𝑉(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
 Let 𝛾 2 ≡ 𝑧𝑦, thus we get the following second order
differential equation,
𝑑2 𝑉(𝑥) 2 𝑉 (𝑥 ) = 0
− 𝛾
𝑑𝑥 2
 The solution of above differential equation is,
𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
 Where 𝛾 is known as the propagation constant.
 The propagation constant is a complex expression given by,

𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗 𝛽 = √𝑧𝑦 = √(𝑟 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝑔 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 )

19
 In the above equation the RHS of the square root term may
be stated as,
√(𝑟 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝑔 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ) = √𝑎 + 𝑗. 𝑏
 The square root of a complex number is further resolved as,
√𝑎 + 𝑗. 𝑏 = 𝑝 + 𝑗. 𝑞
 Where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are real quantities. Then we may state the
values 𝑝 and 𝑞 as,
1
𝑝= √√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎
√2
𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑏
𝑞= √√ 𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑎
√2
20
{Note: solution to above can be arrived after the application of
DeMoivre’s Theorem}
 The real part of 𝛾 i.e. 𝛼 is known as attenuation constant, and
the imaginary component 𝛽 is known as the phase constant.
 The phase quantity 𝛽 is measured in radians per unit length.
 The expression for current may be written as,
𝑑𝑉(𝑥)
= 𝑧. 𝐼(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
 Therefore,
1 𝑑𝑉(𝑥)
𝐼(𝑥) = ×
𝑧 𝑑𝑥
 The voltage expression as state above is,

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 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
 Differentiating the voltage expression
𝑑 𝑉 (𝑥 )
= 𝐴1 𝛾𝑒 𝛾𝑥 − 𝐴2 𝛾𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 Substituting in expression for current we get,
1 𝛾𝑥 −𝛾𝑥
𝛾
𝐼 (𝑥) = × (𝐴1 𝛾𝑒 − 𝐴2 𝛾𝑒 ) = (𝐴1 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 − 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 )
𝑧 𝑧
2 𝛾2 𝑦 𝛾 𝑦
 Since 𝛾 = 𝑧𝑦, hence, = , or = √ thus we may state
𝑧2 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
the above expression for current as,
𝑦
𝐼 (𝑥) = √ (𝐴1 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 − 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 )
𝑧
22
 1
𝐼 (𝑥 ) = (𝐴1 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 − 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 )
𝑍𝑐
 Where 𝑍𝑐 is known as the characteristic impedance, given by,

𝑧
𝑍𝑐 ≡ √
𝑦

 In order to find the constant 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 we consider the

boundary conditions:
 At 𝑥 = 0; 𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝑉𝑅 and , 𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝐼𝑅 . From the expressions for
voltage and current we get,
𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥

23
 1
𝐼 (𝑥 ) = (𝐴1 𝑒 𝛾𝑥 − 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 )
𝑍𝑐
 For 𝑥 = 0; 𝑉 (0) = 𝑉𝑅 ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 (0) = 𝐼𝑅 . Hence,
𝑉 (0) = 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
1
𝐼 (0) = 𝐼𝑅 = (𝐴1 − 𝐴2 )
𝑍𝑐
 Therefore the two equations for the boundary conditions give,
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 𝑉𝑅
𝐴1 − 𝐴2 = 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅
 Deducing from above we arrive at the expressions for the
unknown constants,

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 2𝐴1 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅
𝐴1 =
2
2𝐴2 = 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑅 − 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅
𝐴2 =
2
 Substituting the values of 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 in the expressions for
voltage and current, we get,
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅 −𝛾𝑥
𝑉(𝑥) = ( )𝑒 + ( )𝑒
2 2
1 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅 −𝛾𝑥
𝐼 (𝑥) = [( )𝑒 − ( )𝑒 ]
𝑍𝑐 2 2

25
 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
( + 𝐼𝑅 ) ( − 𝐼𝑅 )
𝑍𝑐 𝛾𝑥 𝑍𝑐
𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥
2 2
 The equations for voltage and current are rearranged as
follows,
𝑉𝑅 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 −𝛾𝑥 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅 𝛾𝑥 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅 −𝛾𝑥
𝑉 (𝑥) = ( 𝑒 + 𝑒 )+( 𝑒 − 𝑒 )
2 2 2 2
(𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 ) (𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 )
𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑅
2 2
 And the expression for current,
𝑉𝑅 𝛾𝑥 𝑉𝑅 −𝛾𝑥 𝐼𝑅 𝛾𝑥 𝐼𝑅 −𝛾𝑥
𝐼 (𝑥) = ( 𝑒 − 𝑒 )+( 𝑒 − 𝑒 )
2𝑍𝑐 2𝑍𝑐 2 2

26
 1 (𝑒 𝛾𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 ) (𝑒 𝛾𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝛾𝑥 )
𝐼 (𝑥) = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝑐 2 2
 The exponential terms within brackets can be expressed as
hyperbolic functions. Hence the above equations are written
as,
𝑉 (𝑥) = cosh 𝛾𝑥 × 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝑥 × 𝐼𝑅
1
𝐼 (𝑥) = sinh 𝛾𝑥 × 𝑉𝑅 + cosh 𝛾𝑥 × 𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝑐
 We are interested in the relation between the sending end and
the receiving end of the line. Hence, setting 𝑥 = 𝑙, and
𝑉 (𝑙) = 𝑉𝑆 and 𝐼 (𝑙) = 𝐼𝑆 , we arrive at the following expressions
for voltage and current,

27
 𝑉(𝑙 ) = 𝑉𝑆 = cosh 𝛾𝑙 × 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝑙 × 𝐼𝑅
1
𝐼 (𝑙 ) = 𝐼𝑆 = sinh 𝛾𝑙 × 𝑉𝑅 + cosh 𝛾𝑙 × 𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝑐
 Writing the equations in matrix form we get,
cosh 𝛾𝑙 𝑍𝑐 sinh 𝛾𝑙
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉𝑅
[ ]=[1 ] [ ] == [ ][ ]
𝐼𝑆 sinh 𝛾𝑙 cosh 𝛾𝑙 𝐼𝑅 𝐶 𝐷 𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝑐
 Thus we may state the A,B,C,D parameters as,
1
𝐴 = cosh 𝛾𝑙 ; 𝐵 = 𝑍𝑐 ; 𝐶 = sinh 𝛾𝑙 ; 𝐷 = cosh 𝛾𝑙
𝑍𝑐
 Note that, 𝐴 = 𝐷 = cosh 𝛾𝑙; hence the two port system is
symmetric.
28
 The determinant is,
𝑍𝑐
𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = cosh2 𝛾𝑙 − sinh2 𝛾𝑙 = cosh2 𝛾𝑙 − sinh2 𝛾𝑙 = 1
𝑍𝑐
 Hence the determinant is also unity.
 It is now possible to find an accurate equivalent-𝜋 model for
the transmission line shown in the figure.

IS z' IL IR
+

Receiving End
+

Sending End
VS Y’ Y’ VR
2 2

- -

Figure: Equivalent-π model for long

length line

29
 THANK YOU – END OF LECTURE 31

 The ABCD parameters are to be mapped into the above

equivalent-𝜋 model.
 Similar to the expression of the nominal-𝜋 model, where the
sending end voltage and current are expressed as,
𝑍𝑌
𝑉𝑆 = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍𝐼𝑅
2

30
 𝑍𝑌 𝑍𝑌
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑌 (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + (1 + ) 𝐼𝑅
4 2
 In the case of equivalent-𝜋 model the sending end voltage
and current are expressed as,
𝑍′𝑌′
𝑉𝑆 = (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑍′𝐼𝑅
2
𝑍′𝑌′ 𝑍′𝑌′
𝐼𝑆 = 𝑌′ (1 + ) 𝑉𝑅 + (1 + ) 𝐼𝑅
4 2
 Comparing with the hyperbolic equations we may write,
𝑧 ′ = 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙
 Writing 𝑍𝐶 in terms of the impedance and the admittance as,

31
 𝑧
𝑍𝐶 = √ ; 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝛾 2 = 𝑧𝑦
𝑦

𝑧2 𝑧2 𝑧
𝑍𝐶 = √ = √ 2 =
𝑧𝑦 𝛾 𝛾

 Since z is the impedance per unit length hence it is given as,

𝑍
𝑧=
𝑙
 Hence we may write,
𝑧 𝑍
𝑍𝐶 = =
𝛾 𝛾𝑙

32
 Therefore

′
sinh 𝛾𝑙
𝑧 = 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙 = 𝑍
𝛾𝑙
𝑧′𝑦′
 We may now write the admittance term as, 1 + =
2
𝑧′𝑦′
cosh 𝛾𝑙 ; 𝑂𝑅 = cosh 𝛾𝑙 − 1, therefore
2

𝑦′ 1
= (cosh 𝛾𝑙 − 1)
2 𝑧′
𝑍
 Using the above expression 𝑧 ′ = 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙 = sinh 𝛾𝑙; we
𝛾𝑙
may write
𝑦′ 1 (cosh 𝛾𝑙 − 1)
=
2 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙
33
 Using the trigonometric identity given below:
𝛾𝑙 (cosh 𝛾𝑙 − 1)
tanh =
2 sinh 𝛾𝑙
 Therefore
𝑦′ 1 𝛾𝑙
= tanh
2 𝑍𝐶 2
 Since
2
𝑧 𝛾
𝑍𝐶 = √ ; 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝛾 2 = 𝑧𝑦; ∴ 𝑧 =
𝑦 𝑦

34
 𝛾2 1 𝛾
∴ 𝑍𝐶 = √ × =
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
𝑌
 Since 𝑦 =
𝑙
𝛾𝑙
𝛾 𝛾𝑙
∴ 𝑍𝐶 = = = 2
𝑌
𝑦 𝑌
2

 Therefore
z'
𝛾𝑙 IS IL IR
𝑦′ 𝑌 tanh
2 +

Receiving End
+
= ×

Sending End
2 2 𝛾𝑙 VS Y’ Y’ VR
2 2 2

 Thus the equivalent-𝜋 line model is - -

Figure: Equivalent-π model for long

length line
35
  Where

′
sinh 𝛾𝑙
𝑧 = 𝑍𝐶 sinh 𝛾𝑙 = 𝑍
𝛾𝑙
𝛾𝑙
𝑦′ 𝑌 tanh
= × 2
2 2 𝛾𝑙
2
Voltage and Current Waves
 Substituting 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽, we get the RMS expression for the
phasor value of voltage at any point along the line.
𝑉 (𝑥) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥

36
 Transforming from phasor domain to time domain, the
instantaneous value of voltage as a function of time t, and
distance x, becomes:
For a per phase RMS voltage V,
Va=V∠0o
Vb=V∠2pi/3=Vej2pi/3
Vb=V∠-2pi/3=Ve-j2pi/3

is written as

va(t)=√2Vcos(ωt)
vb(t)=√2Vcos(ωt-2pi/3)
vc(t)=√2Vcos(ωt+2pi/3)

37
 Likewise:
𝑣 (𝑡, 𝑥) = √2 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 {𝐴1 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝛽𝑥) } + √2 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 {𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑥) }
 As the distance from the receiving end, x, increases the first
term becomes larger because of 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 which is called the
incident wave.
 The second term becomes smaller because of 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 and is
called the reflected wave.
 At any point along the line, voltage is the sum of these two
components.
𝑣 (𝑡, 𝑥) = 𝑣1 (𝑡, 𝑥) + 𝑣2 (𝑡, 𝑥)
 Where,
𝑣1 (𝑡, 𝑥) = √2𝐴1 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑥)
38
 𝑣2 (𝑡, 𝑥) = √2𝐴2 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)
 The current is also similar to the voltage.
 The above equations describe a travelling wave as we move
along the line.
 The velocity of propagation of this wave is
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓
𝑣= =
𝛽 𝛽
 Where 𝑓 is frequency and 𝛽 is phase constant.
 The wavelength 𝜆 is expressed as the distance x on the wave
which results in a phase shift of 2𝜋, hence,
2𝜋
𝛽𝜆 = 2𝜋; 𝑂𝑅 𝜆 =
𝛽
39
 When line losses are negligible, i.e. when 𝑟 = 𝑔 = 0 the real
part of the propagation constant 𝛼 = 0. The phase constant
can be written as,
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽; 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛾 2 = 𝑧𝑦
 When 𝑔 & 𝑟 are zero the real of 𝛾 is zero and 𝑧 = 𝜔𝐿 and
1
𝑦= 1 = 𝜔𝐶
( )
𝜔𝐶

1
𝛾2 = 𝑧𝑦 = 𝜔𝐿 × = 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶
1
( )
𝜔𝐶
𝑂𝑅 𝛾 = 𝜔√𝐿𝐶 = 𝛽
 Therefore the characteristic impedance is given as,

40
 𝑥 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐿
𝑍𝑐 = √ = √ =√
𝑦 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝐶

𝐿
 In the term √ both numerator and denominator are real
𝐶
positive terms hence square-root term is real.
 In other words the characteristic impedance is a real positive
quantity.
 Thus under the condition 𝑟 = 𝑔 = 0 the characteristic
impedance is referred to as surge impedance.
 Substituting the expression for 𝛽 in the equation for wave
propagation the velocity of propagation and wavelength
become:

41
 2𝜋𝑓 𝜔 𝜔 1
𝑣= = = =
𝛽 𝛽 𝜔√𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
2𝜋 2𝜋 1
𝜆= = =
𝜔√𝐿𝐶 2𝜋𝑓√𝐿𝐶 𝑓 √𝐿𝐶
 If we substitute the values of 𝐿 & 𝐶 from the previous study
and we shall find the expression reduces to the following,
1 1
𝑣≈ ; 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝜆 ≈
√𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑓√𝜇0 𝜀0
−7 𝐻 −12 𝐹
For 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10 ; [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10 ; [ ] ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 =
𝑚 𝑚
50 𝐻𝑧, the velocity and wavelength are obtained as,

42
 1 𝑚
𝑣= = 2.9986 × 108 ; [ ]
√4𝜋 × 10−7 × 8.85 × 10−12 𝑠
𝑣 2.9986 × 108
𝜆= = = 5997 ≈ 6000; [𝑘𝑚]
𝑓 × 1000 50 × 1000
 The above deduction show that the wave travels in the
transmission line at the speed of light and the wavelength is
6000 km at 50 Hz.

SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING

43
 When the load impedance at the receiving end is equal to the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line, the
receiving end current is given as,
𝑉𝑅
𝐼𝑅 =
𝑍𝑐
 For a lossless transmission line 𝑍𝑐 is purely resistive.
 Thus the load corresponding to surge impedance at rated
voltage is called Surge Impedance Loading (SIL), which is
given by,
∗ 2
𝑉𝑅 | 𝑉𝑅 |
𝑆𝐼𝐿 = 3𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅∗ = 3𝑉𝑅 ( ) = 3
𝑍𝐶 𝑍𝐶

44
 Since 𝑍𝐶 has no reactive component the sending end and
receiving end and receiving end reactive power is zero.
 This indicates that the reactive power of the line are exactly
met by the reactive power supplied by the line capacitances.
 The SIL for a typical 220kV line is about 150MW while for a
765kV line it is 2000MW.
 SIL is a useful measure of the transmission line capacity as it
indicates the loading where the transmission line’s reactive
requirements are small.
 For small loads about SIL shunt capacitors may be needed,
and for lower loads inductive reactors are required.
 Generally the transmission line full load capacity is much
higher than the SIL.

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