4: Linearity and

Superposition
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

4: Linearity and Superposition

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 1 / 10

 Linearity Theorem

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Suppose we use variables instead of fixed values for all of the independent
• Linearity Theorem voltage and current sources. We can then use nodal analysis to find all
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition node voltages in terms of the source values.
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 2 / 10

 Linearity Theorem

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Suppose we use variables instead of fixed values for all of the independent
• Linearity Theorem voltage and current sources. We can then use nodal analysis to find all
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition node voltages in terms of the source values.
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
(1) Label all the nodes
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 2 / 10

 Linearity Theorem

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Suppose we use variables instead of fixed values for all of the independent
• Linearity Theorem voltage and current sources. We can then use nodal analysis to find all
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition node voltages in terms of the source values.
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
(1) Label all the nodes
• Single Unknown Source (2) KCL equations
• Superposition and Power
X−U1
• Proportionality
2 +X 1 +
X−Y
3 =0
• Summary
Y −X
3 + (−U2 ) = 0

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 2 / 10

 Linearity Theorem

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Suppose we use variables instead of fixed values for all of the independent
• Linearity Theorem voltage and current sources. We can then use nodal analysis to find all
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition node voltages in terms of the source values.
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
(1) Label all the nodes
• Single Unknown Source (2) KCL equations
• Superposition and Power
X−U1
• Proportionality
2 +X 1 +
X−Y
3 =0
• Summary
Y −X
3 + (−U2 ) = 0
(3) Solve for the node voltages
X = 13 U1 + 32 U2 , Y = 13 U1 + 11
3 U2

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 2 / 10

 Linearity Theorem

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Suppose we use variables instead of fixed values for all of the independent
• Linearity Theorem voltage and current sources. We can then use nodal analysis to find all
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition node voltages in terms of the source values.
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
(1) Label all the nodes
• Single Unknown Source (2) KCL equations
• Superposition and Power
X−U1
• Proportionality
2 +X 1 +
X−Y
3 =0
• Summary
Y −X
3 + (−U2 ) = 0
(3) Solve for the node voltages
X = 13 U1 + 32 U2 , Y = 13 U1 + 11
3 U2

Steps (2) and (3) never involve multiplying two source values together, so:

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 2 / 10

 Linearity Theorem

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Suppose we use variables instead of fixed values for all of the independent
• Linearity Theorem voltage and current sources. We can then use nodal analysis to find all
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition node voltages in terms of the source values.
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
(1) Label all the nodes
• Single Unknown Source (2) KCL equations
• Superposition and Power
X−U1
• Proportionality
2 +X 1 +
X−Y
3 =0
• Summary
Y −X
3 + (−U2 ) = 0
(3) Solve for the node voltages
X = 13 U1 + 32 U2 , Y = 13 U1 + 11
3 U2

Steps (2) and (3) never involve multiplying two source values together, so:
Linearity Theorem: For any circuit containing resistors and independent
voltage and current sources, every node voltage and branch current is a
P
linear function of the source values and has the form ai Ui where the Ui
are the source values and the ai are suitably dimensioned constants.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 2 / 10

 Linearity Theorem

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Suppose we use variables instead of fixed values for all of the independent
• Linearity Theorem voltage and current sources. We can then use nodal analysis to find all
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition node voltages in terms of the source values.
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
(1) Label all the nodes
• Single Unknown Source (2) KCL equations
• Superposition and Power
X−U1
• Proportionality
2 +X 1 +
X−Y
3 =0
• Summary
Y −X
3 + (−U2 ) = 0
(3) Solve for the node voltages
X = 13 U1 + 32 U2 , Y = 13 U1 + 11
3 U2

Steps (2) and (3) never involve multiplying two source values together, so:
Linearity Theorem: For any circuit containing resistors and independent
voltage and current sources, every node voltage and branch current is a
P
linear function of the source values and has the form ai Ui where the Ui
are the source values and the ai are suitably dimensioned constants.
Also true for a circuit containing dependent sources whose values are
proportional to voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 2 / 10

 Zero-value sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A zero-valued voltage source has zero volts
• Linearity Theorem between its terminals for any current. It is
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition equivalent to a short-circuit or piece of wire
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
or resistor of 0 Ω (or ∞ S).
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 3 / 10

 Zero-value sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A zero-valued voltage source has zero volts
• Linearity Theorem between its terminals for any current. It is
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition equivalent to a short-circuit or piece of wire
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
or resistor of 0 Ω (or ∞ S).
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 3 / 10

 Zero-value sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A zero-valued voltage source has zero volts
• Linearity Theorem between its terminals for any current. It is
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition equivalent to a short-circuit or piece of wire
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
or resistor of 0 Ω (or ∞ S).
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary
A zero-valued current source has no current
flowing between its terminals. It is equivalent
to an open-circuit or a broken wire or a
resistor of ∞ Ω (or 0 S).

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 3 / 10

 Zero-value sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A zero-valued voltage source has zero volts
• Linearity Theorem between its terminals for any current. It is
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition equivalent to a short-circuit or piece of wire
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
or resistor of 0 Ω (or ∞ S).
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary
A zero-valued current source has no current
flowing between its terminals. It is equivalent
to an open-circuit or a broken wire or a
resistor of ∞ Ω (or 0 S).

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 3 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
KCL: X−U
2 + X−V
6 + X1 − W = 0
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
KCL: X−U
2 + X−V
6 + X1 − W = 0
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and 10X − 3U − V − 6W = 0
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
KCL: X−U
2 + X−V
6 + X1 − W = 0
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and 10X − 3U − V − 6W = 0
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
X = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
KCL: X−U
2 + X−V
6 + X1 − W = 0
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and 10X − 3U − V − 6W = 0
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
X = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W
• Proportionality
• Summary

From the linearity theorem, we know anyway that X = aU + bV + cW so

all we need to do is find the values of a, b and c.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
KCL: X−U
2 + X−V
6 + X1 − W = 0
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and 10X − 3U − V − 6W = 0
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
X = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W
• Proportionality
• Summary

From the linearity theorem, we know anyway that X = aU + bV + cW so

all we need to do is find the values of a, b and c. We find each coefficient in
turn by setting all the other sources to zero:

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
KCL: X−U
2 + X−V
6 + X1 − W = 0
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and 10X − 3U − V − 6W = 0
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
X = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W
• Proportionality
• Summary

From the linearity theorem, we know anyway that X = aU + bV + cW so

all we need to do is find the values of a, b and c. We find each coefficient in
turn by setting all the other sources to zero:

We have XU = aU + b × 0 + c × 0 = aU .

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
KCL: X−U
2 + X−V
6 + X1 − W = 0
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and 10X − 3U − V − 6W = 0
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
X = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W
• Proportionality
• Summary

From the linearity theorem, we know anyway that X = aU + bV + cW so

all we need to do is find the values of a, b and c. We find each coefficient in
turn by setting all the other sources to zero:

We have XU = aU + b × 0 + c × 0 = aU .

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
KCL: X−U
2 + X−V
6 + X1 − W = 0
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and 10X − 3U − V − 6W = 0
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
X = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W
• Proportionality
• Summary

From the linearity theorem, we know anyway that X = aU + bV + cW so

all we need to do is find the values of a, b and c. We find each coefficient in
turn by setting all the other sources to zero:

We have XU = aU + b × 0 + c × 0 = aU .

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition

4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
KCL: X−U
2 + X−V
6 + X1 − W = 0
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and 10X − 3U − V − 6W = 0
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
X = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W
• Proportionality
• Summary

From the linearity theorem, we know anyway that X = aU + bV + cW so

all we need to do is find the values of a, b and c. We find each coefficient in
turn by setting all the other sources to zero:

We have XU = aU + b × 0 + c × 0 = aU .
Similarly, XV = bV and XW = cW ⇒ X = XU + XV + XW .

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 4 / 10

 Superposition Calculation

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Superposition:
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Find the effect of each source on its own
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation by setting all other sources to zero. Then
• Superposition and
dependent sources
add up the results.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 5 / 10

 Superposition Calculation

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Superposition:
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Find the effect of each source on its own
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation by setting all other sources to zero. Then
• Superposition and
dependent sources
add up the results.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary 6
6
XU = 7
2+ 76
U= 20 U = 0.3U

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 5 / 10

 Superposition Calculation

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Superposition:
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Find the effect of each source on its own
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation by setting all other sources to zero. Then
• Superposition and
dependent sources
add up the results.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary 6
6
XU = 7
2+ 76
U= 20 U = 0.3U

2
2
XV = 3
6+ 32
V = 20 V = 0.1V

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 5 / 10

 Superposition Calculation

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Superposition:
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Find the effect of each source on its own
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation by setting all other sources to zero. Then
• Superposition and
dependent sources
add up the results.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary 6
6
XU = 7
2+ 76
U= 20 U = 0.3U

2
2
XV = 3
6+ 32
V = 20 V = 0.1V

6 2 12
XW = 6+ 32
W× 3 = 20 W = 0.6W

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 5 / 10

 Superposition Calculation

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Superposition:
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Find the effect of each source on its own
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation by setting all other sources to zero. Then
• Superposition and
dependent sources
add up the results.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary 6
6
XU = 7
2+ 76
U= 20 U = 0.3U

2
2
XV = 3
6+ 32
V = 20 V = 0.1V

6 2 12
XW = 6+ 32
W× 3 = 20 W = 0.6W

Adding them up: X = XU + XV + XW

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 5 / 10

 Superposition Calculation

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Superposition:
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Find the effect of each source on its own
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation by setting all other sources to zero. Then
• Superposition and
dependent sources
add up the results.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary 6
6
XU = 7
2+ 76
U= 20 U = 0.3U

2
2
XV = 3
6+ 32
V = 20 V = 0.1V

6 2 12
XW = 6+ 32
W× 3 = 20 W = 0.6W

Adding them up: X = XU + XV + XW = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 5 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power 10
• Proportionality X= 3 U1
• Summary
Y = 2U1

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power 10
• Proportionality X= 3 U1 + 2U2
• Summary
Y = 2U1 + 6U2

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power 10
• Proportionality X= 3 U1 + 2U2 + 61 V
• Summary
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 V

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power 10
• Proportionality X= 3 U1 + 2U2 + 61 V
• Summary
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 V

Step 2: Express the dependent source values in terms of node voltages:

V =Y −X

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power 10
• Proportionality X= 3 U1 + 2U2 + 61 V
• Summary
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 V

Step 2: Express the dependent source values in terms of node voltages:

V =Y −X
Step 3: Eliminate the dependent source values from the node voltage
equations:
X = 10 1
3 U1 + 2U2 + 6 (Y − X)
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 12 (Y − X))

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power 10
• Proportionality X= 3 U1 + 2U2 + 61 V
• Summary
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 V

Step 2: Express the dependent source values in terms of node voltages:

V =Y −X
Step 3: Eliminate the dependent source values from the node voltage
equations:
X = 10 1 7 1
3 U1 + 2U2 + 6 (Y − X) ⇒ 6 X − 6 Y =
10
3 U1 + 2U2
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 (Y − X))

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power 10
• Proportionality X= 3 U1 + 2U2 + 61 V
• Summary
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 V

Step 2: Express the dependent source values in terms of node voltages:

V =Y −X
Step 3: Eliminate the dependent source values from the node voltage
equations:
X = 10 1 7 1 10
3 U1 + 2U2 + 6 (Y − X) ⇒ 6 X − 6 Y = 3 U1 + 2U2
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 (Y − X)) ⇒ 12 X + 21 Y = 2U1 + 6U2

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power 10
• Proportionality X= 3 U1 + 2U2 + 61 V
• Summary
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 V

Step 2: Express the dependent source values in terms of node voltages:

V =Y −X
Step 3: Eliminate the dependent source values from the node voltage
equations:
X = 10 1 7 1 10
3 U1 + 2U2 + 6 (Y − X) ⇒ 6 X − 6 Y = 3 U1 + 2U2
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 (Y − X)) ⇒ 12 X + 21 Y = 2U1 + 6U2
X = 3U1 + 3U2
Y = U1 + 9U2

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10

 Superposition and dependent sources

4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
• Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y − X .
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
• Superposition and
dependent sources
and use superposition to find expressions for
• Single Unknown Source the node voltages:
• Superposition and Power 10
• Proportionality X= 3 U1 + 2U2 + 61 V
• Summary
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 V

Step 2: Express the dependent source values in terms of node voltages:

V =Y −X
Step 3: Eliminate the dependent source values from the node voltage
equations:
X = 10 1 7 1 10
3 U1 + 2U2 + 6 (Y − X) ⇒ 6 X − 6 Y = 3 U1 + 2U2
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 (Y − X)) ⇒ 12 X + 21 Y = 2U1 + 6U2
X = 3U1 + 3U2
Y = U1 + 9U2
Note: This is an alternative to nodal anlysis: you get the same answer.
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 6 / 10
 Single Unknown Source

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Any current or voltage can be written X = a1 U1 + a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . ..
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 7 / 10

 Single Unknown Source

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Any current or voltage can be written X = a1 U1 + a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . ..
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Using nodal analysis (slide 4-2) or else
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation superposition:
• Superposition and
dependent sources X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 .
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 7 / 10

 Single Unknown Source

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Any current or voltage can be written X = a1 U1 + a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . ..
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Using nodal analysis (slide 4-2) or else
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation superposition:
• Superposition and
dependent sources X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 .
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
Suppose we know U2 = 6 mA
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 7 / 10

 Single Unknown Source

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Any current or voltage can be written X = a1 U1 + a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . ..
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Using nodal analysis (slide 4-2) or else
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation superposition:
• Superposition and
dependent sources X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 .
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
Suppose we know U2 = 6 mA, then
• Summary
X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 = 13 U1 + 4.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 7 / 10

 Single Unknown Source

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Any current or voltage can be written X = a1 U1 + a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . ..
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Using nodal analysis (slide 4-2) or else
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation superposition:
• Superposition and
dependent sources X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 .
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
Suppose we know U2 = 6 mA, then
• Summary
X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 = 13 U1 + 4.
If all the independent sources except for U1
have known fixed values, then
X = a1 U1 + b
where b = a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . . .

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 7 / 10

 Single Unknown Source

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Any current or voltage can be written X = a1 U1 + a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . ..
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources Using nodal analysis (slide 4-2) or else
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation superposition:
• Superposition and
dependent sources X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 .
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
Suppose we know U2 = 6 mA, then
• Summary
X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 = 13 U1 + 4.
If all the independent sources except for U1
have known fixed values, then
X = a1 U1 + b
where b = a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . . .

This has a straight line graph.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 7 / 10

 Superposition and Power

4: Linearity and
Superposition
The power absorbed (or dissipated) by a component always equals V I
• Linearity Theorem where the measurement directions of V and I follow the passive sign
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition convention.
• Superposition Calculation
V2
• Superposition and
dependent sources For a resistor V I = R = I 2 R.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 8 / 10

 Superposition and Power

4: Linearity and
Superposition
The power absorbed (or dissipated) by a component always equals V I
• Linearity Theorem where the measurement directions of V and I follow the passive sign
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition convention.
• Superposition Calculation
V2
• Superposition and
dependent sources For a resistor V I = R = I 2 R.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power (U1 +U2 )2
• Proportionality Power in resistor is P = 10 = 6.4 W
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 8 / 10

 Superposition and Power

4: Linearity and
Superposition
The power absorbed (or dissipated) by a component always equals V I
• Linearity Theorem where the measurement directions of V and I follow the passive sign
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition convention.
• Superposition Calculation
V2
• Superposition and
dependent sources For a resistor V I = R = I 2 R.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power (U1 +U2 )2
• Proportionality Power in resistor is P = 10 = 6.4 W
• Summary
U12
Power due to U1 alone is P1 = 10 = 0.9 W

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 8 / 10

 Superposition and Power

4: Linearity and
Superposition
The power absorbed (or dissipated) by a component always equals V I
• Linearity Theorem where the measurement directions of V and I follow the passive sign
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition convention.
• Superposition Calculation
V2
• Superposition and
dependent sources For a resistor V I = R = I 2 R.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power (U1 +U2 )2
• Proportionality Power in resistor is P = 10 = 6.4 W
• Summary
U12
Power due to U1 alone is P1 = 10 = 0.9 W
U22
Power due to U2 alone is P2 = 10 = 2.5 W

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 8 / 10

 Superposition and Power

4: Linearity and
Superposition
The power absorbed (or dissipated) by a component always equals V I
• Linearity Theorem where the measurement directions of V and I follow the passive sign
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition convention.
• Superposition Calculation
V2
• Superposition and
dependent sources For a resistor V I = R = I 2 R.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power (U1 +U2 )2
• Proportionality Power in resistor is P = 10 = 6.4 W
• Summary
U12
Power due to U1 alone is P1 = 10 = 0.9 W
U22
Power due to U2 alone is P2 = 10 = 2.5 W

P 6= P1 + P2 ⇒ Power does not obey superposition.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 8 / 10

 Superposition and Power

4: Linearity and
Superposition
The power absorbed (or dissipated) by a component always equals V I
• Linearity Theorem where the measurement directions of V and I follow the passive sign
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition convention.
• Superposition Calculation
V2
• Superposition and
dependent sources For a resistor V I = R = I 2 R.
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power (U1 +U2 )2
• Proportionality Power in resistor is P = 10 = 6.4 W
• Summary
U12
Power due to U1 alone is P1 = 10 = 0.9 W
U22
Power due to U2 alone is P2 = 10 = 2.5 W

P 6= P1 + P2 ⇒ Power does not obey superposition.

You must use superposition to calculate the total V and/or the total I and
then calculate the power.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 8 / 10

 Proportionality

4: Linearity and
P
Superposition From the linearity theorem, all voltages and currents have the form ai Ui
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
where the Ui are the values of the independent sources.
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation If you multiply all the independent sources by the same factor, k , then all
• Superposition and
dependent sources voltages and currents in the circuit will be multiplied by k .
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power The power dissipated in any component will be multiplied by k 2 .
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 9 / 10

 Proportionality

4: Linearity and
P
Superposition From the linearity theorem, all voltages and currents have the form ai Ui
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
where the Ui are the values of the independent sources.
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation If you multiply all the independent sources by the same factor, k , then all
• Superposition and
dependent sources voltages and currents in the circuit will be multiplied by k .
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power The power dissipated in any component will be multiplied by k 2 .
• Proportionality
• Summary

Special Case:
If there is only one independent source, U , then all voltages and currents
are proportional to U and all power dissipations are proportional to U 2 .

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 9 / 10

 Summary

4: Linearity and
P
Superposition • Linearity Theorem: X = i ai Ui over all independent sources Ui
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 10 / 10

 Summary

4: Linearity and
P
Superposition • Linearity Theorem: X = i ai Ui over all independent sources Ui
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources • Superposition: sometimes simpler than nodal analysis, often more
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
insight.
• Superposition and
dependent sources
◦ Zero-value voltage and current sources
• Single Unknown Source ◦ Dependent sources - treat as independent and add dependency
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality as an extra equation
• Summary

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 10 / 10

 Summary

4: Linearity and
P
Superposition • Linearity Theorem: X = i ai Ui over all independent sources Ui
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources • Superposition: sometimes simpler than nodal analysis, often more
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
insight.
• Superposition and
dependent sources
◦ Zero-value voltage and current sources
• Single Unknown Source ◦ Dependent sources - treat as independent and add dependency
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality as an extra equation
• Summary
• If all sources are fixed except for U1 then all voltages and currents in
the circuit have the form aU1 + b.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 10 / 10

 Summary

4: Linearity and
P
Superposition • Linearity Theorem: X = i ai Ui over all independent sources Ui
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources • Superposition: sometimes simpler than nodal analysis, often more
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
insight.
• Superposition and
dependent sources
◦ Zero-value voltage and current sources
• Single Unknown Source ◦ Dependent sources - treat as independent and add dependency
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality as an extra equation
• Summary
• If all sources are fixed except for U1 then all voltages and currents in
the circuit have the form aU1 + b.
• Power does not obey superposition.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110) Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 10 / 10


4: Linearity and
Superposition
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110)
Summary
P
• Linearity Theorem: X = i ai Ui over all independent sources Ui
• Superposition: sometimes simpler than nodal analysis, often more
insight.
◦ Zero-value voltage and current sources
◦ Dependent sources - treat as independent and add dependency
as an extra equation
• If all sources are fixed except for U1 then all voltages and currents in
the circuit have the form aU1 + b.
• Power does not obey superposition.
• Proportionality: multiplying all sources by k multiplies all voltages and
currents by k and all powers by k 2 .
Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 10 / 10

4: Linearity and
Superposition
• Linearity Theorem
• Zero-value sources
• Superposition
• Superposition Calculation
• Superposition and
dependent sources
• Single Unknown Source
• Superposition and Power
• Proportionality
• Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2017-10110)
Summary
P
• Linearity Theorem: X = i ai Ui over all independent sources Ui
• Superposition: sometimes simpler than nodal analysis, often more
insight.
◦ Zero-value voltage and current sources
◦ Dependent sources - treat as independent and add dependency
as an extra equation
• If all sources are fixed except for U1 then all voltages and currents in
the circuit have the form aU1 + b.
• Power does not obey superposition.
• Proportionality: multiplying all sources by k multiplies all voltages and
currents by k and all powers by k 2 .
For further details see Hayt Ch 5 or Irwin Ch 5.
Linearity and Superposition: 4 – 10 / 10