Soft Computing

Seminar Report

On

SOFT COMPUTING

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
COMPUTER SCIENCE and ENGINEERING

By

SHIV PRAKASH
(Roll No – 1442210087)

Under The Supervision Of

Anshika Bhalla (Ass.Prof.)

Department Of Computer Science and Engineering

Bansal Institute Of Engineering & Technology

To , The

Dr. APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)
LUCKNOW, INDIA

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Preface
I have made this report file on the topic SOFT COMPUTING; I have tried my best to
elucidate all the relevant details to the topic to be included in the report. While in the beginning
I have tried to give a general view about this topic.

My efforts and whole hearted co-corporation of each and everyone has ended on a successfull
note. I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Madan Kuswaha Sir for assisting me throughout
the preparation of this topic. I thank him for providing me the reinforcement, confidence and
most importantly the track for the topic whenever I needed it.

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Acknowledgement
I would like to thank respected Mr. Madan Kuswaha (HOD CS/IT) and for giving me such
a wonderful opportunity to expand my knowledge for my own branch and giving me
guidelines to present a seminar report. It helped me a lot to realize of what we study for.

Secondly, I would like to thank my parents who patiently helped me as i went through my work
and helped to modify and eliminate some of the irrelevant or un-necessary stuffs.
Thirdly, I would like to thank my friends who helped me to make my work more organized and
well-stacked till the end.

Next, I would thank Microsoft for developing such a wonderful tool like MS Word. It helped
my work a lot to remain error-free.

Last but clearly not the least; I would thank The Almighty for giving me strength to complete
my report on time.

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that SHIVPRAKASH of CSE 8th semester has worked hard
under my guidance on the seminar topic assigned to him. He has been honest and
determined throughout the seminar conducted. GUIDE FACULTY ANSHIKA
BHALLA (ASST. PROFESSOR) DEPT. OF CSE.

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ABSTRACT

Soft Computing differs from conventional (hard) computing in that, unlike hard
computing, it is tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and approximation.
In effect, the role model for soft computing is the human mind. Principal constituents of
Soft Computing are Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic, Evolutionary Computation,
Swarm Intelligence and Bayesian Networks. The successful applications of soft computing
suggest that the impact of soft computing will be felt increasingly in coming years. Soft
computing is likely to play an important role in science and engineering, but eventually its
influence may extend much farther.

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CONTENTS

Introduction…………………………………………………...7

Neural networks……………………………………………....8

Biological model of neuron……………………………8

Model of an artificial neuron…………………………..9

Characteristics of Neural Networks…………………....9

Learning……………………………………………….10

Neural Network case study………………………….....10

Evolutionary Computation……………………………………11

Genetic algorithms………………………………….....11

Case study……………………………………………..12

Fuzzy System…………………………………………………13

Fuzzy sets………………………………………………13

Fuzzy control in detail………………………………….14

5. Bayesian Network…………………………………………....15

6. Swarm Intelligence……….……………………………….....17

6.1 Example Algorithms………………………………...17

6.2 Applications………………………………………....18

7. Conclusion……….……………………………….....19

8. Reference……….……………………………….....20

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1. INTRODUCTION

Soft Computing became a formal Computer Science area of study in the early
1990's.Earlier computational approaches could model and precisely analyze only
relatively simple systems. More complex systems arising in biology, medicine, the
humanities, management sciences, and similar fields often remained intractable to
conventional mathematical and analytical methods. That said, it should be pointed out that
simplicity and complexity of systems are relative, and many conventional mathematical
models have been both challenging and very productive. Soft computing deals with
imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and approximation to achieve tractability, robustness
and low solution cost.

The idea of soft computing was initiated in 1981 by Lotfi. A. Zadeh.

Generally speaking, soft computing techniques resemble biological processes more
closely than traditional techniques, which are largely based on formal logical systems, such
as sentential logic and predicate logic, or rely heavily on computer-aided numerical analysis
(as in finite element analysis). Soft computing techniques are intended to complement each
other.

Unlike hard computing schemes, which strive for exactness and full truth, soft
computing techniques exploit the given tolerance of imprecision, partial truth,
and uncertainty for a particular problem. Another common contrast comes from the
observation that inductive reasoning plays a larger role in soft computing than in hard
computing. Components of soft computing include: Neural Network, Perceptron,
Fuzzy Systems, Baysian Network, Swarm Intelligence and Evolutionary Computation.

The highly parallel processing and layered neuronal morphology with learning
abilities of the human cognitive faculty ~the brain~ provides us with a new tool for designing
a cognitive machine that can learn and recognize complicated patterns like human faces and
Japanese characters. The theory of fuzzy logic, the basis for soft computing, provides
mathematical power for the emulation of the higher-order cognitive functions ~the thought
and perception processes. A marriage between these evolving disciplines, such as
neural computing, genetic algorithms and fuzzy logic, may provide a new class of
computing systems ~neural-fuzzy systems ~ for the emulation of higher-order cognitive
power.

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2. NEURAL NETWORKS

Neural Networks, which are simplified models of the biological neuron system, is a
massively parallel distributed processing system made up of highly interconnected
neural computing elements that have the ability to learn and thereby acquire knowledge and
making it available for use. It resembles the brain in two respects:
- Knowledge is acquired by the network through a learning process.
-Interconnection strengths known as synaptic weights are used to store the knowledge.

2.1 BIOLOGICAL MODEL OF NEURON

A neuron is composed of nucleus- a cell body known as soma. Attached to the soma
are long irregularly shaped filaments called dendrites. The dendrites behave as input
channels, all inputs from other neurons arrive through dendrites. Another link to soma called
Axon is electrically active and serves as an output channel. If the cumulative inputs received
by the soma raise internal electric potential of the cell known as membrane potential, then the
neuron fires by propagating the action potential down the axon to excite or inhibit
other neurons. The axon terminates in a specialized contact called synapse that connects the
axon with the dendrite links of another neuron.

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2.2 MODEL OF AN ARTIFICIAL NEURON

An artificial neuron model bears direct analogy to the actual constituents of biological
neuron. This model forms basis of Artificial Neural Networks.

Here x1, x2, x3 … xn are the n inputs to the artificial neuron. w1, w2, w3… wn are the weights
attached to the input links. Total input I received by the soma of the artificial neuron is

I = X1W1 + X2W2 + X3W3 + ...

To generate the final output y, the sum is passed on to a non-linear filter φ called Activation
function, which releases the output.
Y= φ(I)
A very commonly used Activation function is the Thresholding function. In this, the sum is
compared with a threshold value θ. If the value of I is greater than θ, then the output is 1 else
it is 0.
2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF NEURAL NETWORKS
1) The NNs exhibit mapping capabilities, that is, they can map input patterns to
their associated output patterns.
2) The NNs learn by examples. Thus, NN architecture can be ‘trained’ with
known examples of a problem before they are tested for their ‘inference’
capability on unknown instances of the problem. They can, therefore,
identify new objects previously untrained.
3) The NNs posses the capability to generalize. Thus, they can predict new
outcomes from past trends.
4) The NNs are robust systems and are fault tolerant. They can, therefore, recall
full patterns from incomplete, partial or noisy patterns.

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2.4 LEARNING
Basically, learning is a process by which the free parameters (i.e., synaptic weights
and bias levels) of a neural network are adapted through a continuing process of stimulation
by the environment in which the network is embedded. The type of learning is determined by
the manner in which the parameter changes take place. Specifically, learning machines may
be classified as follows:
- Learning with a teacher, also referred to as supervised learning
- Learning without a teacher
This second class of learning machines may also be subdivided into
- Reinforcement learning
- Unsupervised learning or self-organizing learning

2.5 NEURAL NETWORK CASE STUDY

High Quality Cluster Generation of Feature Points of Fingerprint Using Neutral

Network
The identification of a person requires a comparison of fingerprint with all the
fingerprints in a database. This database may be very large. So it will take long
response time. The identification process can be speeded up by reducing the number of
comparisons that are required to be performed. This is possible only if the fingerprints in the
database are classified. The classification of fingerprints has been done based on their
geometric features only. Minutiae features represent a fingerprint as an individual; they
have been used for verification / identification. A methodology for formation of
visually isolated clusters of a fingerprint on the bases of minutiae distribution has been
proposed. The minutiae information extracted for verification has been used for the
classification.
Methodology
A fingerprint image should be viewed as a flow feature points. The local features
(minutiae) are extracted from the fingerprint image.

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3. EVOLUTIONARY COMPUTATION

In computer science, evolutionary computation is a subfield of artificial intelligence

(more particularly computational intelligence) that involves combinatorial
optimization problems. Evolutionary computation uses iterative progress, such as growth or
development in a population. This population is then selected in a guided random
search using parallel processing to achieve the desired end. Such processes are often
inspired by biological mechanisms of evolution. It aims at function optimization,
problem solving. Evolutionary computation includes Genetic Programming, Evolution
strategies, Genetic Algorithm, Evolution Programming.

3.1 GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF EVOLUTIONARY COMPUTATION

3.2 GENETIC ALGORITHMS

The most popular evolutionary algorithm is the genetic algorithm of J. Holland .GA is
an iterative procedure and its starting condition is a large set of random strings called genes or
the genome. The genes are linear arrays of numbers. Each number represents an aspect of the
system to which the algorithm is being applied; for example, if we are dealing with neural
network topology, then one of the numbers could represent the number of layers in a
particularnetwork.
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3.3 GENETIC ALGORITHM CASE STUDY

Solving New Student Allocation Problem with Genetic Algorithms

The New Student Allocation Problem (NSAP) is one of clustering problems

that allocates students into some classes with minimum intelligence gap in each class
and the number of students in each class does not exceed its maximum capacity. This
topic is essential, because it is very difficult to give good educational service for large
number of students with high diversity of achievements or skills. With the students
allocated into the groups, discriminating policies to these groups can be implemented easily.

Let us consider this simple illustration. There are 15 new students that should be allocated to
three classes with same capacity. They will be clustered based on two variables: Mathematics
and Biology scores. Assume that the distribution of their scores in a Cartesian
coordinate system is shown in Figure. Although the number of ways is equals to
210,766,920, the solution will be established easily by examining the distribution. The
solutions are class A consists of students with index number 3, 5, 8, 13 and 15, class B.

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4. FUZZY SYSTEMS

Fuzzy logic is widely used in machine control. The term itself inspires a
certain skepticism, sounding equivalent to "half-baked logic" or "bogus logic", but the "fuzzy"
part does not refer to a lack of rigour in the method, rather to the fact that the logic involved
can deal with fuzzy concepts—concepts that cannot be expressed as "true" or "false" but
rather as "partially true". Although genetic algorithms and neural networks can perform just
as well as fuzzy logic in many cases, fuzzy logic has the advantage that the solution to the
problem can be cast in terms that human operators can understand, so that their experience
can be used in the design of the controller. This makes it easier to mechanize tasks that
are already successfully performed by humans.

4.1 FUZZY SETS

The input variables in a fuzzy control system are in general mapped into by sets of
membership functions similar to this, known as "fuzzy sets". The process of
converting a crisp input value to a fuzzy value is called "fuzzification".

A control system may also have various types of switch, or "ON-OFF", inputs along
with its analog inputs, and such switch inputs of course will always have a truth value equal to
either 1 or 0, but the scheme can deal with them as simplified fuzzy functions that happen to
be either one value or another.

Given "mappings" of input variables into membership functions and truth values, the
microcontroller then makes decisions for what action to take based on a set of "rules", each of
the form:

IF brake temperature IS warm AND speed IS not very fast

THEN brake pressure IS slightly decreased.

In this example, the two input variables are "brake temperature" and "speed" that have
values defined as fuzzy sets. The output variable, "brake pressure", is also defined by a fuzzy
set that can have values like "static", "slightly increased", "slightly decreased", and so
on. This rule by itself is very puzzling since it looks like it could be used without bothering
with fuzzy logic, but remembers the decision is based on a set of rules:

All the rules that apply are invoked, using the membership functions and truth values
obtained from the inputs, to determine the result of the rule.
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4.2 FUZZY CONTROL IN DETAIL

Fuzzy controllers are very simple conceptually. They consist of an input stage,
a processing stage, and an output stage. The input stage maps sensor or other inputs, such as
switches, thumbwheels, and so on, to the appropriate membership functions and truth values.
The processing stage invokes each appropriate rule and generates a result for each,
then combines the results of the rules. Finally, the output stage converts the combined result
back into a specific control output value.

The most common shape of membership functions is triangular, although trapezoidal

and bell curves are also used, but the shape is generally less important than the number of
curves and their placement. From three to seven curves are generally appropriate to cover the
required range of an input value, or the "universe of discourse" in fuzzy jargon.

As discussed earlier, the processing stage is based on a collection of logic rules in the form of
IF-THEN statements, where the IF part is called the "antecedent" and the THEN part is called
the "consequent". Typical fuzzy control systems have dozens of rules.

Consider a rule for a thermostat:

IF (temperature is "cold") THEN (heater is "high")

This rule uses the truth value of the "temperature" input, which is some truth value of "cold",
to generate a result in the fuzzy set for the "heater" output, which is some value of "high".
This result is used with the results of other rules to finally generate the crisp
composite output. Obviously, the greater the truth value of "cold", the higher the truth value
of "high", though this does not necessarily mean that the output itself will be set to "high",
since this is only one rule among many. In some cases, the membership functions can
be modified by "hedges" that are equivalent to adjectives. Common hedges include
"about", "near", "close to", "approximately", "very", "slightly", "too", "extremely", and
"somewhat". These operations may have precise definitions, though the definitions can vary
different implementations.

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5. BAYESIAN NETWORK

A Bayesian network, belief network or directed acyclic graphical model is

a probabilistic graphical model that represents a set of random variables and their conditional
dependences via a directed acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network
could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given
symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various
diseases.

Formally, Bayesian networks are directed acyclic graphs whose nodes represent
random variables in the Bayesian sense: they may be observable quantities, latent variables,
unknown parameters or hypotheses. Edges represent conditional dependencies; nodes which
are not connected represent variables which are conditionally independent of each
other. Each node is associated with a probability function that takes as input a
particular set of values for the node's parent variables and gives the probability of the
variable represented by

the node. For example, if the parents are m Boolean variables then the probability function
could be represented by a table of 2m entries, one entry for each of the 2m possible
combinations of its parents being true or false.

Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference and learning in Bayesian networks.
Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables (e.g. speech signals or
protein sequences) are called dynamic Bayesian networks. Generalizations of Bayesian
networks that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called
influence diagrams.

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Bayesian networks are used for modelling knowledge in computational biology and
bioinformatics (gene regulatory networks, protein structure and gene expression
analysis), medicine, document classification, information retrieval, image processing,
data fusion, decision support systems, engineering, gaming and law.

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6. SWARM INTELLIGENCE

Swarm intelligence (SI) describes the collective behaviour of decentralized, self-

organized systems, natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on artificial
intelligence. The expression was introduced by Gerardo Beni and Jing Wang in 1989, in the
context of cellular robotic systems.

SI systems are typically made up of a population of simple agents or boids interacting

locally with one another and with their environment. The agents follow very simple rules, and
although there is no centralized control structure dictating how individual agents
should behave, local, and to a certain degree random, interactions between such agents lead to
the emergence of "intelligent" global behavior, unknown to the individual agents.
Natural examples of SI include ant colonies, bird flocking, animal herding, bacterial growth,
and fish schooling.

The application of swarm principles to robots is called swarm robotics, while 'swarm
intelligence' refers to the more general set of algorithms. 'Swarm prediction' has been used in
the context of forecasting problems.

6.1 EXAMPLE ALGORITHMS

6.1.1 Ant colony optimization

Ant colony optimization (ACO) is a class of optimization algorithms modeled on the

actions of an ant colony. ACO methods are useful in problems that need to find
paths to goals. Artificial 'ants' - simulation agents - locate optimal solutions by moving
through a parameter space representing all possible solutions. Real ants lay down
pheromones directing each other to resources while exploring their environment. The
simulated 'ants' similarly record their positions and the quality of their solutions, so that in
later simulation iterations more ants locate better solutions. One variation on this approach is
the bees algorithm, which is more analogous to the foraging patterns of the honey bee.

6.1.2 Particle swarm optimization

Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a global optimization algorithm for dealing with
problems in which a best solution can be represented as a point or surface in an n-
dimensional space. Hypotheses are plotted in this space and seeded with an initial velocity, as
well as a communication channel between the particles. Particles then move through
the,
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solution space, and are evaluated according to some fitness criterion after each time
step. Over time, particles are accelerated towards those particles within their
communication grouping which have better fitness values. The main advantage of such
an approach over other global minimization strategies such as simulated annealing is that the
large numbers of members that make up the particle swarm make the technique
impressively resilient to the problem of local minima.

6.1.3 Gravitational search algorithm

Gravitational search algorithm (GSA) is constructed based on the law of Gravity and
the notion of mass interactions. The GSA algorithm uses the theory of Newtonian
physics and its searcher agents are the collection of masses. In GSA, we have an isolated
system of masses. Using the gravitational force, every mass in the system can see the situation
of other masses. The gravitational force is therefore a way of transferring information
between different masses.

6.1.4 Intelligent Water Drops

Intelligent Water Drops algorithm (IWD) is a swarm-based nature-

inspired optimization algorithm, which has been inspired from natural rivers and how they
find almost optimal paths to their destination. These near optimal or optimal paths follow
from actions and reactions occurring among the water drops and the water drops with their
riverbeds. In the IWD algorithm, several artificial water drops cooperate to change their
environment in such a way that the optimal path is revealed as the one with the lowest soil on
its links. The solutions are incrementally constructed by the IWD algorithm.
Consequently, the IWD algorithm is generally a constructive population-based optimization
algorithm.

6.2 APPLICATIONS

Swarm Intelligence-based techniques can be used in a number of applications.

The U.S. military is investigating swarm techniques for controlling unmanned vehicles.
The European Space Agency is thinking about an orbital swarm for self
assembly and interferometry. NASA is investigating the use of swarm technology for
planetary mapping.

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7. CONCLUSION

The complementarity of FL, NC, GC, and PR has an important consequence: in many
cases a problem can be solved most effectively by using FL, NC, GC and PR in combination
rather than exclusively. A striking example of a particularly effective combination is what has
come to be known as "neurofuzzy systems." Such systems are becoming increasingly visible
as consumer products ranging from air conditioners and washing machines to photocopiers
and camcorders. Less visible but perhaps even more important are neurofuzzy systems
in industrial applications. What is particularly significant is that in both consumer products
and industrial systems, the employment of soft computing techniques leads to systems
which have high MIQ (Machine Intelligence Quotient). In large measure, it is the high MIQ
of SC- based systems that accounts for the rapid growth in the number and variety of
applications of soft computing.

The successful applications of soft computing suggest that the impact of soft
computing will be felt increasingly in coming years. Soft computing is likely to play
an especially important role in science and engineering, but eventually its influence may
extend much farther. In many ways, soft computing represents a significant paradigm shift
in the aims of computing - a shift which reflects the fact that the human mind, unlike present
day computers, possesses a remarkable ability to store and process information
which is pervasively imprecise, uncertain and lacking in categoricity.

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8. REFERENCE

1. Zadeh, Lotfi A., "Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks, and Soft Computing," Communications
of the ACM, March 1994, Vol. 37 No. 3, pages 77-84.

2. Harish Mittal, Pradeep Bhatia and Puneet Goswami, “Software Quality Assessment
Based on Fuzzy Logic Technique”, International Journal of Soft Computing
Applications ISSN: 1453-2277 Issue 3 (2008), pp.105-112

3. Zainudin Zukhri and Khairuddin Omar,” Solving New Student Allocation Problem with
Genetic Algorithms”, International Journal of Soft Computing Applications ISSN:
1453-2277 Issue 3 (2008), pp.6-15

4. Bhupesh Gour, T. K. Bandopadhyaya and Sudhir Sharma,” High Quality

Cluster Generation of Feature Points of Fingerprint Using Neutral Network”, International
Journal of Soft Computing Applications ISSN: 1453-2277 Issue 4 (2009), pp.13-18

5. NARESH K. SINHA and MADAN M. GUPTA, “Soft computing and intelligent systems –
Theory & Applications”

6. R.G.S. ASTHANA, “Evolutionary Algorithms and Neural Networks”

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