Lesson 5.

The Need for Extra Protection and Support

Animal Protection

An animal’s body is protected by an outer covering called the integument. Integument

means cover and that is its main function to cover and protect the organism. The protective
waterproof wrapping, which includes skin and its surface glands and other structures derived
from or associated with it, compose the integumentary system.

Skin structures differ among animal groups. Reptiles have scales, whereas birds have
feathers. Mammals are covered with hair. The skin is the largest organ in the human body. It
protects by giving a waterproof wrapping around the body against the outside world. Skin
derivatives, such as hair and nails, are uniquely present for cover and protection among
mammals. Most mammals, like bears, have a thick coat of hair that provides warmth. Many
species also have certain hairs that respond to touch. These tactile hairs are called whiskers.
Whiskers grow on the lips and cheeks of most mammals, but they also occur on other parts of
the body. These hairs help the animals feel their way through narrow or dark places. Aside
from providing warmth, hair also provides various kinds of protection for animals. The hair
color of many species of mammals blends with their surroundings and helps them hide from
their enemies.

Human Skin and Its Layers

The human skin, which makes up about 15% of your total body weight and has a
surface are of 1.4 to 1.9 square meters, is the largest organ of the body. An average person’s
skin weighs about 3 kg more than twice as much as the brain. Many specialized structures are
found in the skin, which along with the hair and nails, form the integumentary system. The
skin protects the body from injury, provides the first line of defense against diseases, helps
regulate body temperature, and prevents the body from drying out through evaporation.

The skin is the organ that covers the bodies of human beings and other animals. In
human beings, the skin protects the body in various ways. For example, the skin is almost
completely waterproof: it prevents the escape of fluids that bathe body tissues. It also prevents
harmful bacteria and chemicals from entering most parts of the body. In addition, the skin
protects underlying tissues from the harmful rays of the sun.
 The skin has three layers of tissues: epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue or
hypodermis. The epidermis, the outermost layer, is about as thick as a sheet of paper over most
parts of the body. It is made up of several layers of epithelial cells. The outermost cells of the
skin are continuously shed and replaced by a layer of actively dividing cells at the base of
epidermis. As new skin cells, called keratinocytes, form, they move upward through the
epidermis, producing large amounts of keratin. Keratin is a protein that makes the skin tough
and waterproof by preventing fluids and certain substances from passing through the skin. On
reaching the surface of the skin, keratinocytes become flat and dry. Keratin is found only in the
epidermis, hair, and nails. The inner layer of the epidermis also contains cells that produce
melanin, which is a substance that gives the skin its color. Melanin is actually a pigment that
range in color from yellow to reddish brown to black. Melanin absorbs UV radiation,
protecting the skin from its harmful effects. Exposure to UV radiation increases the production
of melanin. This is why some people are prone to skin cancer, especially those with light skin.
Thus, excessive exposure to sunlight should be avoided, and sunscreen should be worn when
outdoors.

The dermis, the middle layer, is between 1.5 and 40 times thick as the epidermis. The
dermis is the functional layer of the skin that lies just beneath epidermis. It is also known as the
true skin. Connective tissues in the dermis make the skin tough and elastic. The dermis
contains nerve cells, blood vessels, hair follicles, and specialized skin cells. Sensations of touch,
temperatures, and pain originate in nerve cells within the dermis. The dermis also contains
tiny muscles, called arrector pili, that are attached to the hair follicles in your skin. When you
feel cold or frightened, these muscles contract and pull the hair shafts upright. This action
helps insulate the body, while causing your hair to stand on end. At the same time, it produces
little bumps around the hair. These bumps are commonly known as goose bumps.

A network of blood vessels in the dermis also nourishes the living cells of the skin.
These blood vessels also help regulate body temperature by either radiating heat into the air or,
conserving heat. This process is called temperature regulation or thermoregulation. Glands,
such as sweat glands in the dermis, also help remove excess body heat through a process called
perspiration. Sweat glands make sure that the body stays at a normal temperature. Destruction
of the dermis in serious burns can lead to scars or may even require skin grafts. Interestingly,
third-degree burns are usually painless because sensory receptors in the skin have also been
destroyed.
 The subcutaneous tissue, the innermost layer, varies greatly in thickness among
individuals. But in all people, the subcutaneous tissue is much thicker that the epidermis and
dermis. Subcutaneous tissue, located beneath the skin just under the dermis, is a layer of
connective tissues made mostly of fat. This skin layers acts as a shock absorber, provides
additional insulation to help conserve body heat, and stores energy. It is the part that anchors
the skin to underlying organs. The thickness of the subcutaneous tissue varies in different parts
of the body.

Modifications of the Skin

Each hair in your body consists of two separate structures, which are the root and the
shaft. The root part of the hair is found in the epidermis of the skin. A follicle, a pouch – like
structure, surrounds the root of the hair. The base of the root is shaped like a bulb surrounded
by the capillaries and nerve fibers. This site undergoes rapid cell division where cells are
pushed upward, die slowly, and form the hard hair shaft. The hair shaft is made up of dead,
hard protein, called keratin in three layers – the cuticle, medulla, and cortex. The outermost
region is the transparent cuticle, which protects the inner layers. A healthy cuticle gives the
hair a shiny appearance whereas an unhealthy one gives a lifeless crown. The cortex layer
contains the pigment, melanin and the structural protein, keratin. The thickness and strength
of our hair is determined by the cortex. When you see split ends on your hair, you are seeing
the cortex at its worst. In the innermost part of some hairs is the medulla, a layer with soft,
spongy mass of tissue. Coarse hair generally has this layer while it is absent in fine hair.

A nail is a tough plate that covers the upper surface at the end of each of your finger
and toe. A nail has three parts: the matrix, plate, and bed. The matrix lies under the surface of
the skin at the base of the nail. Most of the matrix is covered by skin. Near the root of the nail,
where growth begins, part of the matrix forms a whitish half-moon called the lunula. The
plate is the hard outer part of the nail. It consists of many layers of flat, dead cells that contain
keratin. The bed lies under the plate. The cells of the bed and plate are formed in the matrix.
Newly formed cells push the older ones toward the tip of the nail. This pushing process results
in the growth of the nail.

The skin has two kinds of glands, the sebaceous and sweat glands. Most hair follicles
contain an oil gland called the sebaceous gland. This gland secretes an oil, called sebum, into
the follicle. The oil flows over the hair. It lubricates and keeps the hair soft. Hair brushing
causes the sebum to cover the hair shaft making the hair shiny. Sebaceous secretion is under
the control of the endocrine system.

Sweat glands maintain the normal temperature of the body through a cooling process
(perspiration). When a liquid evaporates, it takes heat room wherever it is located. The fluid
flows out through millions of tiny openings (skin pores) in the skin in the form of drops. These
drops evaporate quickly and cool down the body when necessary. Most of the sweat is about
99% water and 1% dissolved salts and acids.

There are two types of sweat glands: eccrine and apocrine. Eccrine glands produce the
sweat that cools the body. They are located throughout the surface of the skin but are
particularly numerous on the forehead, palms, and soles. Some eccrine glands produce
secretions continually. Others become active only when a person is under physical or
emotional stress. Apocrine glands, on the other hand, produce sweat that has no important
function. Most of these glands are in the armpits and around the genitals (external sex organs).
They release their secretions into hair follicle.

External Protection in Plants

Dermal tissues form the skin of plant. It covers all the parts of the roots, stems, and leaves. It is
analogous to animal skin.

Protection in Nonwoody Plants

Functions of the Dermal Tissues System

Dermal tissues have different functions depending on its location in a plant. On the
parts of a plant that are above the ground (stems, leaves), dermal tissues prevent the plant from
drying out by reducing water loss from evaporation. Here, the epidermis secretes a waxy layer
called the cuticle. The cuticle waterproofs the plant and prevents too much water from
evaporating. Some plants have thick cuticles. The thick cuticle on the leaves of a wax palm is a
source of carnauba wax used to make candles and lipstick. Extension of the epidermal cells on
leaves and stem often help to slow down water loss. Some epidermal extensions provide
protection that discourages predator form eating the plant. On the parts of a plant that are
below the ground (roots), dermal tissues absorb water.
 In a young seedling, the dermal tissue of young plants and mature non woody plants
forms a covering called epidermis. The word epidermis comes from the Greek words epi
meaning “upon” and derma meaning “skin”. The epidermis acts as the skin’s outer protective
covering. The epidermis of most plants is made up of a single layer of flat cells.

Protection in Woody Plants

In trees and woody shrubs, however, the epidermis is replaced by periderm, the outer
areas of the bark. The dermal tissues on woody stems and roots consist of several layers of dead
cells that are referred to as a cork. Cork cells contain a waterproof chemical and are not
covered by a waxy cuticle. Several layers of cork protect the trees. In addition to protection,
this dermal tissues are also used in gas exchange and in the absorption of mineral nutrients.
Cork cells have thick walls that contain a waxy, waterproof substance called suberin. Suberin
protects the plant from losing water and prevents gases from passing in and out. Gases enter
and leave the tree or shrub through lenticels, which are round or oval blisters in the surface of
the bark.

Lesson 5.2

The Need to Provide Bodily Shape and Support for Internal Organs

Just like misaligned teeth needing braces for support, most animals have a firm
framework, called skeleton, that gives physical support and protection for the body and often
provides surfaces for the attachment of muscles. There are three basic types of skeleton in the
animal kingdom. Some animals, such as the earthworm, are supported by liquid in their bodies
called hydrostatic skeleton. Animal s, like corals, mollusks, crabs, and insects, have a hard
external covering called exoskeleton. This type of skeleton is rigid in corals but variously
jointed and movable in insects. Exoskeletons also serve as a defensive armor for certain
animals. Higher forms of animals, particularly vertebrates, like fishes, frogs, chickens, as well
as humans, are supported by a hard framework inside their bodies. This internal framework is
called endoskeleton.

Having an external skeleton for support, however, limits the ultimate size of an animal
and may be so heavy that the organism cannot move about because the internal muscles are
not large and powerful enough to move the heavy framework. On the other hand, the internal
skeleton of a vertebrate has less limitation and that is why some vertebrates have attained huge
size both on land and in water (elephants, whales, and giraffes).
The Human Skeletal System

Skeleton is the collection of bones that hold the rest of the body. The following shows the
major functions of the bones and joints of the skeletal system:

 Provides shape and support for the body

 Protects internal body organs (the ribs and breastbone surround and protect the heart
and lungs, the vertebrae protect the spinal cord, and the skull encloses and protects the
brain)
 Provides attachments for major muscles so muscles and bones can work together to
move the body
 Produced blood cells in the red marrow of certain bones
 Stores calcium and phosphorus compounds, which are the substance that make bones
hard. When minerals are needed in other parts of the body, they are released form the
bone tissues and into the bloodstream.

The 206 bones that make up the adult skeletal systems are among the strongest structures
in the body. The bone is a type of hard connective tissue that is constantly being formed and
replaced. Because bones are so hard, people often think of them as a nonliving tissue. Yet every
bone is very much alive. In fact, each bone is a living organ made up of different tissues. The
cells that make up bone tissues have the same nutritional requirements as the other cells of the
body.

Divisions of the Human Skeletal System

When you were born, your skeleton had round 350 bones. By the time you became an
adult, some of the bones fused together to for a single bone. That is why a normal adult only
has around hundred six bones. The human skeletal system has two divisions – axial and
appendicular.

Axial Skeleton

About 80 bones form the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, ribs, breastbone, and
vertebral column (backbone). The most complex part of the axial skeleton is the skull. Of the
29 bones of the skull, eight bones form the cranium, which encases the brain. The skull also
contain 14 facial bones, six middle-ear bones, and a single bone that supports the base of the
tongue.
 The skull is attached to the top of the spine, or backbone, which is flexible, curving
column of 26 vertebrae that supports the center of the body. Curving forward from the middle
vertebrae are 12 pairs of ribs, which form a protective cage around the heart, lungs, and other
vital organs.

Appendicular Skeleton

The other 126 bones compose the appendicular skeleton, which is made up of all the
bones attached to the axial skeleton. The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages or limbs
– the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs. The arms and legs are attached to the axial skeleton at the
shoulder and hips, respectively. The shoulder attachment, called the pectoral girdle, contains
two, large, flat shoulder blades or scapulas and two slender, curved collarbones or clavicles.
The clavicles connect to the scapulas to the upper region of the sternum (breast bone) and hold
the shoulders apart. This arrangement enables full rotation of the arms about the shoulder. The
hip attachment, called pelvic girdle, contains two large pelvic bones. The pelvic bones
distribute the weight of the body evenly down the legs.

Types of Bones

There are four types of bones classified by shape. Long bones are those bones found in
the legs and arms. They are hollow, yet strong and lightweight. These bones’ length exceeds
their width. They are thickest toward the middle of the bone because the strain is greatest at
this region. They are slightly curved at the shaft area, which is ideal for supporting weight and
movement. Flat bones are found in ribs, breastbones, pelvis, bones of the skull, and shoulder
bones (scapula). They are thin in appearance, which is ideal for extensive muscle attachment
or protection for soft or vital organs of the body. The ribs and breastbones, for example, protect
the lungs and heart. The bones of the skull protect the brain. Short bones, like those in the
hands and feet, support weight and allow many small movements. Irregular bones are
irregularly shaped. The wrist bones (carpals), ankle bones (tarsals), and vertebrae are
examples of irregular bones. Sesamoid bones are small and rounded in appearance. They assist
in the proper functioning of the muscles. These bones are enclosed in a tendon and located
adjacent to joints. The patella or knee cap is the largest among the sesamoid bones.

The Bone and Its Growth and Development

 Your skeleton is made up of two tissues called bone and cartilage. Bones are made up of
protein and calcium, which make them strong. Cartilage, on the other hand, is found in
between your bones, acting as shock absorber and cushion when you move.

Bone Structure

From the outside, many bones are covered and protected by a tough, white membrane
called periosteum, which made up of connective tissues and bone-forming cells involved in the
growth and repair of the bone. Small blood vessels in the periosteum carry oxygen and
nutrients into the bone tissue. Nerve fibers are also found in the periosteum.

Bones are made up of a hard outer covering of compact bone surrounding a porous
inner core of spongy bone. Compact bone is a dense connective tissue that provides support. It
contains bone cells, blood vessels, and a flexible protein base, which keeps the bone from
become too brittle. Spongy bone is a loosely structured network of separated connective tissues,
which looks like a honeycomb. Spongy bone has many small open spaces, so it is much lighter
in weight and softer than a compact bone. Spongy bone is mostly found at the ends of long
bones, like the humerus and femur. Some cavities in a spongy bone are filled with a soft tissue
called bone marrow. Spongy bone in flat bones contains red bone marrow that produces both
red and white blood cells. The hollow interior of long bones is filled with yellow bone marrow.
Yellow bone marrow consists mostly of fat, which stores energy. A thick, smooth layer of
cartilage tissue covers the ends of many bones. A cartilage is a flexible nonvascular tissue that
acts like a cushion that absorbs shock at the joints and reduces friction, allowing easier
movements.

Bone Growth

The skeleton of a young child is made mostly of cartilage, a type of connective tissues
that serves as a template for bone formation. As the child grows older, the cartilage is gradually
replaced by bone as minerals are deposited. Deposits of calcium (mostly from drinking milk)
and other minerals harden the bones so they can withstand stress and provide support.

In compact bone new bone cells or osteocytes are added in layers around narrow,
hollow channel shaped like concentric rings called Haversian canals or osteom. Haversian
canals or osteons extend down the length of a bone, forming columns that enable the bone to
withstand stress. Evetually, bone cells or osteocytes become embedded within the bone tissue.
Havesian canals also contain blood vessels that enter the bone through the periosteum, which
supply steocytes with nutrients needed for their maintenance. Bones continue to thicken and
elongate as bone cells replace cartilage throughout adolescene. Bone elongation occurs at the
end of long bones. Cartilage will eventually degenerate as new bone cells are added, causing
bones to lengthen.

Joints: Fasten Bones Together

Bones do not simply work on their own. Almost all of the 206 bones of the human body
are connected to one another. These connections are called joints. As mentioned earlier, the
end of each bone is covered by a tough, smooth, shiny substance called cartilage. The cartilage-
coated bone ends are kept apart by a thin film of slippery fluid called the synovial fluid, which
works like oil in a car. This ensures that your bones will not scratch and bump against each
other when you move and withstand great pressure and stress. Bones are also held together by
strong, stretchy bands called ligaments. They help stabilize joints and prevent joints from
moving too far in one direction. Bones are also connected to muscles by a dense connective
tissue called tendons.

Types of Joints

The skeletal system contains three main types of joint that enable varying degrees of
movement: immovable joints, slightly movable joints, and freely movable joints. Fixed or
immovable joints occur when bones are fused together by a protein called collagen, thus little
or no movement is allowed. Immovable joints hold the bones of the adult human skull and the
bones of the pelvis together. The cranial bones of the skull are joined by a type of immovable
joint called sutures, in which the bones are divided only by a thin layer of connective tissue
that later fuse. Slightly movable joints permit bones to have limited movement. The vertebrae
of the spine are joined by cartilaginous joints, which are a kind of slightly movable joint. They
help you absorb vertebral shocks like you fall out of a tree and land on your feet. Slightly
movable joints are also located between the bones of the rib cage. The human body has a wide
range of motion due to the presence of freely movable joints: ball-socket, hinge, pivot, gliding,
and saddle joints. Ligaments, which are connective tissues that are able to stretch, connect the
bones in movable joints. Freely movable joints include elbows, hips, shoulders, and knees.

Lesson 5.3

The Need to Move for Various Life Activities

 The muscles of small animals allow them to move. Animals, such as the jellyfish, lack
true muscle but can still move due to their two layers of contractile fibers. Animals with
exoskeleton, such as ants, lend them remarkable strength for their size. Their strength is
largely due to the mechanical advantage found in the arrangement of their muscles attached
inside their exoskeleton.

However, the same physical principles that make them so strong for their size limit
their size. Because of some complex biochemical principles, an insect the size of a human
would have a greatly diminished relative strength. The insect muscle-skeleton arrangement is
also responsible for the mosquito’s rapid wing movement. Scientists were puzzled with how
mosquitoes and other insects could move their wings so fast that the nerves that activate the
flight muscles could not fire so rapidly. It has been found out that a single muscular
contraction can set up a reverberation of the insect’s exoskeleton. As the thorax vibrates, it
moves the wings. Human muscles are more complex and allow varied movements, like in
basketball players and gymnasts.

What is a muscle?

The skeletal system provides support so you can stand, but without muscles, you would
not be able to move and your body will end like piles of sticks. Muscles move body parts
because they are attached to bones.

Muscles are organs made up of thousands of cells called muscle fibers. These muscle
fibers shorten when a muscle contracts. Each muscle fiber consists of threadlike, small
cylindrical structures called myofibrils. In a microscopic view, myofibrils appear to have light
and dark bands that produce a striped appearance. In the middle of each light band is the Z
line that attaches actin filaments. An area between two Z lines is called sarcomere. A myofibril
is a group of sarcomere linked together. Each sarcomere contains overlapping thin and thick
protein filaments that slide and interact with each other. The thin filaments are called actin
whereas the thick filaments are myosin. The muscles are held together by a layer of connective
tissue, making them elastic. The pulling power of a muscle varies because not all the fibers
shorten at once.

Types of Muscles in Humans

There are three main muscle types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac (heart). Skeletal
muscles are voluntary, which means you can control them by thinking. The other two types
are involuntary, which means they work automatically and involuntary. Smooth muscles move
food along the digestive system. Cardiac muscles are responsible for the pumping of heart and
never stop working.

How do muscles work?

The ability of a muscle to contract provides the force that moves different parts of the
body. Certain kinds of movement, such as walking, lifting, and using the arms, require that the
muscular organ and skeletal system work together. The 639 muscles in the human body are
each comprise of around 10 million muscle cells also known as muscle fibers. Each of these
cells is like a motor containing 10 cylinders, called myofibrils, arranged in a row.

The cylinders are tiny boxes with thick and thin protein filaments. Thick filaments,
myosin, and thin filaments, actin, are arranged alternately and known collectively as a
sarcomere. The sarcomeres are separated with each other by an area of dense matter known as
the Z line. During contraction, thick and thin filaments slide past each other until the point
where their ends almost touch each other. The Z lines become closer to each other and the
sarcomeres shorten in length. When the muscles relax, the ends of the thick and thin filaments
overlap slightly but do not touch each other. Z lines at this point are far from each other. It is
this sliding action that causes the muscle to move.

When a muscle is stimulated into action, it reacts quickly and may contract in less than
one-tenth of a second. But before it has time to relax, another message comes along. It
contracts again and again. All these contractions take place so quickly that they become fused
into one action, resulting in the muscle performing one smooth, continuous action.

Skeletal Muscle Work in Pairs

Skeletal muscle movement is always the result of two muscles, or two groups of
muscles, working together. A muscle can only pull in one direction so it needs another muscle
to pull it in the opposite direction to return a bone to its original position. When thinking
about the action of a pair of muscles, it is helpful to remember that muscles always pull; they
never push. That is why most muscles come in pairs that work against each other. Such
muscles are called an antagonistic pair.
 The muscle that causes something to extend and straighten is called an extensor
muscle. Moreover, the muscle that causes something to bend or flex is a flexor muscle. The
same action happens in your legs when you walk, run, and move your fingers and toes.

Plant Growth and Support

A human’s steady growth starts at birth, spurts during adolescence, and gradually stops
after reaching maturity. However, plants have a different growth pattern. Instead of growing
for a limited time, a plnt grows as long as the plant is alive.

Open Growth

Plants have a growth pattern called open growth. A plant adds new organs, such as
branches, leaves, and roots, which enlarge from tips of the root and shoot throughout its life.
Due to the rigidity of their cell walls, plants cannot move toward favorable conditions or run
away from harmful situations as animals do. However, a plant can overcome its immobility by
means of growth. For example, they can grow toward light; and push their roots toward water
and mineral nutrients, and toward or away from other stimuli.

Recall that plant growth occurs at specific growth regions in their bodies called
meristems. Meristems are located at the tips of stems and branches, root tips, and joints where
leaves attach to the stem. The types of tissue is found in meristems are called meristematic
tissues. New cells produced in meristems through mitosis eventually differentiate or change
into other plant tissues, such as vascular tissue, growth tissue, and dermal tissue.

Meristems give rise not only to vegetative parts of the plants, such as new leaves and
stems, but also to the cells that produce reproductive parts – the flowers and the eggs and
sperm they contain. Like a child, a tree grows in to dimensions: it becomes taller and thicker.
Two growth patterns happen in seed plants. These two types of growth are brought about by
two types of meristems: the apical and the lateral. The elongation of stems and roots, called
primary growth, happens in apical meristems, whereas the thickening of the stem, called
secondary growth, occurs in lateral meristems.

Apical Meristems: Increase in Length

All plants exhibit primary growth. It starts as soon as seeds germinate from the ground.
Primary growth makes plants grow taller toward the light and their roots to push and grow
deeper into the soil ward water. A plant’s increase in length is because of apical meristems,
which are perpetual ones at the tips of roots and stems. Cells divide and elongate in these
regions. Most herbaceous plants with green and flexible stems have only primary growth. The
xylem and phloem produced by apical meristems are called primary xylem and primary
phloem.

Lateral Meristems: Increase in Diameter

Many plants also become wider as they become taller. The increase in the width of
stems and roots happen during the secondary growth. Secondary growth helps plants to
survive and withstand pressures outside their environment. It does not only make plants grow
wider; it also helps them become stronger. Therefore, plants are able to rise up, increasing
their chances of getting sunlight and producing successfully. This increase in diameter is a
result of cell divisions in the second type of meristem, the lateral meristem. Unlike apical
meristems that are found at the tips of roots and stems, lateral meristems are located within
and parallel to the sides of roots and stems. That is why they are shaped like hollow cylinders
inside the root or stem. Lateral meristems are arranged as cylinders of dividing cells in the
stems and roots of some plants that cause these parts to become thicker. As you might expect,
lateral meristems are found in plants that become quite thick and strong, like most trees and
shrubs.

The lateral meristem has two main types that give rise to secondary growth – vascular
cambium and cork cambium. Vascular cambium is a type of lateral meristem that produces
secondary phloem and secondary xylem, commonly known as wood. Cork cambium, on the
other hand, gives rise to the waterproof outer part of the bark of trees and shrubs, known as
cork.

You can observe how trees grow and understand the difference between primary and
secondary growth by simply observing your neighborhood. Woody plants, such as mango and
narra trees, have secondary growth, whereas herbaceous plants, like daisies, corn, and grasses,
only have primary growth that produce slender, generally flexible green stems.