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1. Physical Quantities and Units 1. State seven base physical quantities and its SI
1.1 Base physical quantities and units
SI units 2. Write the relationship between derived and
1.2 Derived quantities base quantities
1.3 Prefixes 3. Write prefixes to make units larger or smaller
Course
1.4 Name Physics
Unit conversion 4. Use proper SI unit in calculating density,
Course Code PHY 1A volume,Semester
force, weight, angular
1 speed, work 3
Credit
done, power and pressure
PHYSICS
PHY 1A 2
PHYSICS
1.1 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (S.I )
Physical quantities can be divided into two categories, base quantities and
derived quantities. A base quantity must be defined in terms of a standard
quantity with fixed reference (where we will define later) whereby any derived
quantity is derived from the base quantities. There are seven base quantities and
these seven base quantities and their SI units are summarised in the table below.
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
amount of substance mole Mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Table 1.1
Usually the magnitude (the number or size) of the physical quantity that we use is
quite big or may be very small and in practice, it is often convenient to use
multiple or sub-multiple of the numbers with fixed names given to the multiples.
This is called prefix. Some of the prefixes that are often used are given in the
table below.
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PHYSICS
Table 1.2
As said earlier, each unit of the base quantities has a standard reference. Listed
below are three most commonly used base quantities and its SI unit with the
most recent reference.
a) Meter (m) is the SI unit for Length and 1 meter is define as a length of path
travelled by light in vacuum for an interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. It
is originally defined as a distance between North Pole to equator divided by
10000000.
b) Kilogram (kg)** is the SI unit for mass and 1 kilogram is defined as a mass
of a cylinder made of a platinum-iridium that is kept in a vault at the BIPM in
Sèvres, France.
c) Second (s) is the SI unit for time and 1 second is defined as the intervals
occupied by 9 192 631 770 cycles of radiation corresponding to the
transition of caesium-133 atom.
**Note that only mass has prefix kilo for its SI unit.
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PHYSICS
Quantities other than the seven base quantities are called derived quantities. This
is because they are derived from the base quantities and some of them have
special name assigned to it to commemorate the person who responsible for its
developments. Below, we will look at some of the derived quantities.
1.3.1 VOLUME
All the formulas above have length multiplied by length, thus the SI units
for area is square meter and noted as m2.
Generally volume has three length multiplied with each others and thus
the SI unit is cubic meter and noted m3. Below are some formulas of
volume for a common shape.
Example 1.1
Calculate the area of the given shapes. Give your answer in SI unit.
Solution:
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PHYSICS
Area= width x length
= 20 x 30 = 600 cm2
The shortest way to solve the question is to change the unit of length and
width from cm to meter before using them in the formula.
Area = 0.2m x 0.3m = 0.06 m2
Solution:
Another metric unit for volume is litre and usually it is use to measure the
volume of a liquid. One litre equals to 1000 cm 3 thus 500 ml of mineral
water has a volume of 500 cm3 or 500 x10-6 m3
Example 1.2
PHY 1A 6
PHYSICS
Solution:
30 litre = 30 000 cm3
= 30 000 x (10-2m)3
= 30 000 x 10 -6 m3
= 3.0 x 10-2 m3
= 0.03 m3
1.3.2 DENSITY
Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. The symbol used for
density is (Greek letter rho) and its units are kg/m3.
mass
Density = , i.e.
volume
= m or m V or V
m
V
Where m is the mass in kg, V is the volume in m3 thus the SI unit for ,
the density in kg/m3.
Table 1.3
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PHYSICS
Density of substance
Relative density = -----------------------------
Density of water
Table 1.4
Example 1.3
Solution:
445
= x10 3
50
Example 1.4
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PHYSICS
Density of aluminum is 2700 kg/m3. If a block of aluminum has a volume
of 100 cm3, calculate the mass of the aluminum.
Solution:
Hence
2700 x100
= kg 0.270kg
10 6
Example 1.5
Solution:
3 x10 5
= 3 x 105 mm3 = 3 x10 4 m
10 6 m 3
mass 2.7 kg
Density =
volume 3 x10 4 m 3
1.3.3 FORCE
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PHYSICS
Force is a quantity that can change the motion of an object if it is
subjected to a moving object or it can change the shape of an object. The
effect of forces will be studied later. The SI unit of force is Newton @
kgm/s2 to commemorate Sir Isaac Newton. One Newton (noted by 1 N) is
defined as the amount of force needed to accelerate 1 kg of mass for 1
meter per second for every second.
1.3.4 WEIGHT
Weight is the force that we feel when we standing up. It is the pulling force
between our body and the earth. Where else mass is the quantity of
matter in our body and it is measured in kilogram. The same force makes
everything that we throw upward will falls back to the surface of the earth.
Every object for whatever mass it has will falls at an acceleration of 9.81
m/s2 and we call this gravity acceleration. Gravity acceleration differs from
places to places. For example gravity acceleration on the surface of the
moon is about 1/6 of the gravity acceleration on the surface of the earth.
Gravity acceleration at Kuala Lumpur also differ when compare to
London.
Weight (W) can be calculated by multiplying the mass (m) with the gravity
acceleration (g).
W = mg
W= mg = 30x9.81 = 294.3 N
The same 30kg object has less weight on the surface of the moon since
the value of its gravity acceleration is less compare to earth but the mass
remains 30 kg.
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1.3.5 PRESSURE
force
Pressure =
area
Other units for pressure that commonly used are lb square in (lbf/in2),
mmHg and barr.
Example 1.6
Solution:
force
P=
area
50 N
=
4 10 4 m 2
1.3.6 WORK
W=F•d
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PHYSICS
Another unit that is often used to measure work is calories and we will
explain about work in a later chapter.
Example 1.7
Solution:
Work = F x d
= 1000 x 4
= 4000 J = 4 kJ
1.3.7 POWER
Power is a quantity that measure how fast the work is done. It is defined
as rate of doing work. Thus;
work
Power =
time
Since work is measured in joule and time in second, the SI unit for power
is Js-1 or a special name for it is Watt
Example 1.8
Solution:
work
Power =
time
98 10 3 J
=
2 60 s
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PHYSICS
= 816.67 watt
1.4 SUMMARY
Area (m2)
Volume (m3)
Acceleration (m/s 2)
Work (J@Nm-1)
Power (W@Js-1)
Diagram above shows how the derived quantities that are explained in this
chapter are related to the base quantities.
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EXERCISE 1.0
1. Express (a) a length of 36 mm in meters, (b) 32 400 mm 2 in square meters
(c) 8 540 000 mm3 in cubic meters.
2. Determine the area of a room 15 m long by 8 m wide in (a) m 2 (b) cm2 and
(c) mm2
3. A cube has sides each of length 50 mm. Determine the volume of the cube
in cubic meters.
4. A container has a capacity of 2.5 liters. Calculate its volume in (a) m 3 (b)
mm3
5. A steel plate measures 500mm x 200mm x 10 mm. If the mass of the plate
Is 7.8 kg, calculate the density of the plate.
6. A body is suspended from spring balance. The reading on the balance is
4N. Assuming the local gravitational force to be 9.81 N/kg, calculate the
mass of the body in grams.
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2.1 FORCES AND REACTION
We have mentioned about force in chapter 1. Basically force is the centre of
discussion in mechanics. We mentioned that force can accelerate or decelerate
an object, it can change the direction of motion and it also can change the shape
of an object. Other property of a force is that, it never acts alone. This is stated in
Newton’s third law of motion; for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. The simplest way to explain this is, lean against the wall, do you feel the
reaction force pushes you back? When you are sitting down, do you feel a force
pushes upward holding your body from falling down?
fig a. fig b.
We explained earlier that all mass inside the gravity field will feel its weight W
pulling the object downward. In figure a. the weight of the object is downward and
the string provides opposite force T to hold the object from falling. Figure b shows
how the table provides an opposite reaction force upward R to hold the object in
place.
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PHYSICS
F F
A B
F A F
B
F
F A B F
F
If the beam above is stretched by a force F, the same force is felt by all the
section along the beam.
A scalar quantity is one which has magnitude but no direction, e.g mass,
time, wavelength of light, energy, density, etc.
“Exert 30 N force towards your book”, can you do it? Before you do anything just
imagine what happen if the force is subjected at a different direction. It will yield
different effect. You push to the left it will moves to the left, you push downward it
will remain still on you table and you push it to the right it will moves to the right.
We must specified the direction if we intend to get the specific result.
So, force needs direction thus force is vector quantity. In another word, it needs
direction to be understood completely.
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PHYSICS
0 1 2 3 4 5 cm
Scale 1N : 1cm
a b
a) For forces acting in the same direction and having the same line of
action, the single force having the same effect as both the forces, called
the resultant force or just the resultant, is the arithmetic sum of both the
forces. Forces of F1 and F2 as shown in the figure below (a) have exactly
PHY 1A 18
PHYSICS
F1 F2
b) For forces acting in opposite directions along the same line of action,
the resultant force is the arithmetic difference between two forces. Force
F1 and F2 acting at point P, as shown in the figure below (a) have exactly
and acts in the direction of since F2 is greater than F1. Thus F is the
resultant of F1 and F2.
F1 F2
c) When two forces do not have the same line of action, the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force may be found by a procedure called vector
addition of forces. There are two graphical methods of performing vector
addition, known as the triangle of forces method and the parallelogram of
forces method.
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PHYSICS
c) The resultant vector is represented in both magnitude and direction by the
vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the nose of the second
vector.
Thus for example , to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of a
force F1 of 15 N acting horizontally to the right and the force F2 of 20 N, inclined
at an angle of 60o to the 15 N force , using the triangle of force method : With
reference to the figure below and using the above procedure.
0 1 2 3 4 5 cm
Scale 1cm : 10 N
R
F2
35o 60o
F1
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PHYSICS
c) Complete the parallelogram using the two vectors drawn in 1 and 2 as two
sides of the parallelogram.
Thus for example, to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of a
250 N force acting at an angle of 135 o and a force of 400 N acting at an angle of
-120o using the of parallelogram of force method: Using reference below and the
above procedure.
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PHYSICS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 cm
Scale 1cm : 50 N
F1
135o
120o
R
156o
F2
For the three or more coplanar forces F1, F2, and F3 acting at a point as shown in
figure below, the vector diagram is drawn using the nose to tail method. The
procedure is:
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Example 2.1
Four forces, in one plane, act at a point O. The magnitudes and directions of the
forces are shown in the figure below. Determine by the polygon of forces the
value and the resultant of force.
F4=30N
F1=50N
60o
30o
F3=20N
F2=10N
Solution:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 cm
Scale 1cm : 10 N
R
20o F1=50N
F2=10N
F4=30N
F3=20N
Measuring the length of R, it is about 1.9 cm thus the value for R is 19 N and an
angle about 20o from 50 N force.
When three or more coplanar forces are acting at a point and the polygon closes,
there is no resultant. The forces acting are said to be in equilibrium.
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PHYSICS
2.3 EQUILIBRIUM FORCE
The first Newton’s law of motion stated that a body will remain at rest or moves
with constant speed if the forces acting on it are in equilibrium. The word
equilibrium means that the resultant force is zero (the sum of all forces is equal to
zero).
Since the picture frame is not falling down, so it must be in the state of
equilibrium. The forces involves are
T2 T1
o o
Forces drawn at a
point
Since all the forces are in equilibrium, when we add the forces using polygon of
forces method, we should get a close triangle.
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PHYSICS
T2
W o
T1
Conversely
Bow’s notation
When several members are pinned together and the joint is in total equilibrium
(not moving), the resultant force must be zero. This means that if we add up all
the forces as vectors, they must form a closed polygon. If one or even two of
these forces is unknown, then it must be the vector, which closes the polygon.
Consider three forces joined by a pin as shown in figure below.
PHY 1A 26
PHYSICS
P Q
B
A O C
Only one of these forces is known. Bow's notation helps us to identify and label
each member and draw the Polygon or (in this case) the triangle of forces. The
process is as follows:
1. Label the spaces between each member. This is why the diagram is
called a SPACE DIAGRAM.
P Q
B
A O C
PHY 1A 27
PHYSICS
the direction of member c-a. Where the two 'c' lines cross must be point
'c'.
c c
‘C’ LINES
bc (Q)
ca (R)
b b
ab (P)
KNOWN
VECTOR
a a
Example 2.2
T1 T2
70o 40o
B
70o
70o 40o
A O C
10 kg W=mg
= 10x9.8
=98 N
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PHYSICS
Solution:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 cm
Scale 1cm : 10 N
40o
Starts from Weight of the mass W = mg =
c
1 10x 9.8 = 98 N (according to scale the line
should be 9.8 cm downward
W=98 N
2
Draw line from c to b at an
angle 70o as shown.
70o
b
a
40o
c
bc =T1 = 8 cm = 80 N
W=98 N ca = T2 =3.6 cm = 36 N
70o
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PHYSICS
From trigonometry,
oa
cos 60 , hence the horizontal component, oa 10 cos 60
ob
ab
sin 60 , hence the vertical component, ab 10 sin 60
ob
This process is called ‘finding the vertical (or sometime we call it y-component)
and horizontal component (or x-component) of a vector’ or ‘the resolution of a
vector’ and can be used as an alternative to graphical methods for calculating the
resultant of two or more coplanar forces acting a point.
Let us consider 4 coplanar forces acting at a point shown below instead using the
polygon of forces to determine the resultant force, we going to use method of
resolution of force
F4=30N
F1=50N
60o
30o
F3=20N
F2=10N
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PHYSICS
Look at F1, the magnitude of the force is 50 N to the right or in positive x-
direction. This means that it has horizontal component of positive 50 N and no
vertical component.
x - comp. y - comp.
F1=50N
50 N 0N
F2 has only vertical component but in downward direction, thus it has vertical
component of negetive10N and 0N of horizontal component.
x - comp. y - comp.
0N -10 N
F2=10N
F3 making 30o from the negative x-axis. The horizontal and vertical component
can be determined by trigonometry.
x - comp.
30o x - comp. y - comp.
y - comp.
20 cos 30o= -17.32 N 20 sin30o= -10 N
F3=20N
x - comp. y - comp.
F4=30N
-30 cos 60o= -15 N 30 sin 60o= 25.98 N
y - comp.
60o
x - comp.
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PHYSICS
The next step will be finding the resultant of all x-components and y-components
x comp. y comp.
F1 50 N 0N
F2 0N 10 N
F3 17.32 N 10 N
F4 15 N 25.98 N
The resultant force has horizontal component of 17.68 N and vertical component
of 25.98 N.
Since the vertical and horizontal components are always perpendicular with each
other, the triangle will always be a right angle triangle.
R = x comp 2 y comp 2
So;
R= 17.68 2 5.98 2
= 18.67 N
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PHYSICS
The direction of the resultant force can be determined by using the concept of
tangent.
opposite
tan
hypotenuse
5.98
17.68
0.338
Thus
*Thisquestion has been done before in the section of polygon of force using drawing
method. Compare the answer. Discuss which one is the best answer.
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PHYSICS
EXERCISE 2.0
(a) Acting in the same direction and having the same line of action,
(b) Acting in opposite directions but having the same line of action.
3. Find the magnitude and direction of the two forces given, using the
triangle of forces method.
5. Use the cosine and sine rules to determine the magnitude and direction of
the resultant of a force of 8 kN acting at an angle of 50 o to the horizontal
and a force of 5 kN acting at an angle of -300 to the horizontal.
7. The following coplanar forces are acting at a point, the given angles being
measured from the horizontal: 100 N at 300, 200 N at 800, 40 N at -1500,
120N at -1000 and 70 N at -600. Determine graphically the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of the five forces.
PHY 1A 34
PHYSICS
8. A load of 200 N is lifted by two ropes connected to the same point on the
load, making angles of 400 and 350 with the vertical. Determine
graphically the tensions in each rope when the system is in equilibrium.
9. Five coplanar forces are acting on a body and the body is in equilibrium.
The forces are: 12 kN acting horizontally to the right, 18 kN acting at an
angle of 750, 7 kN acting an angle of 1650, 16 kN acting from the nose of
the 7 kN force, and 15 kN acting from the nose of the kN force.
Determine the directions of the 16 kN and 15 kN forces relative to the 12
kN force.
10. Forces of 5.0 N at 250 and 8.0 N at 1120 act at a point. By resolving these
forces into horizontal and vertical components, determine their resultant.
PHY 1A 35
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PHY 1A 36
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3.1 MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT AN AXIS
When using a spanner to tighten a nut, a force tends to turn the nut in a
clockwise direction. This turning effect of a force is called the moment of a force
or more briefly, just a moment. The size of the moment acting on the nut depends
on two factors:
(a) The size of the force acting at right angles to the shank of the spanner, and
(b) The perpendicular distance between the line of action and the centre of the
nut (turning axis). The distance d is called moment arm
d
Line of
action
In general, with reference to the figure above, the moment M of a force acting
about a point P is force x perpendicular distance between the line of action of the
force and P i.e.
M=Fxd
The unit of a moment is the Newton meter (Nm). Thus, if force F in the above
figure is 7 N and distance d is 30 cm, then the moment M is 7 N x 0.3 m, i.e. 2.1
Nm.
PHY 1A 37
PHYSICS
3.2 EQUILIBRIUM AND THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT
If more than one force is acting on an object and the forces do not act at a single
point, then the turning effect of the forces, that is, the moment of the forces, must
be considered.
The figure below shows a beam with its support (known as its pivot or fulcrum) at
P. thus acting vertically upward is the supporting reaction R p, and forces F1 and F2
acting vertically downwards at distances a and b, respectively, from the pivot.
F1 F2
a b
Rp
(i) The sum of the force acting vertically downwards must be equal to the sum
of the forces acting vertically upwards, i.e. for the above figure, R P = F1 +
F2.
(ii) The total moment of the forces acting on a beam must be zero; for the total
moment to be zero:
PHY 1A 38
PHYSICS
Thus for equilibrium:
F1a = F2b
Example 3.1
Sol
D E
.C
400 mm 180 mm
Rc W1
W2
ution:
M = M
W1 (0.18) = W2 (0.4)
Thus; m = 2.25 kg
Note that we have taken moments about the axis through the supporting force R
acts on the lever. This force R has no moment about axis C Therefore does not
affect the balance of the lever. Had moments been taken about any other axis, R
would haven to be taken into consideration.
PHY 1A 39
PHYSICS
3.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOMENTS AND REACTION OF
SUPPORTED BEAM AT TWO POINTS.
In the preceding sections we have taken moments about an axis on the line of
action of one of the forces for example about a pivot C. We shall now show that
the principal of moment applies at any axis.
A simple supported beam is one which rests on two supports and is free to move
horizontally.
Two typical simply supported beams having loads acting at given points on the
beam (called point loading) are shown in the figure below.
F F1 F2
a b a b c
C B
A B A C
RA RB RA RB
(a) (b)
When the forces acting are all in one plane, the algebraic sum of the moments
can be taken about any point. Hence we can express the general principle of
moments as
If a body is at rest under the action of several forces, the total clockwise moment
of the forces about any axis is equal to the total anticlockwise moment of the
moment of the forces about the same axis.
(i) RA + RB = F, and
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PHYSICS
For the beam in Fig (b), at equilibrium
Example 3.2
3m 1m 2m
A C B D
RA 196.2 N
RB
Solution
RA and RB are the reaction force at A and B and the weight of the beam is 196.2 N
acting in the middle of the beam (considering the beam is uniform).
196.2 x 3 = RB x (3 +1)
196.2 3
RB = = 147.15 N
4
RA + RB = 196.2 N
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PHYSICS
Alternatively taking the moments about B
RA x 4 = 196.2 x 1
196.2
RA = 49.05 N
4
Example 3.3
3m 1m 2m
A C B D
6 kg
RA 196.2 N
RB
Solution
196.2 x 3 + 58.9 x 6 = RB x 4
942
RB = = 235.5 N
4
RA + RB = 196.2 + 58.9
PHY 1A 42
PHYSICS
RA = 196.2 + 58.9 – 235.5 = 19.6 N
Example 3.4
R
S
2.0 m
T
P O
Q
3 kN
2.4 m
4.0 m
Solution
The unknown tension T exert a pull at the end of R and Q where else PQ is at
rest. The forces acting along PQ are
PHY 1A 43
PHYSICS
iii. And what ever reaction force at hinge P which we do not know its magnitude
and direction.
In order to find T and to make sure that the force acting at point P does not have
an effect on our equation of moment, we will calculate the total moment about
point P.
The load has a tendency to turn PQ in clockwise direction thus the clockwise
direction is
The distance that is perpendicular with the line of action of T from P can be
calculated using simple trigonometry.
Angle PQR is
2
Angle PQR =`tan -1 ( ) = 26.56o , so the distance SP is
4
SP
Sin (26.56o) = , Thus yield
4
SP = 4 x 0.447 = 1.79 m
M = T x 1.79 N.m
T x 1.79 = 7200
T = 4020 N = 4.02 kN
PHY 1A 44
PHYSICS
Example 3.5
The simple triangular roof frame or truss shown in figure below carries a load of
12 kN at its top joint. Determine the forces acting along AB, BC and AC.
12 kN
2m
A 26.56o C
8m
Solution
To find the force acting along AB ( FAB)we will find the total moments about the
point C
B
d
26.56o
A C
8m
PHY 1A 45
PHYSICS
M = FAB x d
d
Sin 26.56o =
8
d = 8 Sin 26.56o
M = FAB x 3.58
48000
FAB =
3.58
= 13407 N = 13.4 kN
The symmetry shape of the roof allows us to deduce that force acting along BC
has the same magnitude of 13.4 kN.
PHY 1A 46
PHYSICS
2m
A C
4m
RA= 6kN
PHY 1A 47
PHYSICS
EXERCISES
F 5N 7N
P
140 mm
200 mm d
(b) the point of application of the 5 N force is moved to point P, distance 200
mm from the support, find the new value of F to replace the 5 N force for
the system to be in equilibrium.
4. A beam is supported at its centre on a fulcrum and forces act as shown in the
figure below. Calculate
12 N F 23 N
20 mm d
80 mm 100 mm
PHY 1A 48
PHYSICS
(b) the new position of the 23 N force when F is decreased to 21 N, if
equilibrium is to be maintained.
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PHYSICS
5. For the centrally supported uniform beam shown in the figure below,
determine the values of forces F1 and F2 when the beam is in equilibrium.
F1 F2
3m 7m
R = 5 kN
2 kN 7 kN 3 kN 2 kN 7 kN 3 kN
A B A
0.2 m (b)
0.5 m RB
0.8 m
1.0 m
(a)
7. For the beam shown in the figure below, calculate (a) the force acting on
support A (b) distance d, neglecting any forces arising from the mass of the
beam.
10 N 15 N 30 N
0.5 m RA B
A 40 N
1.0 m
2.0 m
2.5 m
d
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PHYSICS
2.5 kN 5.5 kN
2.0 m 1.0 m
A B
RA RB
12 kN 400 N 20 kN
RP RQ
10. A uniform steel girder AB which is 6.0 m long has a mass equivalent to 4.0 kN
acting at its centre. The girder rests on two supports at C and B as shown in
the figure below. A point load of 20.0 kN is attached to the beam as shown.
Determine the value of force F which causes the beam to just lift off the
support B.
F 4 kN 20 kN
3.0 m 1.0 m
A B
C
2.5 m
RC RB
PHY 1A 51
PHYSICS
Objectives:
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PHYSICS
Distance refers to the total length covered by a moving object irrespective of the
direction of motion, i.e. only the magnitude is of importance. Hence, it is a scalar
quantity.
Displacement refers to the linear distance of the position of the moving object
from a given reference point. The direction of the position of the object
concerned is to be specified. Hence it is a vector quantity.
4km
53.13o
O 3km
PHY 1A 53
PHYSICS
4.2 SPEED
Average speed refers to the total distance travelled over the total time taken, i.e.
s
= (unit : m/s)
t
Imagine that you are taking a trip to Kuala Perlis from Kuala Lumpur. During the
trip the speed of your car varies with time. You will stop at traffic light and speed
up your vehicle up to 110 km/h at the highway. In other words your
instantaneous speed varies with time. If the whole trip takes you four hour to
complete and the total distance from Kuala Lumpur to Kuala Perlis is 300 km so
it can be said that your average speed is
v = 300 km / 4 h = 75 km/h
The value of 75 km/h is not in the SI unit. To change it to m/s we just simply
times it with 1000m and divide it with 3600 s as shown below.
km 1000m 1h
75 = 20.83 m/s
h 1km 3600 s
PHY 1A 54
PHYSICS
Example 6.1 :
Solution:
3500km km
a. v= 583.3
6h h
km 1000m 1h
= 583.3
h 1km 3600s
= 162 m/s
Consider a motion with constant speed of 20 m/s. For every second the value of
the speed remains at 20 m/s and for every second the object covered the same
amount of distance of 20 m. If the value of the speed and distance are plotted
against time it will look like the graph shown below.
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PHYSICS
Speed/(m/s) Distance/m
400
300
20
200
100
5 10 15 20 Time/s 5 10 15 20 Time/s
Fig a. Fig b.
In fig. b we can see that the distance travelled after 20 second is 400 m. If we
calculate the total area of the shaded region from the graph of speed against time
we have 20 m/s x 20 s we also get 400 m and it is equal to a distance travelled. It
can be said that for a graph of speed against time, area under the graph
represents distance travelled.
If we look at fig b., distance against time graph, the slope of the graph is
(400 0) m
Slope = = 20 m/s thus equal to the speed of the object.
( 20 0) s
From distance against time graph, the slope represents the speed of the object.
Example 6.2s
An object moved from rest and the speed of the object is plotted against time. By
referring to the graph below, answer the following questions.
Speed/(m/s)
20
5 10 15 20 Time/(s)
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PHYSICS
a. Determine the total distance travelled by the object for the first 5 seconds.
b. For the last 5 seconds, did the speed of the object is increasing or
decreasing and calculate the distance travelled by the object..
c. How far is the total distance travelled for the whole motion?
Solution:
1
a. Distance = area under the graph (area of a triangle)= (20 5) 50m
2
b. Decreasing and distance is also 50 m.
c. Total distance = total area under the graph = 50+ 200+50 = 300m.
Distance/m
300
250
200
150
100
50
5 10 15 20 Time/s
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PHYSICS
4.4 LINEAR VELOCITY, RESULTANT OF 2 VELOCITY AND RELATIVE
VELOCITY
Velocity is speed with direction. A car moves with a speed of 40 km/h and if we
consider the direction of the car, we can simply state that the car moves 40km/h
due north or in other word its velocity.
Example 6.3
An airplane fly 300 km/h northward while a jet stream blowing 120 km/h to the
east., Find the actual velocity (the resultant velocity) of the aeroplane.
Solution:
120 km/h
Resultant v = = 323.1 km/h
68.2o
The example above shows that in adding two or more velocity, we must consider
the magnitude as well as its direction. (see chapter 2)
Example 6.4:
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A river is flowing at 1 m/s and is 100 m wide. If a man rows a boat at 2 m/s in still
water, determine the direction in which he must row at the same pace in order to
reach a point D on the other side of the bank exactly the opposite the starting
point C. Also, calculate the time taken to reach the other side.
Solution:
2 m/s
V m/s 100m
1 m/s
Since the river current has a velocity of 1 m/s to the right and the swimmer can
swim 2 m/s, to reach point D from C, the swimmer must swim at an angle and
the actual velocity of the swimmer is v m/s
v m/s
Tan= 1 m / s where v = 2 2 12 1.73 m/s
1.73
Tan = = 1.73
1
dispalcement 100
t= = = 57.7 sec.
velocity 1.73
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When we speak of the velocity of an object, we generally mean its velocity
relative to (or with reference to) the stationary earth. If you are standing still on
the earth at a side of a road, and a car moving at 50 km/h towards you, you will
see and feel the 50 km/h relative to where you are standing. If you are moving
towards the car with velocity of 20 km/h then it will appear that the incoming car
become much faster than 50 km/h because you are chasing the car that is
coming towards you. The velocity of the car relative to you now is 50+20 = 70
km/h. If you as an observer and you are moving away from the incoming car with
the speed of 20 km/h, you it will appear that the car is coming towards you at
about 30 km/h.
Observer 50 km/h
Vrelative = 0 + 50 = 50 km/h
IN
CL
UD
EP
Observer
IC 20 km/h 50 km/h
TU Vrelative = 2 0 + 50 = 70 km/h
RE
"
ht
tp
:/
Observer
/t 50 km/h
hm 20 km/h Vrelative = 50- 20 = 30 km/h
-a
04
.y
im
g.
co
m/
im
ag
4.5 ACCELERATION e/ AND SPEED AGAINST TIME GRAPH
94
63
An object whose
2f
velocity is changing is said to be accelerating. Average
acceleration 21
refers to the change in velocity over the time taken.
d6
75
d9 vu
42 a=
t
"
\*
M Where a = acceleration.
ER
GE
FO v = final velocity
RM
AT
PHY 1A IN 60
ET
PHYSICS
u = initial velocity
t = time taken
By a change in magnitude only, i.e. the speed changes while the direction
remains the same;
By a change in magnitude and direction simultaneously; or
Acceleration has the dimensions of speed over time. Hence its S.I. units
will be (ms-1)/s. or ms-2.
Let us consider a motion where the velocity is plotted against time as shown
below
velocity/(m/s)
20
5 10 15 20 25
Time/(s)
During the first 5 seconds, the velocity is increasing at a constant rate (this is
shown by the straight line graph) until it reaches 20 m/s. We can say that the
acceleration is uniform and the value of the acceleration is
v u 20 0
a = =4 m/s2.
t 5
Where,
v = velocity after 5 sec = 20m/s
u = initial velocity (when t= 0 sec) = 0 m/s
and t = 5 sec
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During the interval of 5 sec and 10 sec, the object keeps moving at a constant
velocity. This can be seen by the horizontal line thus the acceleration is equal to
zero.
Between 15 and 20 sec, the velocity is decreasing at a constant rate, thus the
object is decelerate at a constant value of
v u 0 20
a = = -2 m/s2.
t 10
Where,
v = velocity at 25 sec mark = 0 m/s
u = initial velocity (when t= 15 sec) = 20m/s
and t =25 -15 = 10 sec.
If the motion has uniform acceleration, the graph must be a straight line graph.
Consider a motion of uniform acceleration represented by the graph below.
velocity
t time
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PHYSICS
Displacement, s, is represented by area under the graph,
1 (v u )
s (v u )
2 a
2as v u
2 2
thus
v 2 u 2 2as (4)
These four equations are called equation of linear motion with uniform
acceleration.
Example 6.5:
A lift accelerates from rest uniformly at 0.9 ms-2 for 1.5 s, travels at
constant velocity far 7s and then comes to rest in 3 s. Determine its
velocity when travelling at constant speed and its acceleration during the
final 3 s of its travel.
Solution:
Velocity after 1.5 s,
u=0m/s
a = 0.9 m/s2
t = 1.5 s
and v = u +at
= 0 + 0.9(1.5) = 1.35 m/s
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PHYSICS
v= 0 m/s
t=3s
v u
and a =
t
0 1.35
= m / s 2 0.45m / s 2
3
Example 6.6:
During a free fall an object is subjected to a gravity acceleration of 9.8
m/s2. An object is released from rest from a roof top of a tall building. If
the height of the building is 30 m determine
a. Final velocity before it hits the ground.
b. Time it takes to reach the ground.
Solution:
a)
u= 0 m/s
a= g = 9.8 m/s2
s= h = 30 m
so
v2 = u2 + 2as = u2 + 2gh
= 02 + 2(9.8)(30) = 588
So
v= 588 24.24m / s
b) v= u + at
v u 24.24 0
t= 2.47 sec .
a 9.8
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EXERCISES 4.0
(12.96 km)
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1. Define force
2. Define inertia
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5.1 Force
A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with
another object. Force is a quantity that is measured in Newton. Force is a vector quantity
since it has both magnitude and direction.
All forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad categories;
contact forces, and forces resulting from action-at-a-distance.
Contact forces are those types of forces that result when the two interacting objects are
perceived to be physically contacting each other. Examples of contact forces include
frictional forces, tensional forces, normal forces, air resistance forces, and applied
forces.
Action-at-a-distance forces are those types of forces that result even when the two
interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other, yet are able to exert a
push or pull despite their physical separation. Examples of action-at-a-distance forces
include gravitational forces. For example, the sun and planets exert a gravitational pull
on each other despite their large spatial separation. Even when your feet leave the earth
and you are no longer in physical contact with the earth, there is a gravitational pull
between you and the Earth. Electric forces are action-at-a-distance forces. For example,
the protons in the nucleus of an atom and the electrons outside the nucleus experience
an electrical pull towards each other despite their small spatial separation. And magnetic
forces are action-at-a-distance forces. For example, two magnets can exert a magnetic
pull on each other even when separated by a distance of a few centimetres. These
specific forces will be discussed in more detail later in Lesson 2 as well as in other
lessons.1
1
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-2/The-Meaning-of-Force
PHY 1A 67
PHYSICS
5.2 Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
“Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform speed in a straight line
unless acted upon by an external force.”
Newton’s First Law of Motion also known as the Law of Inertia. The tendency of an
object to maintain its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line is called inertia.
When a moving bus stops suddenly, the passengers lurch forwards. The passengers are
in a state of motion when the bus is moving. When the bus stops suddenly, the inertia of
the passengers keeps them in motion. Thus, the passengers lurch forwards.
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What is mass?
What is weight?
where g 9.81 ms 2 .
Weight Mass
Depends on the gravitational field strength2 Independent from the gravitational field
strength
Vector quantity Scalar quantity
Unit measured in Newton, N Unit measured in kilogram, kg
The frictional force, f is an interaction between two surfaces that are in contact with
each other. Friction is a force that resists the motion of objects. Friction opposes the
motion, or attempted motion, of an object. When an object is stationary, the friction
opposing motion is called static friction. Once the object begins to move, the friction
opposing motion is called kinetic friction.
The force between a surface and an object on the surface is called the normal force, N .
The normal force is perpendicular to the surface. For an object on a surface:
2
A gravitational field as a region in which an object experiences a force due to gravitational
attraction. The gravitational field strength at a point in the gravitational field is the gravitational
force acting on a mass of 1 kg placed at that point.
PHY 1A 69
PHYSICS
N mg cos
where is the angle of the surface upward with respect to a plane perpendicular to the
gravitational field.
The relationship between normal force and the frictional force is defined as follows:
f N
Normal
force,
Frictional Applied
force, force,
Weight,
Normal
force,
Applied
force,
Frictional
force,
Weight,
Advantages Disadvantages
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PHYSICS
produce fire
holds or grips thing
sharpens a knife
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EXERCISE 5.0
2. A 5 kg mass hangs at the end of a cord. Find the tension in the cord if the
acceleration of the mass is 1.5 ms 2 up. [56.5 N]
30
f
4. A 12 kg box is released from the top of an incline that is 5 m long and
makes an angle of 40 0 to the horizontal. A 60 N friction force impedes the
motion of the box.
N
N
40
W
a) What will be the acceleration of the box? [1.31 ms 2 ]
b) How long it will take to reach the bottom of the incline? [2.76 s]
c) What is the coefficient of friction between box and incline? [0.67]
P
Q
25
Calculate the distance the block Q will fall in 2 s starting from rest. (Neglect
friction) [1.44 ms 2 , 2.88 m]
PHY 1A 72
PHYSICS
PHY 1A 73
PHYSICS
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6.1 WORK AND WORK DIAGRAM
If a body moves as a result of a force being applied to it, the force is said to do
work on the body. The amount of work done is the product of the applied force
and the distance, i.e.
W=F•d
The unit of work is the joule, J, which is defined as the amount of work done
when a force of 1 Newton acts for a distance of 1 m in the direction of the force.
Thus
1 J = 1 N.m
F= 20 N F= 20 N
d = 8m
W = Fx d = 20 N x 8 m
= 160 J
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PHYSICS
If a graph is plotted where values of force (on the vertical axis) against distance
moved (on the horizontal axis) we have a force/distance graph or work diagram.
The area under the graph represents the work done.
Force/N
20
10
Distance/ m
2 4 6 8
Fig (a).
Force/N
1000
500
Extension/ mm
5 10 15 20
Fig (b).
PHY 1A 76
PHYSICS
= ½ base x height
= 10 Joule.
It has being said that work is equal to force times distance moved in the direction
of the force. Let us consider the same example as shown in section1 but this time
the force is inclined by 30o from the floor.
F= 20 N F= 20 N
30o 30o
d = 8m
In chapter one, we learned that the force can be resolve into two components.
The components of the force is x and y components. For the force show above,
the x-component is Fcos and it is in the same direction of the distance moved.
Thus the work done to move the object across the floor is
W = Fcos x d
= 20 cos 30o x 8
= 17.32 J
y-component of the force doesn’t do any work since there is no distance moved
in that direction.
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PHYSICS
We can simplify this by saying, in general, work done is given as
W = F x d cos
d = distance travelled
Let us consider the case of crank handle or a pulley attached to a shaft, as figure
below. Suppose a force 70 N to be exerted at the right angle to the crank arm,
200 mm long or at a circumference of the pulley of 200 mm radius in order to turn
the shaft against some resistance. Also suppose the force to be always in the
direction of the motion of the point to which it is applied.
200 mm
200 mm
70 N 70 N
The distance through which the point of application of the force travels in 1
revolution is 2 r = 2 (0.2m) = 1.257 m. Then work done in 1 rev is
W = F x d = 70 (1.25) = 88 J
W = F x 2r Joules
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PHYSICS
It has been stated in the last chapter where Fr is the turning moment T about the
axis of rotation. If n is the number of revolution then
= T x angle in radians
= T
Example 5.1
A pulley is 800 mm in diameter and the difference in tension on the two sides of
the driving belt is 2000 N. If the speed of the pulley is 300 rev/min, what is the
work done in 5 min?
Solution:
So; Work = T x 2 n
6.4 POWER
Power is a measure of the rate at which work is done or how fast the machine
doing work. The greater the power the faster the work is being done.
work done
Power = time taken
The unit of power is the watt, W, where 1 watt is equal to 1 joule per second. The
watt is a small unit for many purposes and a larger unit called the kilowatt, kW, is
used, where 1 kW = 1000 W. The power output of a motor which does 120 kJ of
work in 30 s is thus given by
PHY 1A 79
PHYSICS
120kJ
P
30s
= 4 kW
Sometime people use kilowatt hour to measure amount of work done or used for
example in case of our using electricity.
1 kW h = 1000 W hour
Example 5.2
A motor vehicle hauls a trailer at 75 km/h when exerting a steady pull of 800 N.
Calculate
Solution:
a. Distance travelled = v x t
= 75 km/h x 20/60 h
= 25 km = 2500 m
= 20/3.6 = 5.56 kW h.
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PHYSICS
If T be the torque or turning moment and n be the speed in revolution per second,
then
Example 5.3
Solution
= 8 kW x (45/60) h = 6 kW h
= 6 x 3.6 MJ = 21.6 MJ
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PHYSICS
In case of a small machine, the output power can be measure by some form of
mechanical brake such as shown below.
W W
Q P
0 S2 0
S1
Where a belt or a rope has its ends attached to a spring balance S 1 and S2
calibrated in newtons. The balances are supported by a rigid horizontal beam and
the tension on the belt can be controlled by wing nuts W.
Suppose the brake pulley to be rotating clockwise and the tension on the belt
adjusted to give reading of P and Q newtons on S1 and S2 respectively. The pull P
exerted by S1 has to balance the pull Q exerted in S2 and the friction force F
between the belt and the pulley.
Thus ;
P=Q+F
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PHYSICS
F = (P – Q) Newton
If r be the effective radius of the brake and N be the speed of the pulley in rev/min
than
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the useful output energy to the input energy.
The symbol for efficiency is (Greek letter eta). Hence
output power
= input power
800
x 100% = 80% or
1000
It can be expressed as per unit value for example the efficiency for the machine is
just 0.8 per unit.
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Example 5.4
In a brake test on an electric motor, the reading of balance S1 and S2 were 440
N and 87 N respectively. The effective diameter of the pulley was 500 mm and
the speed was 800 rev/min. The power supply to the motor was 8.5 kW. Calculate
the
a. Output power of the motor
b. The efficiency
Solution
a). Radius = 500/2 = 250mm =0.25 m
Net pull due friction F = 440-87 = 353 N
Torque = F r = 353 x 0.25 = 88.25 N.m
Output power = Tx2x N = 88.25 N.m x 2 x (800/60) rev/sec
=7390 W = 7.39 kW
b). efficiency = output power/input power = 7.39/8.5 = 0.87 per unit or 87%
6.8 ENERGY
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PHYSICS
Energy may be converted from one form to another. The principle of conservation
of energy states that the total amount of energy remains the same in such
conversions, i.e. energy cannot be created or destroyed. Some examples of
energy conversions include:
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6.9 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND KINETIC ENERGY
Potential energy is energy due to the position of the body. The force exerted on a
mass of m kg is mg N (where g = 9.81 m/s2), the acceleration due to gravity).
When the mass is lifted vertically through a height h m above some datum level,
the work done is given by:
Hence,
Kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of a body. Suppose a force F acts
on an object of mass m originally at rest (i.e. u = 0) and accelerates it to a velocity
v in a distance s:
v2 1
work done = m s mv 2
2s 2
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PHYSICS
6.10 PRINCIPAL OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The principle of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy
remains the same in such conversions, i.e. energy cannot be created or
destroyed.
If friction is present, then work is done overcoming the resistance due to friction
ans this is dissipated as heat. Then,
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PHYSICS
Example 5.5
A rollercoaster fall freely from rest from the highest point of the track as shown in
the picture below
B
C
20 m
15 m 12 m
If the mass of the coaster is 500 kg and assuming that the track is frictionless,
calculate the
c. Speed at D
d. Linear speed at C
Solution:
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PHYSICS
b. at B the coaster has dropped for 5 m thus reducing the initial potential energy
which has converted to kinetic energy.
Initial energy = PE + KE
98.1 kJ = mgh + KE
98.1kJ = 500x9.81x15 + KE
KE = 98.1 kJ
½ mv2 = 98.1 kJ
v2 = (98100x2)/500
v= 392.4
=19.8 m/s
Initial energy = PE + KE
98.1 kJ = mgh + KE
98.1 kJ = 500x9.81x12 + KE
KE = 98.1-58.86 =39.24 kJ
½ mv2=39240 J
v= 12.52 m/s.
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PHYSICS
EXERCISES 6.0
9. Calculate the useful output energy of an electric motor which is 70% efficient
if it uses 600 J of electrical energy.
10. 4 kJ of energy are supplied to a machine used for lifting a mass. The force
required is 800 N. If the machine has an efficiency of 50%, to what height will
it lift the mass?
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PHY 1A 91
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7. A car travels at 50 km/h for the first half hour and at 80 km/h for the following
hour. Calculate (a) the total distance travelled and (b) the average speed.
(95.5 km/h)
9. A train, starting from rest, covers the following distances x metres in times t
seconds:
t (sec)
0 5 11 18 22 27 31 38 46 50
x (meters)
0 3 16 52 79 115 137 158 168 170
10. A train, starting from rest, reaches a speed of 18 m/s in 2 mim. Assuming the
acceleration to be uniform, calculate (a) the value of the acceleration in metres
per second squared and (b) the distance travelled, in kilometers.
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PHYSICS
11. The velocity of a body increases uniformly from 15 km/h to 40 km/h while it
travels 100 m. Calculate (a) the acceleration, in metres per second squared
and (b) the time taken, in seconds. (0.53
2
m/s , 13.1 s)
12. A stone is dropped clown a shaft, 160 m deep. Calculate (a) the time taken for
the stone to reach the bottom and (b) the velocity of the stone as it reaches
the bottom. Assume g = 9.8 1 rn/s2.
PHY 1A 93
PHYSICS
Appendix I
PHY 1A 94