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Syllabus
Angle Modulation: Basic concepts, Single tone frequency modulation, Single tone
Review of Semiconductor Physics
phase modulation, Spectral Analysis of Sinusoidal FM and PM signals, Differences
between FM and PM signals, Narrow band FM, Wide band FM, Constant Average
Power, Transmission bandwidth of FM Wave - Generation of FM and PM Signals -
Energy band in solids :
Direct and indirect methods. Detection of FM wave - Balanced Frequency
discriminator, Zero crossing detector, Phase locked loop, Comparison of FM & AM.
1. ANGLE MODULATION:
Angle Modulation may be defined as the process in which the total phase angle of a
carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating or
message signal while keeping the amplitude of the carrier constant.
Mathematical Expression:
d
If we let the total phase angle as c t c c dt
dt
Then the unmodualted carrier can be expressed as:
c(t ) ACos
If the angle is varied according to the instantaneous value of the message or
modulating signal, then that modulation is called as angle modulation.
Frequency modulation is one type of angle modulation and in that the frequency of
unmodualted carrier is varied in accordance with modulating signal while keeping the
amplitude of the carrier constant.
Mathematical Expression:
d
If we let the total phase angle as c t c c dt
dt
Then the unmodualted carrier can be expressed as:
c(t ) ACos
i c k f x (t )
And the instantaneous value of total phase angle is given by:
i i dt c t k f x(t ) dt
Therefore the expression for carrier signal after frequency modulation is given by:
c(t ) FM ACos c t k f x(t ) dt
Where k f is called as frequency sensitivity factor.
c(t ) FM ACos c t k f VmCosmt dt
k V
c(t ) FM ACos c t f m Sin mt
m
c(t ) FM ACos c t m f Sinm t
k f Vm
Where m f is called as modulation index and k f Vm is called as
m m
maximum frequency deviation.
Δfactual
Percent modulation ‘M’ = X100
Δfmax
Time domain representation:
Phase modulation is one type of angle modulation and in that the phase of
unmodualted carrier is varied in accordance with modulating signal while keeping the
amplitude of the carrier constant.
Mathematical Expression:
c(t ) ACos c t
Where A Amplitude of the carrier
c Carrier frequency
Phase angle
d
If we let the total phase angle as c t c c dt
dt
c(t ) ACos
In case of phase modulation, value of carrier phase after modulation is given by:
i k p x(t )
Where k p is called as phase sensitivity factor.
Therefore the expression for carrier signal after phase modulation is given by:
c(t ) PM ACos c t k p x(t )
After neglecting initial phase angle :
c(t ) PM ACos c t k p x(t )
c(t ) PM ACos t k V Cos t ACos t m
c p m m c p Cos mt
Where m p k pVm is called as modulation index.
Narrow band FM: In this case k f is small and hence bandwidth of FM is narrow.
m f 1 1 m
m
Wideband FM: In this case k f is large and hence FM signal has a wide bandwidth.
m f 1 1 m
m
c(t ) FM ACos c t m f Sin mt
A Cosc t Cos m f Sin mt Sinc t Sinm f Sin mt
In case of narrowband FM m f 1
Cos m f Sin mt 1 and Sinm f Sin mt m f Sin mt
c(t ) NARROWBAND FM A Cosc t m f Sinc t Sin mt
m m
ACosc t f Cos c m t f Cos c m t
2 2
From the above expressions, it may be noted that the frequency spectrum of
narrowband FM is similar to an AM signal. Therefore the bandwidth of narrowband
FM is given by:
BW 2 f m
c(t ) NARROWBAND FM A Cos ct m f Sin c t Sin mt
A Cos c t k f xˆ (t ) Sinc t
Based on the above equations the following figures shows the generation methods for
narrowband FM.
8. WIDE BAND FM:
When the value of modulation index m f is quite large, then in FM a large number of
sidebands are produced and hence the bandwidth of FM is sufficiently large. This
type of FM is known as wideband FM.
c(t ) FM ACos c t m f Sin mt
The above function can be expanded by Bessel function, which is given by:
J 0 m f Sinc t J 1 m f Sinc m t Sinc m t
c(t ) FM Vc J 2 m f Sinc 2 m t Sinc 2 m t
J 3 m f Sinc 3 m t Sinc 3 m t
J n x
1k x 2n 2k
k 0 k! n k !
Unlike AM, FM has an infinite number of sidebands along with carrier, so the FM
requires infinite bandwidth in ideal.
The J coefficient decreases when n value increases and J coefficient value
depends on modulation index m f so the modulation index determines the
sideband amplitude.
The sidebands at equal frequency intervals from f c having equal amplitude, i.e.
the sideband distribution is symmetrical about the carrier.
In AM, the increase of modulation index increases sideband power and hence the
total power increases. But in FM, the total power remains constant.
In AM the amplitude of carrier component remains constant. But in FM the
carrier component amplitude depends on J 0 .
In FM, it is possible to suppress the carrier completely by proper selection of m f ,
i.e. m f = 2.4, 5.5, 8.6 etc. are called as ‘eigen values’.
Frequency domain representation and bandwidth:
Unlike AM, FM has an infinite number of sidebands along with carrier, so the FM
requires infinite bandwidth in ideal, but the number of significant sidebands i.e. the
bandwidth of FM can be controlled by proper selection of modulation index m f , as
shown in the figure.
The table below shows the number of significant sidebands for various modulation
indices ( m f ) and the associated spectral bandwidth.
Power of FM signal:
From the above equation it is noted that the total power in FM signal is almost
constant.
The portion of the tank circuit in the oscillator is shown in figure. The capacitive
component of the tank circuit consists of a fixed capacitor shunted by a voltage-
variable capacitor. The resulting capacitance is represented by c(t) in the figure. The
voltage variable capacitor commonly called as varactor or varicap, is one whose
capacitance depends on the voltage applied across its electrodes. The varactor diode
(or) FET reactance modulator can be used as a voltage variable capacitor.
The varactor (or capacitor) diode is a two terminal device whose capacitance varies
with applied voltage. Here applied voltage is a combination of bias voltage (V0) and
the modulating voltage m (t). The diode capacitance forms a part of the tuning
capacitance which determines the frequency of oscillations. The capacitance varies
with the change in the modulating signal and so does the frequency variation.
Reactance Modulator makes use of a FET which exhibits a variable reactance with
change in the modulating signal. The device is connected across the tank or tuned
circuit of the oscillator to be frequency modulated. The value of this reactance is
proportional to the transconductance (g) of FET, which can be made to depend on the
biasing of the base (or gate) of the device.
From the figure:
Rv
vg
R jX c
gm R v
id g m v g Where g m transconductance of FET
R jX c
v R jX c 1 jX
z 1 c
id gm R gm R
jX c 1 1
If X c R z j j jX eq
Rg m 2 f C R g m 2 f C eq
The above equation show that C eq depends on transconductance of FET and can
therefore can be varied using gate bias voltage, i.e. modulating signal; since:
Vg
g m g mo 1
V p
The figure shows phasor diagram, which illustrates how PM is generated using
Armstrong method. The figure(a) shows an amplitude modulated signal, in that the
resultant of two sidebands are always in phase with the unmodulated carrier, so there
is only amplitude variation and phase variation is absent. But in Armstrong method,
as in figure (b), the side bands of amplitude modulated signal is added to an
unmodulated carrier with 90º out of phase, so the resultant having phase and
amplitude variations, depending on amplitude of sidebands. The amplitude variations
can be removed by using amplitude limiter, and the resultant is phase modulated
signal.
11. DEMODULATION OF FM(Balanced Slop detection Method):
This detector uses two slope detectors connected back to back to the opposite ends of
a center tapped transformer, so that they are 180° out of phase.
In this detector the output is the difference of two outputs V1 and V2. The resonant
circuit no.1 is tuned to a frequency f1 (= fc + Δf) slightly higher than then carrier
frequency and the resonant circuit no.2 is tuned to a frequency f2 (= fc - Δf) slightly
lower than the carrier frequency as shown in the figure.
Then as the output (Vo) is the difference of V1 and V2, the output will be zero as V1
and V2 are equal at central frequency. Thus output:
Vo V1 V2
The output of the device is almost linear so this is superior to the simple slope
detector but this detector suffers from disadvantages:
The PLL is a negative feedback system. It can be used to track the phase and
frequency of an incoming signal. Hence it is useful device in the following
applications:
Generation and demodulation of angle modulated signals.
Synchronous demodulation of DSBSC and SSB signals.
The block diagram of PLL is as shown in figure. The frequency of VCO can be
controlled by external voltage. In VCO, the oscillation frequency varies linearly with
its input voltage. The output of the multiplier is passed through a low pass filter and
then applied to the input of the VCO. This voltage then changes the frequency of the
VCO and keeps the loop in locked condition.
Mathematical Analysis for PLL as FM demodulator:
If the above signal is passed through a low pass filter, then the output of low pass
filter will be:
AA AA
v(t ) c v Sin1 (t ) 2 (t ) c v Sine (t )
2 2
If e (t ) is zero, then the PLL is said to be in phase locking condition. If e (t ) is less
than one radian, then the PLL is said to be in capture condition. In the capture
condition, the above equation can be rewritten as:
AA
v(t ) c v e (t )
2
e (t ) 1 (t ) 2 (t )
2 (t ) 1 (t ) e (t ) 1 (t )
kv v(t )dt k f x(t )dt
kf
v(t ) x(t ) v(t ) x(t )
kv
That means that the output of low pass filter is proportional to the original modulating
signal.
FM Radio
TV sound broadcast
2-way mobile radio
A microwave transmission line connecting two sites over a long distance. Each
site has a number of sources generating independent data streams that are
transmitted simultaneously over the microwave link.
AM or FM radio broadcast bands, which are divided among many channels or
stations.
A satellite system providing communication between a large number of ground
stations that are separated geographically but that need to communicate at the
same time. The total bandwidth assigned to the satellite system must be divided
among the ground stations.
A cellular radio system that operates in full-duplex mode over a given
frequency band.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) means that the total bandwidth available
to the system is divided into a series of nonoverlapping frequency sub-bands that
are then assigned to each communicating source. Figure show how this division
is accomplished for a case of three sources at one end of a system that are
communicating with three separate users at the other end. Note that each
transmitter modulates its source's information into a signal that lies in a different
frequency sub-band (Transmitter1 generates a signal in the frequency sub-band
between 92.0 MHz and 92.2 MHz,t Transmitter2 generates a signal in the sub-band
between 92.2 MHz and 92.4 MHz, and transmitter3 generates a signal in the sub-
band between 92.4 MHz and 92.6 MHz). The signals are then transmitted across
a common channel.
At the receiving end of the system, bandpass filters are used to pass the desired
signal (the signal lying in the appropriate frequency sub-band) to the
appropriate user and to block all the unwanted signals.
16. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM):
The sampling theorem states that, if the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system
exceeds twice the maximum signal frequency, the original signal can be reconstructed
in the receiver with minimal distortion.
During the transmission, the message samples occupy the transmission channel for
only a fraction of the sampling interval on a periodic basis. In this way some of the
time interval between adjacent samples is cleared for use by other independent
message sources on a time shared basis.
Here, each input message signal is first restricted in bandwidth by low pass filter to
remove the unnecessary frequencies. The low pass filter outputs are then applied to a
commutator as shown in figure.
The function of the commutation is two fold:
to take a narrow sample of each of the N input messages at a rate 1/T (where T is
sampling time interval, which is slightly higher than, 1/twice the maximum signal
frequency ) and
to essentially interleave these N samples inside a sampling interval T.
At the receiving end of the system, the received signal is applied to a pulse
demodulator which performs the inverse operation of the pulse modulator. The
narrow samples produced at the pulse demodulator output are distributed to the
appropriate low-pass reconstruction filters by means of decommutator. Here
decommutator and commutator must operate in synchronism.
The main advantage is that unlike TDM, FDM is not sensitive to propagation
delays. Channel equalization techniques needed for FDM systems are therefore not
as complex as those for TDM systems.
Disadvantages of FDM include the need for bandpass filters, which are relatively
expensive and complicated to construct and design. TDM, on the other hand, uses
relatively simple and less costly digital logic circuits. Another disadvantage of
FDM is that in many practical communication systems, the power amplifier in the
transmitter has nonlinear characteristics and nonlinear amplification leads to the
creation of out-of-band spectral components that may interfere with other FDM
channels. Thus, it is necessary to use more complex linear amplifiers in FDM
systems.
18. PROBLEMS:
The various frequency components of the FM signal are fc, (fc + fm), (fc + 2fm), (fc
+ 3fm), and so on.
The power associated with the above frequency components are: (J0)2, (J1)2, (J2)2,
and (J3)2 respectively.
From the Bessel’s function table, for m f 1;
J0 = 0.77, J1 = 0.44, J2 = 0.11, and J3 = 0.02
Let total power: Pt = 0.5(Ac)2 = 10 W.
Power associated with f c component is P0 Pt J 0 = 10 (0.77)2 = 5.929 W.
2
P3 Pt J 3 = 10 (0.02)2 = 0.004 W.
2
Note: Total power in the FM wave, Pt = P0 + 2P1 + 2P2 + 2P3 = 5.929 + 2(1.936)
+ 2(.121) + 2(.004) = 10.051 W
5. A 100 MHz un-modulated carrier delivers 100 Watts of power to a load. The
carrier is frequency modulated by a 2 kHz modulating signal causing a
maximum frequency deviation of 8 kHz. This FM signal is coupled to a load
through an ideal Band Pass filter with 100MHz as center frequency and a
variable bandwidth. Determine the power delivered to the load when the
filter bandwidth is: (a) 2.2 kHz (b) 10.5 kHz (c) 15 kHz (d) 21 kHz
Modulation index, m f 8 k / 2 k = 4;
From the Bessel functions; for m f 4;
J0 = - 0.4, J1 = - 0.07, J2 = 0.36, J3 = 0.43, J4 = 0.28, J5 = 0.13, J6 = 0.05, J7 = 0.02
Let total power Pt = 0.5(Ac)2 = 100 W
P0 = Pt (J0)2 = 100 (-0.4) 2 = 16 Watts.
P1 = Pt (J1)2 = 100 (-0.07)2 = 0.490 W.
P2 = Pt (J2)2 = 100 (0.36)2 = 12.960 W.
P3 = Pt (J3)2 = 100 (0.43)2 = 18.490 W.
P4 = Pt (J4)2 = 100 (0.28)2 = 7.840 W.
P5 = Pt (J5)2 = 100 (0.13)2 = 1.690 W.
P6 = Pt (J6)2 = 100 (0.05)2 = 0.250 W.
The carrier component will be zero when its coefficient, J0( m f ) is zero.
From Bessels function J0(x) = 0 for x= 2.44, 5.53, 8.65.
f k f Am m f
mf k f f m (2.40)(1000) / 2 = 1.22 kHz/V
fm fm Am
Frequency Sensitivity, kf = 1.22 kHz/V
The carrier component will become zero for second time when m f 5.53
f m f f m
Therefore, Am 5.53 (1000) / 1220 = 4.53 volts
fm kf
7. Find the bandwidth of a single tone modulated FM signal described by
S(t)=10 Cos [2π108t + 6 Sin(2π103t)].
Comparing the given S(t) with equation c(t ) FM ACos c t m f Sinm t
Modulation index, m f 6 and Message signal frequency, f m 1000 Hz
From Carson’s rule:
Transmission Bandwidth, BW = 2(mf + 1) fm
BW = 2(7)1000 = 14000 Hz = 14 kHz
f k f Am
(a) Modulation Index, m f 3x10/15 = 2
fm fm
By Carson’s rule; Bandwidth, BW = 2(mf + 1) fm = 90 kHz
f
Modulation index, m f 5
fm
Transmission Bandwidth, BW = 2(mf + 1) fm = 12x15 kHz = 180 kHz
From equation c(t ) FM ACos c t m f Sinm t ,
Carrier frequency = 3x108 Hz = 300 MHz
Modulating signal frequency, fm = 625 Hz
Modulation Index, m f 5;
Maximum frequency deviation, f m f f m 3125 Hz
Using Carson’s rule, Bandwidth = 2(3125 + 625) = 7500 Hz
A2 12 2
Power dissipated across resistor = 7.2 W.
2R 2 X 10
f
Modulation index, m f 10 k / 10 k = 1;
fm
From Bessel function Table;
for m f 1; the coefficients are J0 = 0.77, J1 = 0.44, J2 = 0.11, J3 = 0.02.
The corresponding spectrum is defined as: