(Fearon & Roisman, 2017)

Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of attachment: theory, research, and

clinical applications (Third edition). New York: Guilford Press.

Chopik, W. J., & Edelstein, R. S. (2016). Adult attachment theory. The Encyclopedia of

Adulthood and Aging.

Conradi, H. J., Kamphuis, J. H., & de Jonge, P. (2018). Adult attachment predicts the seven-year

course of recurrent depression in primary care. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 160–

166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.009

Dykas, M. J., & Cassidy, J. (2011). Attachment and the processing of social information across

the life span: Theory and evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 137(1), 19–46.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021367

Fearon, R. M. P., & Roisman, G. I. (2017). Attachment theory: progress and future directions.

Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 131–136.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.002

Flaherty, S. C., & Sadler, L. S. (2011). A Review of Attachment Theory in the Context of

Adolescent Parenting. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 25(2), 114–121.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.02.005

Fraley, R. C., Hudson, N. W., Heffernan, M. E., & Segal, N. (2015). Are adult attachment styles

categorical or dimensional? A taxometric analysis of general and relationship-specific

attachment orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(2), 354–368.

https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000027
Hayden, M. C., Mullauer, P. K., & Andreas, S. (2017). A Systematic Review on the Association

between Adult Attachment and Interpersonal Problems. Journal of Psychology &

Psychotherapy, 07(02). https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0487.1000296

Levy, K. N., Johnson, B. N., Clouthier, T. L., Scala, J. W., & Temes, C. M. (2015). An

attachment theoretical framework for personality disorders. Canadian

Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 56(2), 197–207.

https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000025

Manning, R. P. C., Dickson, J. M., Palmier-Claus, J., Cunliffe, A., & Taylor, P. J. (2017). A

systematic review of adult attachment and social anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders,

211, 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.020

Mikulincer, M., & SHAVER, P. R. (2012). An attachment perspective on psychopathology.

World Psychiatry, 11(1), 11–15.

Sherman, L. J., Rice, K., & Cassidy, J. (2015). Infant capacities related to building internal

working models of attachment figures: A theoretical and empirical review.

Developmental Review, 37, 109–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.06.001

Taylor, P., Rietzschel, J., Danquah, A., & Berry, K. (2015). Changes in attachment

representations during psychological therapy. Psychotherapy Research, 25(2), 222–238.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2014.886791

Attachment is a key topic in the field of parenting and parent child relationships.
Originally explicated by Bowlby [1], attachment refers to the tendency of young children to
seek contact with one or more consistent caregivers when frightened, worried, or vulnerable,
and find such contact comforting.

CRITICI ASUPRA TESTELOR SI SCALELOR, ASUPRA STILURILOR

In recent years the role of the environment—versus genes—has been tested using the twin
method,
which provides a powerful test not only of the predicted pre-eminence of the environment but
also of the particular importance of the shared environment, a further clear prediction
emanating from attachment theory. Remarkably, despite the fact that the majority of domains
of development do not show evidence of shared environmental influence, attachment appears
to be a striking exception – three independent twin studies, using differing but validated
measures, have found significant and substantial shared environmental influence on
attachment in infants and young children, and limited evidence of genetic influence [6-8].
Two of these studies also found that the common environmental influences on attachment
correlated [8 , 9], in line with theory, with common variability in maternal sensitivity.
Intergenerational transmission
Continuity in attachment over time
Attachment and children’s socio-emotional adjustment
Tot rticolul vorbeste despre hibe din teorie.

(Flaherty & Sadler, 2011)

Flaherty, S. C., & Sadler, L. S. (2011). A Review of Attachment Theory in the Context of

Adolescent Parenting. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 25(2), 114–121.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.02.005

Attachment security and the theory of the internal working model (IWM) are two hallmark ideas
that comprise attachment theory and influence how the child views himself and other
relationships (Belsky & Fearon, 2002; Cassidy, 2008). Whether mother-child interactions are
positive or negative, some level of attachment security and subsequent IWM develops (Carlson
& Sroufe, 1995). According to Bowlby (1969/1982), individuals develop “internal working
models” of attachment that describe the relationship between the infant’s self and his attachment
figure. In response to experiences and behavior of the attachment figure toward the infant, the
infant is able to formulate mental responses to his attachment figure’s behavior that are
catalogued as mental representations of the infant’s view of himself and understanding of his
attachment figure (Bretherton, 1992). The infant’s ability to explore the world and relationships
within it hinges on the type of attachment security that develops during the first year of life
(Belsky & Cassidy, 1994). In the context of attachment theory, it is important to distinguish
attachment behavior and attachment bond. Attachment behavior is behavior on the part of the
infant that promotes proximity to the attachment figure, such as smiling and vocalization
(Carlson & Sroufe; Cassidy). Attachment bond, however, is described by Ainsworth and Bowlby
not as a dyadic and reciprocal relationship existing between the infant and his caregiver, but
rather as the infant’s interpretation of his relationship to his mother (Cassidy). Evidence supports
the positive influence of secure mother-child attachment on later development and aptitude
(Slade & Aber, 1992). A secure attachment system serves as a foundation for expression of
emotions and communication in future relationships, provides opportunities for self-regulation of
affect (the ability to consider emotional processes before responding), and creates potential for
resilience (Belsky & Cassidy; Carlson & Sroufe; Cassidy; Karen, 1990).

Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of attachment: theory, research, and

clinical applications (Third edition). New York: Guilford Press.

p. 296 (pdf) si 274 (carte)

Ainsworth’s identification of three “primary” strategies of attachment (e.g., Ainsworth et al., 1978),
Main and Solomon’s (1990) discovery of a “disorganized” pattern of attachment, and Main, Goldwyn,
and Hesse’s (2003) research on adults’ attachment patterns have contributed enormously to our
understanding of differential strategies within intimate relationships, as well as child and adult
psychopathology.

(Sherman, Rice, & Cassidy, 2015)

Sherman, L. J., Rice, K., & Cassidy, J. (2015). Infant capacities related to building internal

working models of attachment figures: A theoretical and empirical review.

Developmental Review, 37, 109–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.06.001

Although virtually all infants form attachments to their primary caregivers, the patterns of the
attachments differ, and these patterns are significantly affected by a variety of factors, including
differences in the quality of caregiving (Weinfield, Sroufe, Egeland, & Carlson, 2008). Infants who
experience sensitive and responsive care tend to develop secure attachments, whereas infants who
experience rejecting, hostile, punitive, inconsistent, frightening, or intrusive care often develop various
forms of insecure attachment (Weinfield et al., 2008). According to attachment theory, the mechanism
through which children translate caregiving experiences into an attachment pattern is via experience-
based mental representations of their caregivers’ likely behavior (known broadly as internal working
models, IWMs; Bowlby, 1969/1982, 1973, 1980; see Bretherton & Munholland, 2008). As a result of
receiving sensitive and responsive care, infants with a secure pattern of attachment build an IWM that
represents confidence in their caregivers’ ability to serve as both a secure base from which to explore
and as a haven of safety to return to in times of need (Ainsworth, 1967; Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, &
Wall, 1978; Bowlby, 1969/1982), whereas insecurely attached infants lack confidence in one or both of
these caregiving roles.

Dykas, M. J., & Cassidy, J. (2011). Attachment and the processing of social information across

the life span: Theory and evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 137(1), 19–46.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021367

The literature on attachment and social information processing has grown considerably since Bowlby
(1969/1982, 1973, 1980, 1988) first formulated his theory. During the past few decades, contemporary
attachment theorists have advanced Bowlby’s conceptualization of the internal working model
construct and have shown that such conceptualizations are consistent with current theory and research
in cognitive neuroscience (such as that related to mirror neuron systems; see Bretherton & Munholland,
2008).
According to attachment theory, infants are biologically predisposed to form attachments to available
adult caregivers (i.e., parents and other principal biologically and nonbiologically related caregivers).
These attachments form because infants see their adult caregivers as safe havens who demonstrate—
typically on a repeated daily basis—an investment in the infant’s survival by protecting the infant (e.g.,
by ameliorating a fearful situation for the infant or by soothing the infant when ill or in pain; Bowlby,
1969/1982; see also Goldberg, Grusec, & Jenkins, 1999). Attachments are also characterized by the
tendency of infants to use their caregivers as secure bases from which they can confidently explore their
environments during normal day-to-day activities (Bowlby, 1969/1982; Goldberg et al., 1999; E. Waters
& Cummings, 2000). Access to a secure base is developmentally signif icant because one of the infant’s
core developmental tasks involves mastering the environment (see K. E. Grossmann, Grossmann, &
Zimmermann, 1999; see also Sorce & Emde, 1981, for experimental evidence that a parental secure
base enhances exploration). Through repeated daily experiences with attachment figures, infants
(between the ages of 6 and 9 months) begin to acquire event-based information of their attachment
figures’ tendencies to be available, responsive, and sensitive to the infant’s needs for contact and desire
for exploration (see Ainsworth, Bell, & Stayton, 1971; Bowlby, 1973; Marvin & Britner, 2008; see also
Stern, 1985). Bowlby drew on the work of Young (1964) and theorized that this knowledge likely
emerged through the formation of mental structures representing the realistic reproduction, or “mental
simulation,” of previous interactions with attachment figures (see Bretherton & Munholland, 1999,
2008). Bretherton (1985, 1991) later proposed that this knowledge likely constitutes cognitive structures
called scripts (which H. S. Waters and her colleagues labeled secure base scripts; H. S. Waters & Waters,
2006; H. S. Waters, Rodrigues, & Ridgeway, 1998; see also Fivush, 2006; Nelson & Gruendel, 1986;
Schank & Abelson, 1977; Stern, 1985). These scripts are considered to provide infants with a causal–
temporal prototype of the ways in which attachmentrelated events typically unfold (e.g., “when I am
hurt, I go to my mother and get comfort”). According to Bretherton (1991), secure base scripts can be
viewed as the building blocks of the emergent experience-based mental structures that Bowlby (1973)
called internal working models of attachment, a term he adopted from Craik (1943; see Bretherton &
Munholland, 1999, 2008, for a discussion of Bowlby’s choice of this term). Bowlby (1973, 1980) believed
that these models are quite stable and become increasingly resistant to change over time, which allows
individuals to habituate to their social worlds (see also Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985). (Indeed, if these
models were to change easily, individuals would develop muddled and confused understandings of their
social worlds— which would cause severe anxiety and psychological suffering— and the load on
cognitive functioning would be overwhelming; see Bretherton & Munholland, 1999, 2008). Thus, for
example, individuals who possess internal working models of their parents as secure bases and safe
havens will be inclined to retain those models even when their parents sometimes fail to perform
effectively in such roles (see Bretherton & Munholland, 2008). The notion that infants develop stable
internal working models and that the contents of these models vary as a function of real-life events is
supported by considerable data (for reviews, see Belsky & Fearon, 2008; De Wolff & van IJzendoorn,
1997).

According to Bretherton and Munholland (1999, 2008), the idea that individuals possess internal
working models of attachment meshes with broader research in cognitive neuroscience and social
cognition. For example, Bowlby’s (1969/1982) early idea that mental “small-scale experiments” (p. 81)
constitute internal working models of attachment is supported by Gallese’s (2005) more current
proposition that premotor mirror neurons enable primates to understand others’ actions through
“embodied simulation” (see Bretherton & Munholland, 2008, for a detailed analysis of the physiological
underpinning of the internal working model construct). These theorists also have pointed out that the
internal working model construct is, in general, consistent with both classical and contemporary
theories of social cognition stating that individuals develop internal representations of social experience;
these theories include those proposed by Mead (1934; i.e., that individuals understand themselves and
their worlds through their experiences of how others respond to their social bids), Lewin (1933; i.e., that
people understand their environments subjectively through the personal meaning they derive from the
ways in which their behaviors are elicited and responded to by environmental agents; see also Heider,
1958), and Baldwin (1995; i.e., that people develop interpersonal cognitive scripts of their transactional
experiences with other persons; see also Dweck & London, 2004, Nelson & Gruendel, 1986, Schank &
Abelson, 1977). Overall, the notion that internal working models develop and vary as a function of real-
life attachment-related experiences is central to attachment theory and distinguishes it from other
perspectives suggesting that infants mentally internalize their experiences with caregivers through other
nonexperiential processes (e.g., unconscious fantasies; Freud, 1909/1999; Klein, 1932).

Noțiunea că modelele de lucru interne se dezvoltă și variază ca funcții ale experiențelor reale legate de
atașament este centrală în teoria atașamentului, întrucât o distinge de alte perspective care sugerează
că cei mici internalizează experiențele cu îngrijitorii primari prin alte procese non-experiențiale.
TIPARE DE ATASAMENT

(Manning, Dickson, Palmier-Claus, Cunliffe, & Taylor, 2017)

Manning, R. P. C., Dickson, J. M., Palmier-Claus, J., Cunliffe, A., & Taylor, P. J. (2017). A

systematic review of adult attachment and social anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders,

211, 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.020

Attachment style throughout life can be characterised by IWMs about

self and others, guiding individual behaviour based on the extent to which a person seeks or

avoids attachment experiences (Brennan, et al., 1998).

Insecure attachment styles have traditionally been divided into anxious-ambivalent

and avoidant attachment styles (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Hazan & Shaver, 1987). Notably, the

terms preoccupied and dismissive have also been used to refer to anxious and avoidant

patterns in adults, respectively. One of the first assessments of attachment in adulthood, the

Adult Attachment Interview (AAI; Main, Goldwyn & Hesse, 2003) relies on an assessment

of the quality and form of individual’s interview narratives. Other approaches have focused

on self-report appraisals of attachment experiences (e.g., Bartholomew, 1990; Brennan, et al.,

1998).

Theory links attachment styles to differences in IWMs of self and other

(Bartholomew, 1990; Ravitz, et al., 2010). Anxious attachment style is characterised by

negative IWMs of self (i.e. seeing self as unlovable) whilst avoidant attachment style is
characterised by negative IWMs of others (i.e., seeing others as untrustworthy; Ravitz, et al.,

2010). Dimensional models see anxiety and avoidance as the two main continua of

attachment experience, which underlie the presence of specific styles (Bartholomew, 1990;

Brennan, et al., 1998). A more severe, ‘fearful-avoidant’ attachment style has also be

suggested, characterised by high levels of both attachment avoidance and anxiety

(Bartholomew, 1990).

). IWMs that embody expectations of rejection from others may

understandably result in anxiety in social situations, despite still feeling a drive for

attachment. Inasmuch as this IWM informs how social situations are viewed and interpreted,

insecure attachment may result in a hypervigilance to signs of rejection or threat, and biased

threat-related appraisals in social situations. Thus, attachment may play a key role in the

development of social anxiety.

(Hayden, Mullauer, & Andreas, 2017)

Manning, R. P. C., Dickson, J. M., Palmier-Claus, J., Cunliffe, A., & Taylor, P. J. (2017). A

systematic review of adult attachment and social anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders,

211, 44–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.020

Because children show different forms of attachment, the categorization to specific styles has already
had a long history that dates back to the late 1960s [4]. In the 1980s, scientists adapted the theory to
adolescence and adulthood as well and were thereupon able to show links between childhood
relationships to main attachment figures and adult relationships later in life. As a result, studies on the
impact of childhood attachment on adult behavior were promoted [5]. Hazan and Shaver [6] were the
first to investigate the combination of attachment theory and the field of close relationships in adults.
This piece of research is of particular interest, because it focused on the current attachment experiences
of their subjects and not on attachment representations to caregivers. This strategy was well received
within attachment theory and was adopted by other scientists (for example [7-9]). Unfortunately, the
progress led to a vague terminology of the construct and its subdimensions, so that today the terms
‘adult attachment’, ‘attachment in adults’, ‘romantic attachment’, etc. are often used inconsistently.

During the first decades of development, assessment of attachment was mainly structured along a
categorical scheme in which each subject is assigned to a specific attachment style. In the mid-1990s the
trend moved towards a two-dimensional model [5]. By means of this approach a subject is characterized
along the axes of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. The first dimension refers to the model
of self and can consequently be described as a person’s expectations of being left and abandoned or not
being loved sufficiently. People who are high on attachment anxiety are concerned with others and the
effort of not being separated by loved ones. Therefore they show high levels of attachment behavior
[5,10]. In contrast, attachment avoidance refers to the model of others and can be understood as a
denial of dependence. Individuals who show high levels of attachment avoidance usually prefer self-
reliance and avoid close relationships and intimacy. Accordingly, they hardly show any signs of
attachment behavior [5,10]. Bartholomew and Horowitz [7] defined and visualized the conversion of the
different approaches reasonably. Thus, secure attachment is characterized by low levels of both
attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. Preoccupied individuals show high levels of attachment
anxiety and low levels of attachment avoidance, whereas people with a dismissing attachment style
behave inversely. Fearful attachment consists of high levels of both attachment anxiety and avoidance
[7]. Apart from these theories, several studies (e.g. [7-9,11,12]) have revealed that a twodimensional
model is of greater statistical quality.

1. Bowlby J (1969) Attachment and loss. Basic Books, New York, NY.

2. Bowlby J (1973) Attachment and loss: Separation Anxiety and anger. Basic Books, New York, NY.

3. Bowlby J (1988) A secure base: Parent–child attachment and healthy human development. Basic
Books, New York, NY.

4. Ainsworth M, Wittig B (1969) Attachment and exploratory behavior of one-yearolds in a strange

situation. In: BM Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior. Methuen, London.

5. Ravitz P, Maunder R, Hunter J, Sthankiya B, Lancee WJ (2010) Adult attachment measures: A 25 year
review. J Psychosom Res 69: 419-432.

6. Hazan C, Shaver P (1987) Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. J Pers Soc Psychol
52: 511-524.
7. Bartholomew K, Horowitz LM (1991) Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category
model. J Pers Soc Psychol 61: 226-244. 8. Brennan KA, Clark C, Shaver P (1998) Self-report measures of
adult romantic attachment. In: J Simpson & W Rholes (Eds.), Attachment Theory and Close
Relationships. Guilford Press, New York.

9. Griffin DW, Bartholomew K (1994) Models of the self and other: Fundamental dimensions underlying
measures of adult attachment. J Pers Soc Psychol 67: 430-445.

10. Mikulincer M, Shaver PR (2003) The attachment behavioral system in adulthood: Activation,
psychodynamics and interpersonal processes. In: MP Zanna (Edr.), Advances in Experimental Social
Psychology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.

11. Fraley RC, Waller NG (1998) Adult attachment patterns. A test of the typological Model. In: JA
Simpson & WS Rholes (eds.), Attachment Theory and Close Relationships. Guilford Press, New York, NY.

12. Stein H, Koontz D, Fonagy P, Allen JG, Fultz J, et al. (2002) Adult attachment: What are the underlying
dimensions? Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 75: 77-91.

(Fraley, Hudson, Heffernan, & Segal, 2015)

Fraley, R. C., Hudson, N. W., Heffernan, M. E., & Segal, N. (2015). Are adult attachment styles categorical
or dimensional? A taxometric analysis of general and relationship-specific attachment orientations.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(2), 354–368. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000027

For example, research has shown that people who are

relatively secure in their attachment orientations are more likely to have well-functioning

relationships (Holland, Fraley, & Roisman, 2012), experience fewer depressive symptoms

(Rholes et al., 2011), and exhibit greater resilience in the face of distress (Mikulincer, Ein-Dor,

Solomon, & Shaver, 2011).

In the late 1990s, however,

researchers gradually began transitioning towards a dimensional framework. This shift was
driven by early taxometric research which suggested that people vary continuously (and not

categorically) in security (Fraley & Waller, 1998)

Although many researchers now use dimensional models in their

research, categorical models and methods continue to guide much of the work in the field (e.g.,

Ravitz, Manuder, Hunter, Sthankiya, & Lancee, 2010)

Do people vary continuously or categorically with respect to attachment styles? According

to our taxometric analyses, individual differences in adult attachment styles are continuously

distributed. This was the case not only at the level of global attachment representations, but also

in the context of specific relationships (e.g., attachment with mothers, fathers, romantic partners

(Levy, Johnson, Clouthier, Scala, & Temes, 2015)

Levy, K. N., Johnson, B. N., Clouthier, T. L., Scala, J. W., & Temes, C. M. (2015). An attachment theoretical
framework for personality disorders. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 56(2), 197–207.
https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000025

The attachment bond, according to Bowlby, is a complex, behavioural system that has functioned
throughout human evolution to protect the infant from danger by seeking security from a caregiver
guardian, thus enhancing the infant’s likelihood of survival and eventual reproduction. At the same time,
this bond promotes comfort during stressful periods, reducing negative affect and allowing the infant to
develop a healthy, realistic, and coherent sense of self (Fonagy, 1999).

Pt strange situations:

Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and Wall (1978) adapted Bowlby’s conceptualisation of attachment
differences in a seminal study using what they termed the “Strange Situation,” a procedure consisting of
several separation and reunion episodes between an infant and his or her caregiver. On the basis of the
infant’s behaviour in response to these episodes, Ainsworth et al. identified three major attachment
styles: secure, anxious–ambivalent, and avoidant
A fourth attachment style—disorganized–disoriented—was later added by Main and Solomon (1986,
1990). Disorganization is characterised by confused and disoriented behaviours on the part of the infant,
suggesting a temporary “collapse” of a behavioural strategy. In a meta-analysis of the Strange Situation
including over 2,000 infants studiedbymultipleresearchgroups,thesesamefourcategoriesofattachment
behaviour were found (, 1988). These styles have been directly linked to differences in caregiver warmth
and responsiveness (van IJzendoorn, 1995).

Pt inner working models:

Bowlby (1973) suggested that internal working models become components of individuals’ personality
structure and tend to remain stable over time. A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies of attachment
found that early childhood attachment was moderately predictive of individuals’ attachment style in
adulthood (Fraley, 2002), although there was some variability across studies. Given the relative stability
of internal working models, insecure attachment in infancy may become maladaptive if the child or
adult

emains unable to connect emotionally with others who could provide support. Fortunately, later
relationships may continue to alter these models, correcting for unhealthy views of self and others, and
leading to more adaptive interpersonal interactions (Fraley, 2002)

Insecurity, regardless of how it is measured, is associated with distress, impaired interpersonal

functioning, and psychopathology (Crowell et al., 1999; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007), as is unresolved
attachment (Creasey, 2002; Riggs et al., 2007). Bowlby (1977) theorized that attachment insecurity led
to personality disorders. Attachment anxiety may lead to debilitating worry in close relationships and an
inability to regulate intense negative affect, whereas avoidance potentially contributes to distrust in
relationships and distancing

198 LEVY, JOHNSON, CLOUTHIER, SCALA, AND TEMES

behaviours, resulting in emotional suppression. Unresolved attachment may present additional

difficulties, such as lapses into dissociated states of mind (Lyons-Ruth, Bronfman, & Parsons, 1999). Such
intra- and interpersonal problems are consistent with the disturbances seen in personality pathology.

(Chopik & Edelstein, 2016)

Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of attachment: theory, research, and clinical

applications (Third edition). New York: Guilford Press.

Chopik, W. J., & Edelstein, R. S. (2016). Adult attachment theory. The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and

Aging.

Conradi, H. J., Kamphuis, J. H., & de Jonge, P. (2018). Adult attachment predicts the seven-year course of

recurrent depression in primary care. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 160–166.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.009

Dykas, M. J., & Cassidy, J. (2011). Attachment and the processing of social information across the life

span: Theory and evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 137(1), 19–46.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021367

Fearon, R. M. P., & Roisman, G. I. (2017). Attachment theory: progress and future directions. Current

Opinion in Psychology, 15, 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.002

Flaherty, S. C., & Sadler, L. S. (2011). A Review of Attachment Theory in the Context of Adolescent

Parenting. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 25(2), 114–121.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.02.005

Fraley, R. C., Hudson, N. W., Heffernan, M. E., & Segal, N. (2015). Are adult attachment styles categorical

or dimensional? A taxometric analysis of general and relationship-specific attachment

orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(2), 354–368.

https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000027

Hayden, M. C., Mullauer, P. K., & Andreas, S. (2017). A Systematic Review on the Association between

Adult Attachment and Interpersonal Problems. Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy, 07(02).

https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0487.1000296

Levy, K. N., Johnson, B. N., Clouthier, T. L., Scala, J. W., & Temes, C. M. (2015). An attachment theoretical

framework for personality disorders. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 56(2), 197–

207. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000025
Manning, R. P. C., Dickson, J. M., Palmier-Claus, J., Cunliffe, A., & Taylor, P. J. (2017). A systematic review

of adult attachment and social anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 211, 44–59.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.020

Mikulincer, M., & SHAVER, P. R. (2012). An attachment perspective on psychopathology. World

Psychiatry, 11(1), 11–15.

Sherman, L. J., Rice, K., & Cassidy, J. (2015). Infant capacities related to building internal working models

of attachment figures: A theoretical and empirical review. Developmental Review, 37, 109–141.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.06.001

Taylor, P., Rietzschel, J., Danquah, A., & Berry, K. (2015). Changes in attachment representations during

psychological therapy. Psychotherapy Research, 25(2), 222–238.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2014.886791

In the mid-1980s, researchers began to examine adult intimate relationships from the perspective of
attachment theory. Developmental psychologists constructed interviews to assess adults’ narrative
representations of their early caregiving experiences. Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver were among the
first social/personality psychologists to extend Bowlby’s theory of infant attachment to adult romantic
relationships. Hazan and Shaver noted the many similarities between infant–caregiver relationships and
adult romantic relationships—the desire for close proximity between relationship partners, the safety
provided by relationship partners in stressful situations, and the use of partners as a “secure base” for
exploring one’s social

TheEncyclopediaofAdulthoodandAging,FirstEdition.EditedbySusanKraussWhitbourne.
©2016JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Published2016byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
DOI:10.1002/9781118528921.wbeaa078

world. Moreover, in their seminal “love quiz” study, Hazan and Shaver (1987) discovered striking
parallels in the individual differences observed in both infant and adult attachment relationships. Secure
individuals were relatively comfortable with intimacy and found it easy to depend on others and
establish close relationships. Insecure-anxious/ambivalent individuals were easily overwhelmed by
interpersonal stressors and often worried about abandonment. Insecure-avoidant individuals were
generally uncomfortable with physical and emotional intimacy and found it hard to getclosetoothers.

DIMENSIONAL VS CATEGORIAL

Specifically, although developmental psychologists generally rely on categorical classifications derived

from interview and narrative methods (although see Roisman, Fraley, & Belsky, 2007, for a taxometric
analysis), social/personality psychologists generally rely on self-report measures that assess individual
differences in attachment as dimensional constructs.
Bartholomew and Horowitz’s (1991) four-category model of attachment orientations can also be
modeled within this two-dimensional space. In this conceptualization, people can be classified as secure
(low in anxiety and avoidance), preoccupied (high in anxiety, low in avoidance), dismissing-avoidant (low
in anxiety, high in avoidance),orfearful-avoidant(highinanxiety andavoidance).

ATTACHMENT OVER TIME

With respect to developmental change, there is relatively little longitudinal research on changes
inattachmentorientationsinadulthood,especially research that covers spans of more than a few years.
The few existing studies suggest that individual differences in attachment are relatively stable over time,
both over the first 20 years of life and across adulthood (Fraley & Brumbaugh, 2004). Cross-sectional
studies of age differences in attachment similarly reveal relatively small age-related differences, but
suggest that changes in attachment orientations maybe be associated with new relationship experiences
and the onset of new socialroles(Chopik&Edelstein,2014;Chopik, Edelstein, & Fraley, 2013). More
specifically, cross-sectionalfindingsindicatethatanxietyis generallyhigherinyoungadulthoodandlower in
middle and older adulthood. Changes in anxiety over time may be related to increases
inemotionregulationskillsacrossthelifespan; they may also reflect the security-enhancing effects of close
relationships, namely that expectations about social roles drive individuals to act in more responsible
and affectionate waysincloserelationships. Avoidance shows fewer cross-sectional age differences than
anxiety, but avoidance is higher in middle adulthood and lower among younger and older adults. Higher
levels of avoidance among middle-aged adults may reflect the individuation processes that begin during
late adolescence and early adulthood. Davila, Karney, and Bradbury (1999) suggest that increases in
security as relationships mature may be attributable to people becoming more comfortable in their
relationships, gaining more evidence that the relationship will last, and/or having spouses

who serve attachment functions that promote close and intimate relations. However, it is not yet
entirely clear why attachment orientations change across the lifespan (particularly in middle and older
adulthood), and this is an important topic for future research.

Adult attachment researchers often assumethat,althoughattachmentorientations are revised and

updated over time to integrate new experiences, an individual’s earliest experiences are preserved and
continue to influence relationships in adulthood. Indeed, recent longitudinal findings reveal that people
who had higher quality and more sensitive caregiversininfancyfunctionedbetterinpeer adolescent
relationships and adult romantic relationships nearly 20 years later (Fraley, Roisman, Booth-LaForce,
Own, & Holland, 2013).

(Conradi, Kamphuis, & de Jonge, 2018)

Conradi, H. J., Kamphuis, J. H., & de Jonge, P. (2018). Adult attachment predicts the seven-year
course of recurrent depression in primary care. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 160–166.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.009

Insecure attachment may contribute to the development of psychopathology by its corollaries with
dysfunctional emotion-regulation and support-seeking (Hammen, 2006). Impact of attachment on the
long-term course of depression has, however, rarely been studied. Therefore, we examined whether
attachment predicted depression outcomes over a seven-year period

PT STILURI DE ATASAMENT:

The primary attachment strategy to fulfill attachment needs of support and validation,

is proximity seeking to the attachment figure. When proximity bids are consistently

reinforced, secure attachment will develop. Secure attachment is characterized by low anxiety

about rejection (self-worth) and low avoidance of intimacy (trust in others). Both strengthen

functional emotion-regulation and support-seeking, which makes secure attachment an inner

source of resilience (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016).

Both strengthen

functional emotion-regulation and support-seeking, which makes secure attachment an inner

source of resilience (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016).

Findings largely confirmed our

expectation that attachment would predict the long-term course of depression. More

specifically, the attachment dimensions avoidance and anxiety showed significant and

comparable associations with unfavorable depression outcomes. Compared to the secure

attachment style, the preoccupied and dismissing-avoidant styles showed an unfavorable

depression course, and, as expected, the fearful-avoidant group had the worst long-term

course of depression.

(Taylor, Rietzschel, Danquah, & Berry, 2015)

Taylor, P., Rietzschel, J., Danquah, A., & Berry, K. (2015). Changes in attachment
representations during psychological therapy. Psychotherapy Research, 25(2), 222–238.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2014.886791
ATTACHMENT AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

Following the development of adult attachment measures, several studies have investigated the
relationship between adult attachment patterns and
psychopathology.Thesestudieshavefoundhighlevelsof insecure attachment among individuals with
various psychological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression (Bifulco, Moran, Ball, & Bernazzani,
2002), anxiety (Muller, Lemieux, & Sicoli, 2001), eating disorders (Fonagy et al., 1996), Borderline
Personality Disorder (Fonagy et al., 1996), and schizophrenia (Dozier, 1990). Secure attachment, on the
other hand, was found to be associated with psychological well-being (e.g., Dieperink, Leskela, Thuras, &
Engdahl, 2001). Furthermore, there is evidence that insecure or disorganized attachment may partly
account for the relationship between earlier trauma, such as child abuse, and later
psychopathology(Bifulcoetal.,2006;Hankin,2005;Limke, Showers,&Zeigler-Hill,2010;Muller,Thornback,&
Bedi, 2012).

(Mikulincer & SHAVER, 2012)

Mikulincer, M., & SHAVER, P. R. (2012). An attachment perspective on psychopathology. World

Psychiatry, 11(1), 11–15.

Mikulincer and Shaver (4) reviewed hundreds of crosssectional, longitudinal, and prospective studies of
both clinical and non-clinical samples and found that attachment insecurity was common among people
with a wide variety of mental disorders, ranging from mild distress to severe personality disorders and
even schizophrenia. Consistently compatible results have also been reported in recent studies. For
example, attachment insecurities (of both the anxious and avoidant varieties) are associated with
depression (e.g., 12), clinically significant anxiety (e.g., 13), obsessive-compulsive disorder (e.g., 14),
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (e.g., 15), suicidal tendencies (e.g., 16), and eating disorders (e.g.,
17).

. Mikulincer M, Shaver PR. Attachment in adulthood: structure, dynamics, and change. New York:
Guilford, 2007.

Catanzaro A, Wei M. Adult attachment, dependence, self-criticism, and depressive symptoms: a test of a
mediational model. J Pers 2010;78:1135-62.
13. Bosmans G, Braet C, Van Vlierberghe L. Attachment and symptoms of psychopathology: early
maladaptive schemas as a cognitive link? Clin Psychol Psychother 2010;17:374-85.

14. Doron G, Moulding R, Kyrios M et al. Adult attachment insecurities are related to obsessive
compulsive phenomena. J Soc Clin Psychol 2009;28:1022-49

15. Ein-Dor T, Doron G, Solomon Z et al. Together in pain: attachment-related dyadic processes and
posttraumatic stress disorder. J Couns Psychol 2010;57:317-27.

16. Gormley B, McNiel DE. Adult attachment orientations, depressive symptoms, anger, and self-
directed aggression by psychiatric patients. Cogn Ther Res 2010;34:272-81.

17. Illing V, Tasca GA, Balfour L et al. Attachment insecurity predicts eating disorder symptoms and
treatment outcomes in a clinical sample of women. J Nerv Ment Dis 2010;198:653-9.

Overall, attachment insecurities seem to contribute nonspecifically to many kinds of psychopathology.

However, particular forms of attachment insecurity seem to predispose a person to particular
configurations of mental disorders. The attachment-psychopathology link is moderated by a large array
of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors, and mental disorders per se can erode a person’s
sense of attachment security.

If attachment insecurities are risk factors for psychopathology, then the creation, maintenance, or
restoration of a sense of attachment security should increase resilience and improve mental health.
According to attachment theory, interactions with available and supportive attachment figures impart a
sense of safety, trigger positive emotions (e.g., relief, satisfaction, gratitude, love), and provide
psychological resources for dealing with problems and adversities. Secure individuals remain relatively
unperturbed during times of stress, recover faster from episodes of distress, and experience longer
periods of positive affectivity, which contributes to their overall emotional well-being and mental
health.