Middle Low German Loanwords in The Scandinavian Languages

Mainland Scandinavian: Loans from Middle Low German
(Written: 2000; last updated: 22 Nov 2012)
(Deutsche Fassung: hier klicken!)
 
Color key to the words:

red = Modern Swedish, Danish and Norwegian;
blue = Middle Low German (MLG=MLS and/or MDu);
green = Old West or East Norse words displaced;
purple: Middle Scandinavian words.
Other abbreviations: arch. = archaic; dial. = dialectal; emLG = Early Modern Low German; HG = High German; LG =
Low German; Nyn. = Nynorsk; ON = Old Norse; OSwed. = Old Swedish.
Introduction and Orientation

Definition of terms:
Middle Low German (MLG)
Means scholars are not certain about whether a loan came from Middle Low Saxon (MLS) or Middle Dutch (MDu).
MLG can therefore be taken to mean from either, or both.
Middle Low Saxon (MLS)
Means the Low German dialects spoken in northern Germany and what is now the Netherlands by Hansa merchants
etc. which were based on Old Saxon dialects.
Middle Dutch (MDu)
Means the Low German varieties based upon Old Franconian forms spoken by traders from what is now the
Netherlands.
Old Norse (ON)
Is used here, rather than the Old- and Middle- Danish/Swedish forms that were actually replaced (unless stated), as
instances of Old Norse are much easier to locate and state with certainty.
Modern Low Saxon/Modern Low German (ModLS)
Means today's Low German dialects that have descended from Old Saxon and are used in Northern Germany and
the Eastern Netherlands.
Modern Dutch (Du)
Means today's Low Franconian dialects that are used in the Netherlands, Belgium ("Flemish"), and France
(Westhoeks Flemish), as well as in protectorates and former colonies of the Netherlands, descended from Old Low
Franconian.
Introduction:
The influence of Low Saxon and Dutch on the Scandinavian languages during the late medieval and early modern
period was profound. Some commentators have compared it to the huge influence, both at the lexical and structural
levels, that Norman French exerted on late Old English following the Norman Conquest. Indeed, this is the only
parallel that can be found from the entire history of European languages! During the course of the medieval period,
Danish for example borrowed more than 1500 new words, some of which were loaned from Latin, but the great
majority came in from Middle Low German. (Not only were there direct loanwords but many loan translations in
which the flesh is native, but the soul imported). The changes effected by Middle Low German on the Mainland
Nordic languages were especially pronounced in the period c.1300-1400, when the Hansa was at its peak. But MLG
influence lasted until 1550 (and to a lesser degree beyond), after which, High German became became the primary
language in Northern Germany and began to influence the Mainland Nordic languages. It has been estimated that
the total German – thus encompassing both Low and High German – element in the Danish lexicon is as high as 25%.
A similar figure presumably applies to Swedish and Norwegian, although Norwegian has been the most puristic of
the three. Willy Sanders puts an even higher figure on the MLG influence in Scandinavian: “…jetzt noch 30% des
Wortschatzes nd. Herkunft sind.” Karl Wührer estimates the total share of MLG loans in the Mainland Scandinavian
languages to be as high as 50-66%, but this is surely an overestimate. It also says nothing about the frequency of
such loanwords. Other scholars are rather more conservative in their estimates. Most MLG words are found in guild
laws and legal documents – the fewest are to be found in proverbs and folksongs, i.e. forms closest to the spoken
language. That being said, many MLG loans belong to the most common words in the Mainland Scandinavian
languages and the history of the Scandinavian languages simply cannot be studied without a detailed consideration
of the MLG element. No Nordicist can afford to neglect this area. As Torsten Dahlberg put it (p.194):
“Fast auf allen Gebieten der Nordistik spürt oder ahnt man direkt oder indirekt das niederdeutsche Substrat. In
Skandinavien können wir an dem Niederdeutschen nie vorbeikommen”.
Another way to appreciate the magnitude of the effect of MLG on the Nordic languages is to consider what it gave
to the societies of the speakers. In other words, its cultural impact. This inpact was tremendous and lasting,
effectively dragging the Nordic countries into the mainstream of European cultural life. As H. Bach remarks about
Danish (p.527):
“…eins steht völlig klar: die Einwirkung des mnd. war die wichtigste Voraussetzung für die Einbeziehung des
Dänischen in das gesamteuropäische Kulturmuster.”
A detailed discussion of the social, historical, legal, cultural and literary impact of MLG on the Nordic languages is
beyond the scope of this article, but the interested reader can get a small taste of it by noting the MLG loans from
cultural and social life provided in this article. It is generally accepted that the political, sociological and linguistic
conditions in Sweden and Denmark-Norway were overall quite similar during the peak of the Hansa influence, thus
allowing the largescale uptake of MLG language and culture across the board.
In the early and mid 1100s the Hansa trade town of Lübeck was rising to prominence on the Baltic coast. Along with
other Hansa towns, Lübeck allowed the Hanseatic League to dominate trade across Scandinavia and the Baltic for
the next three centuries. Colonies of Low German speaking merchants, craftsmen and officials settled in numbers in
many major Nordic towns, such as Oslo, Bergen, Visby, Stockholm, Malmö, Söderköping, Kalmar and Copenhagen.
(Visby in Gotland was the first centre of Low German expansion and part of a German eastward colonization, being
already in the 12th century an almost entirely German town). It is worth noting at this point that the place of
language contact – and hence language mixing – was not the national language areas in general but the large trade
and traffic areas, i.e. the major towns.
Many aristocratic families from what is now Northern Germany settled in Denmark and elsewhere in Scandinavia,
and these often held prominent positions and hence had the chance to influence the literary language of all three
nations to quite a degree. Due to the prestige and power of these artisans, tradesmen and courtiers their spoken
and written Middle Low German enjoyed a special prestigious position in medieval Scandinavian society. The polite
and courtly speech of the Scandinavian courts (from which there were such loans as riddari, knapi, gígja, hæverskr,
lên and hertogi), as well as the terminology of merchants, craftsmen and officials was a for several centuries mainly
Middle Low German, and this language left a considerable and lasting lexical legacy in the native languages before it
expired as a spoken language in Scandinavia. These immigrants brought with them many loanwords for professions,
offices and tools, and the language of the Danish guilds was, for example, full of German terms until the 1800s. Legal
and official documents from the Nordic trade-centres of the late medieval and early modern period are loaded with
Middle Low German loans and expressions, that is, when they are not written in Low German itself. Germans in
Scandinavian towns dominated on account of special rights granted them and influenced political life to such an
extent that their presence was eventually decisive in bringing about the pan-Nordic Union of Kalmar in 1397. Albrekt
of Mecklenburg, a German-born king, came to the Swedish throne in 1364 and MLG reached its greatest influence
during his reign. Stockholm was jointly founded by Germans and Swedes. Furthermore, the first mayor of Stockholm
was from the area of today's Northern Germany and during the 1350s the stadslag of Magnus Eriksson had to be
passed (among other things) in order to legislate against not more than half of the town officials being of "German"
birth! With the advent of printing in the 1400s some of the earliest works printed in Denmark are two Danish
chronicles called Rimkrønicken and Den Danske Krønike. These were already known from older MLG versions. The
language of Lübeck, the town which represented the central power hub of the Hansa, acted as a kind of normative
influence on written MLG, and this variety of MLG is likely to have been especially influential on the Scandinavian
languages.
Most words that came in were naturally enough connected with trade and commerce or the nobility. Before 1300
we find fals, herbergi, skraddari, skúta, treya, danz, par, slekt, spital, æra, akta, prófa, klókr, opinberr, ærligr. Already
in 1277 Magnus Lagabøter had put the titles barrún and riddari into official use.
The Hanseatic domination of early modern northern European trade was not merely confined to the north Atlantic
but spread to the Baltic Rim as well, with numbers of merchants and trade organisations establishing themselves in
Poland, Russia, Finland and the Baltic countries. Languages of the region such as Finnish, Karelian, Estonian, Livonian
and Latvian also received a number of Low Germanic loans as a result of this intercourse. In later times when Nordic
nations thrived in the Baltic trade, still more Low German loans were introduced into these languages from their
Scandinavian neighbours.
The result of Low German domination of Nordic trade, economy, handicrafts, shipping, mining, and to some extent,
local government and the court, was an unparalleled influx of loanwords and productive morphological elements
from the high-prestige Low German varieties. Only now is modern international English contributing a comparable
number of loanwords to the Mainland Scandinavian languages, or exerting a similar kind of structural influence.
Most substantial among the areas for loans from the Low German were shipping, fishing and navigation, trade and
economy, local administration, housebuilding and -keeping, handicrafts and religious activities, but many terms
pertaining to the court and polite society were also borrowed, as well as military terminology and many general and
now everyday verbs, adjectives and adverbs. In some cases the loanwords were indispensible in naming professions,
objects and concepts for which the Scandinavian language speakers had no equivalents – i.e. they had been
introduced by the German speakers. Literally thousands of MLG loans and words derived from MLG loaned elements
entered into the Mainland Scandinavian languages, and many native Scandinavian words were displaced. The lower
prestige Scandinavian elements of the population who wanted to do business with the German immigrants, the
main wielders of power at the time, were obliged to learn the foreigners’ language – or at least enough to get by.
Nordic merchants probably mixed in MLG words into their speech in order to be better understood by their Hansa
counterparts. This partial learning of the immigrants’ tongue paved the way for hundreds of their everyday words to
enter the Scandinavian languages.
During the late Middle Ages MLG was closer to the Scandinavian languages in terms of syntax, conjugation and
pronunication than is the case between modern High German and Scandinavian.
Around the period 1325-1425, the Danish written language was in danger of being replaced as a written language
for letters and official documents by MLG. The nobility, the clergy, the chancellry and the court were the primary
users of written communication, and especially in Denmark and southern Sweden MLG was close to becoming the
accepted, standard written language. Even the internal correspondance of the officials was partly in MLG.
MLG affected almost all spheres of the Mainland Scandinavian lexicon (in Einar Haugen’s words: personal names,
titles [herr, fru and frøken began as titles for the nobility, but eventually reached their way down to ordinary
citizens], curses, devices and equipment, weapons, musical instruments, weights and measures, trade, courtly and
refined behaviour, mining, animals, food, weather, illness, laws, administration and education), but the examples
given below of words current in modern Danish (unless stated otherwise) indicate the main spheres of influence.
The areas most borrowing took place were in trade and professions, house and home, food, clothing, warfare,
shipping, local administration and the courtly life. Many of these words are loan-translations (i.e. Low German
elements are translated directly into their Scandinavian etymological and semantic equivalents – often using word-
forming elements borrowed from MLG), for example MLG hantwerk becomes håndværk “craft, trade” and
unwetenheit becomes uvidenhed “ignorance”. Many of these loans are now among the most everyday words in the
Mainland Scandinavian languages:
1. Trade and professions: arbejd “work”, bager "baker", bytte “exchange”,
bødker “cooper”, børs “stock exchange”, bøssemager "gunsmith", fisker "fisherman", fragt "freight", garver
“tanner”, gesäll (Swed.) “journeyman”, glasmästre “glazer”, handel “trade”, handle "to trade", handskemager
"glover", håndværk "handicraft", håndværker “craftsman, workman”, høker “shopkeeper; huckster”,
isenkræmmer "ironmonger", klejnsmed "locksmith", kræmmer “shopkeeper”, krögare (Swed.) “innkeeper,
restauranteur”, kunstner "artist", købe "to buy", købmand "merchant", køgemester “master cook”,
köpenskap (Swed.) “trade”, lærling “apprentice”, maler “painter”, murer “mason”, pels "pelt, hide", portner
“porter; janitor”, pund "pound", præst "priest", regne "calculate; consider", regning "calculation", regningskab
(now regnskab) "accounts", rente "interest, dividend", sadelmager "saddler", skomager "cobbler" (replaced
suder), skrædder "tailor", slagter "butcher" (replaced kødmanger), snedker “joiner”, told “customs, duty”,
tømmermand "ship-wright", udgift "expenditure", vare "product, article", værkmester “foreman”, værksted
"workshop", værktøj “tool”.
(Some in this category have disappeared or are seldom encountered because the trade, profession or
occupation is obsolete, e.g. bægermager “cup maker”, fyrbøder “stoker”, hjulmager “wheelwright”,
pottemager “potter”, buntmager “furrier”, kedelflikker “tinker”, skoflikker “cobbler”, klokkeguder “clock
caster”, plåtslagare (Swed.) “plate smith”, slutter “gaoler”, spillemand “minstrel”, stratenrøver
“highwayman”, væbner “weaponsmith”).
2. Tools and implements: bolt “bolt”, fork “pitchfork”, fusthammer “hammer
for horseshoes”, høvl “plane”, knibtang “pincers”, skrue “screw”, fyrtøj “tinderbox”.
3. Court and nobility: eventyr "adventure, fairy tale", frøken "young woman,
Miss", fyrste "prince", greve "count, earl", herre "lord" (now "gentleman"), hertug "duke" (replaced native
jarl), hof "court", hofmester "steward" (now "waiter"), hovmod "pride", jagt “hunting”, jomfru "noble young
lady" (now "virgin"), junker "nobleman", kejser “emperor”, krone "crown", ridder "knight", slot "castle,
palace", væbner "squire", ære “honour, glory”, ærlighed "honour".
4. Government, law and church: almisse “alms”, bann “excommunication”,
borger "citizen", borgmester "burgomaster", burskap (Swed.) “freedom”, domherre "judge" (now dommer),
embedsmand "goverment offical" (cf. English loan from Swedish ombudsman), forbud “ban”, fordel
"advantage", forhør “inquiry; interrogation”, fuldmagt "authority", kansler “chancellor”, kætter “heretic”,
lægmand “layman”, magt "power", mester “master”, nåde “grace; mercy”, oldermand "alderman", pant
“lien”, pave “pope”, pinse “Whitsun”, påske “Easter”, regere "rule", rådhus “town hall”, rådmand "alderman",
sprog “language”, straf “punishment”, told "duty, customs", trykkeri “printing works”, tugthus “prison”, tvist
“dispute”, vægter “watchman”.
5. Military: afdelning “unit, detachment”, anfalde “attack”, angreb “attack”,
armborst “crossbow”, befaling “command”, befalla (Swed.) “order, command”, bøsse “gun”, erobre
"conquer", fane "banner, standard", fejde "feud; war", flag “flag”, fodgænger "infantryman" (now
"pedestrian"), gevær "gun, rifle", harnesk “armour”, høvedsmand "captain", kamp "battle", krig "war", krudt
“gunpowder”, kunskapare (Swed.) “scout”, magt “power”, nederlag "defeat", orlog "naval battle", overfalde
“attack, assault”, panser "armour", plyndre "plunder", rejse (with the meaning) "campaign", trommeslager
“drummer”.
6. Shipping, fishing and navigation*: agter "astern", bådsmand "boatswain",
dok “dock”, dørk “floor”, fartøj "vessel", fiskeri “fishing”, flag "flag", fok “foresail, jib”, fribytter “freebooter,
buccaneer”, gast “hand”, haj "shark", kaj "quay", klyver “jib”, kyst "coast", lods “pilot”, malstrøm "whirlpool,
maelstrom", mandskab "crew", matros “sailor”, roder (Swed.) “rudder”, ræling “gunwale”, skipper “skipper”,
stuva “stow”, styrbord "starboard", styrmand "first mate; helmsman", sælhund "seal", tackla (Swed.) “rig”.
7. Relationships etc.: fadder “godparent”, formynder “guardian”, fætter
“cousin”, gemal “consort”, oldefar “great-grandfather”, oldemor “great-grandmother”, pebersvend
“bachelor”, slægt “kindred, relations”, svoger “brother-in-law”, til ægte “have someone’s hand in marriage”,
ægteskab “marriage”.
8. Food: bakelse (Swed.) “pastry, cake”, brændevin “aquavit”, fennikel
“fennel”, frokost “breakfast” (Dan.: lunch), frugt “fruit”, gaffel “fork”, husgeråd “kitchen utensils”, ingefær
“ginger”, koge “cook; boil”, koldskål “cold buttermilk dish”, kop “cup”, krus “mug, tankard”, krydderi “spice”,
køkken “kitchen”, medvurst “mettwurst”, mynte “mint”, måltid “meal”, mørbrad “tenderloin”, peber
“pepper”, persille “parsley”, postej “pie”, senap “mustard”, skinke “ham”, smag “taste”, smage “(to) taste”,
spæk “blubber, fat”, suppe “soup”, sylte “brawn”, tallerken “plate”, tallrik (Swed.) “plate”, vaffel “waffle”.
9. Clothes: bukser “trousers”, dragt “dress, clothes”, ficka (Swed.) “pocket”,
kappe “cloak, coat”, mössa (Swed.) “cap”, rock (Swed.) “coat”, skørt “skirt, petticoat”, strømpe “stocking,
sock”, støvle “boot”.
10. Buildings, house and home: bädd (Swed.) “bed”, bænk “bench”,
disk “counter”, fönster (Swed.) “window”, gemak “apartment”, herberg “shelter; hostel”, kammer “chamber”,
kuffert “trunk”, kælder “cellar”, køkken “kitchen”, lampe “lamp”, mur “wall”, skab “cupboard”, skorsten
“chimney”, spejl “mirror”, sæbe “soap”, tegl “tile, brick”, trappe “stairs”, tæppe “carpet”.
11. Medical: brok “hernia”, feber “fever”, gigt “gout”, krank “ill”,
kramp “cramp”, pokker “pox”, stær “cataract”, svulst “tumour”.
12. Misc: angst “anxiety”, anledning “ocassion, cause”, art “type”, digt
“poem”, fiol “violin”, fløjte “flute”, forhold “conditions, relations, circumstances”, frygt “fear”, gunst “favour;
mercy”, klokke “clock; bell”, kunst “art”, lykke “happiness; good fortune”, pligt “duty, obligation”, rygte
“reputation; rumour”, slange “snake; hose”, iver “zeal, fervour”, fare “danger”, herkomst “origin, descent”,
äventyr (Swed.) “adventure”, hovmod “pride, arrogance”, högfärd (Swed.) “pride, vanity, conceit”, bihang
(Swed.) “appendix”, bilaga (Swed.) “enclosure, attachment”, uppförande (Swed.) “building; behaviour,
conduct”, taske “bag”, lægmand “layman”, vandel “morals, good conduct”, videnskab “knowledge, science”,
vemod “sadness, melancholy”, vilkår “conditions”.
13. Common and auxilary verbs: anføre “lead; state, quote”, anholde
“arrest, apprehend”, anmelde “announce; subscribe”, anvende "use", arbejde "work", begribe "comprehend",
begynde "begin", behøve “need”, berette “tell, narrate”, beskrive “describe”, bestemme "decide", betale
"pay", betyde "mean", blive "become", bringe "bring", bruge "use", digte "compose, write, write poetry",
erfare "experience", erhålla (Swed.) “obtain, receive”, fatte "comprehend", fordærve “spoil, corrupt”,
forekomme "appear", forklare "explain", foreslå "suggest", forfatte “write, compose”, forlade “leave,
abandon; forgive”, formå “be able to, be capable of”, fornøje “gratify, please”, forsage “renounce, give up”,
forstå "understand", fortjene “deserve”, forsvinde "disappear", fortsætte “continue”, fortælle "tell, narrate",
frukta (Swed.) “fear, dread”, fråga (Swed.) “ask”, føle "feel", förgäta (Swed.) “forget”, gælde “apply”, håbe
"hope", klage "complain", koge "boil, cook", købe "buy", kæmpe "fight", lære "learn", mene "mean, intend",
male "paint", opdage "discover", ordne "arrange", oversætte "translate", overveje "consider, comtemplate",
pleje "be in the habit of", prate "chat" (now only "talk nonsense"), prøve "try", redde "save, rescue", rejse
"travel", regne "estimate, reckon (with)", råbe “shout, cry out”, samle "collect", ske “happen”, skildre
"describe", skrive “write”, slute "finish", smage "taste", snakke "talk, chat", spille "play", stille "put, place",
straffe “punish”, støtte "support", tilgive “forgive, pardon”, trække "draw, pull", tænke “think”, undersøge
"investigate", undgå "avoid", undkomme “escape”, undskylde "excuse", vandre “”walk, wander”, vare "last",
øve "practice".
14. Common adjectives: alvorlig "serious", bange "afraid", berømt
“famous”, billig "cheap", bra (Swed./Nor.) “good, excellent; well”/ brav (Dan.) “good, worthy”, dejlig
"pleasant", dygtig "capable", egentlig "real; proper", elendig “wretched, miserable”, endelig "final", enig
“united, agreed”, enkel "simple; single", evig “eternal”, falsk "false", fin “fine”, flink "clever", fri "free", frisk
"fresh, healthy", fremmed "foreign, strange", from "pious", færdig "ready", forsigtig "cautious", gemen
"public", grov “coarse”, hemmelig "secret", hændig "practical", herlig "splendid", høvisk "courteous", høflig
"courteous", klar “clear; ready”, klejn “tiny; delicate”, klog "wise", kort "short", krank "sick", læsbar
“readible”, middelmådig "mediocre", mulig "possible", rar "nice, kind", rask "quick", rund “round”, skøn
"pretty", smal “narrow”, smuk “fair, beautiful”, stille “still, quiet”, stolt "proud", svag "weak", tapper "brave",
tilfreds "satisfied", underdanig “submissive, subservient”, ædel “noble”, ægte "genuine", ærlig “honest”,
åbenbar "public, manifest".
15. Common adverbs, prepositions and conjuctions: alene “only,
solely”, allerede “already”, blott (Swed.) “merely, only”, bra (Swed./Nor.) “well, excellently; very, awfully” /
bravt (Dan.) “stoutly, well”, dog "however, yet", emellertid "however" (Swed.), forbi "past", ganske "quite;
very", jo "yes indeed, certainly", likväl (Swed.), likevel (Nor.) "all the same, nevertheless", men "but", måske
“perhaps, maybe” (Dan.) nemlig "namely, that is", overalt "everywhere", redan "already" (Swed.), samt "and
also, plus", sikker "certainly", straks "immediately", sådan "such", temmelig "rather", tilsammen "in all,
altogether", trods "despite", ur "from, of" (Swed.), vældig "awfully, very", øvrig "the rest, what's left".
(*note: there are many specialised loans for shipping and types of fish which are not included in the main lists
below.)
Vibeke Winge points out interestingly enough that Danish words for artisans, goods and tools are by and large from
MLG.
For about 300 years (approx. 1250-1550) Middle Low German was the language of prestige, close to the speakers’
own languages, from which Scandinavian speakers augmented their own because it was the fashion to do so, rather
than from any real necessity (in some cases, however, they had no equivalent words in their own languages).
Germans formed the intellectually and economically leading class, so making MLG the “feine Sprache” and one to be
imitated. The Scandinavian citizen in his appearance and language tried to make the “fineness” of the German
higher class his own. As Dahlberg puts it “Niederdeutsch wurde Modesache”. This factor no doubt eased
considerably the passage of MLG words into Mainland Scandinavian. The non-clergy upper class and the middle
classes used MLG as their favoured second language, as the royal family, the nobility, the merchants and the
craftsmen were either German or had close ties with German-speakers. Otto Höfler is of the view that this language
contact went on at a high level as in many cases the gender of MLG nouns is retained with their borrowing into
Middle Scandinavian. Despite the men of the Hansa representing practical people – merchants, administrators, law-
makers, shipwrights, sailors – there is no doubt they represented not only a higher material but also a higher
intellectual culture than the native culture.
In the course of this process of borrowing, many Scandinavian arveord (words from the common Nordic stock), such
as are in most cases still present in Modern Icelandic, developed direct competitors. Loans from MLG (lånord in the
table below) considerably enriched the vocabularies of the mainland Scandinavian languages, and examples are to
be found of word pairs which are roughly synonymous (and therefore competitive) in the modern languages from
both native and borrowed sources, for example (Norwegian Bokmål unless stated):
Arveord Lånord ON (OSwed.) Meaning

ale opp opdra ala upp raise, bring up
allesteds overalt allsstaðr everywhere

andlet; anlete face
ansikt andliti; andlite
(Swed.)
bardage (arch.) kamp bardagi battle
berg klippe bjarg rock, mountain
besk bitter bitter
bjuda (Swed.) befalla biuþa offer
borg slot borg castle, fortress
borge betala borga, greiða pay, defray
bot vederlag bót recompense
bratt steil; plutselig brattr steep; sudden
brygge kai bryggja wharf
budskap beskjed boðskapr message
bølgje; bölja våg (arch., dial.); bylgja; (OSwed.) wave
(Swed.) våg bylghi
börja (Swed.); begynna; (OSwed.) byria, begin
byrje (Nyn.) begynne børia; (ON) byrja
djerv dristig djarfr brave
dugelig flink duglegr capable, clever
dyrd (Swed., honour
ära (OSwed.) dyrth
arch.)
eie besitte eiga to own
ende slutt endi end
ende slutte enda to end
fager skjønn, smukk fagr pretty, fine
fattigdom armod fátækr- poverty
ferd reise ferð journey
frende (arch.) slektning frændi relative
gagn fordel gagn benefit, gain
gave skjenk gjöf gift
genast (Swed.) strax (OSwed.) genast immediately
glad fro glaðr cheerful, joyous
gjemme bevare gøyma store, keep
glömma (Swed.) förgäta (OSwed.) gløma forget
grein fag grein branch, subject
grein regnskab grein account
gripe fange grípa grasp, grip
gälda (Swed.) betala (OSwed.) giælda pay
heder ære heiðr honour
hænde (Dan.), happen, occur
hende (Nor.) ske henda
hest hingst hestr horse

hird hof hirð court, retinue
hjelpe støtte hjálpa to help
hjälpa (Swed.) bistå (OSwed.) hiælpa to help
hug sinn hugr mind
huske erinde hugsa to remember
ild fyr eldr fire
jorde begrave jarða to inter
kjenne føle kenna to feel
kjensle følelse kensl feeling
kjære klage kæra to complain
kledning drakt klæðnaðr clothing, garb
kvede dikt kvæði poem
kvide angst kviði pain, anxiety, fear
leik spill leikr play
leike spille leika to play
lott del hlutr lot, share
love berømme lofa praise
lønnlig hemmelig leyniligr secret
lød farge litr hue, colour
makt vald máttr, veldi power
meget veldig mjök much, very, a lot
miskunnelig barmhjertig miskunnsamr merciful
mista, tapa (OSwed.) mista; to lose
förlora
(Swed.) tapa, tappa
morgenmat frokost morgunmatr breakfast
mål; tungomål language, speech
språk mál
(Swed.)
möta (Swed.) drabba (OSwed.) møta meet
nytte anvende, bruke nýta use
nåde gunst náðr favour
ran rov rán plunder, robbery
rane røve, plyndre ræna to rob, plunder
redd bange hræddr afraid
to be frightened
reddes frykte hræðast
(of)
redsel frykt hræðsla fear
rolig stille rólegr quiet, calm
rope skrike hrópa to shout
røyne (Nyn.) erfare reyna to experience
røyne (Nyn.) forsøke, prøve reyna to test, try
røynsle erfarenhet reynd experience
sann ekte sannr true
sanne prøve sanna to verify, confirm
sende skikke senda to send
si fra berette segja frá to narrate, tell
si fra fortelle segja frá to narrate, tell
si til underrette segja til to give an account
skifte dele skipta divide
skire døpe skíra to baptise
to grasp,
skjønne begripe, forstå skynja
comprehend
skydevåben firearm, rifle
bøsse, gevær (ON) skotvopn
(Dan.)
skytevåpen gevær skotvopn firearm, rifle
skär (Swed.) klar ? clear, pure
sorg (Swed.) bekymmer (OSwed.) sorgh grief, care
spörja (Swed.) fråga (OSwed.) spyria to ask
sted plass staðr place
strand kyst strönd coast, beach
strid krig stríð war
styrka (Swed.) bevisa (OSwed.) styrkia prove, attest
støe støtte stoða to support
sveinn knape sveinn squire, lad
svik fals svik false, deceitful
svikte bedra svíkja to deceive
syde koke sjóða to boil
administrative
syssel len sýsla
district
sømd æra ? honour
(OSwed.) sæng, bed
säng (Swed.) bädd
siang
tala (Swed.) prata tala speak, talk
tale snakke tala talk, chat
telle rekne telja count
dra(ge) trekke draga pull, draw
turve (Nyn.); tarva þarfa; (OSwed.) to need to
behøve; behöva
(Swed.) þarva
trygge borge tryggja guarantee, secure
useier nederlag ósigur defeat
erkjenne (HG viðganga < ganga admit,
vedgå
loan) við acknowledge
veide jage veiða to hunt
veik svak veikr weak
velde makt veldi power
verk smerte verkr pain, ache
vindöga (arch., window
dial.); vindue fönster vindauga
(Dan.)
vettug klok vitr wise, sage
vorde bli verða to become
vrang falsk rangr false, incorrect
care, charge,
vård (Swed.) vakt (OSwed.) varþer
guard
ætt herkomst ætterni descent, lineage
ætt slekt ætt kin, family
In some cases, the native Scandinavian word acquired a different or more narrow meaning, such as with syde
"seethe, boil, fizz", which used to denote the wider-meaning "cook" now taken by MLG loan koke. Danish lød, once
a general term meaning "colour", now denotes the narrower "hue, complexion" and has been largely replaced by
loaned farve "colour; paint, dye" (In Norwegian, lød still denotes "colour", alongside commoner farge). In other
cases, the native word survived but became marginalised or less used than the loanword, e.g. in Norwegian, the
case of the loaned trekke and the native dra (in Danish, drage has in almost all cases been replaced by trække).
Native Scandinavian mål, which used to mean “language” (cf. ON mál), has largely come to mean the narrower
“dialect” (cf. though Swedish tungomål “language” from Old Swed. tungo mal). Also in Swedish native arvode (from
Old Swed. arvoþe) has narrowed in meaning from “work” to “remuneration for work done”, presumably under the
influence of MLG-derived arbete. Some further examples, now from Danish, will illustrate the weaker position of
some native words against MLG import (near-)synomyns: Danish fager (cf. English fair) is now considered poetic and
archaic, having been marginalised by the preferred and synonymous MLG import smuk (fager is also poetic in
Norwegian); ræd is still in use but MLG import bange is definitely commoner (in Norwegian, however, the reverse is
true); brat is also still in use, but both its meanings are more commonly covered by the MLG imports stejl for "steep"
and pludselig for "sudden". Leika “play” was replaced by spille (< MLG spelen) when denoting playing music or
acting.
In most cases, however, the old Nordic words simply fell out of use in Mainland Scandinavian, and loans from MLG
(some of which could also be seen as unncessary) replaced them. Dahlberg makes a pertinent point in this
connection:
“Auf diese Weise sind leider viele einheimische, gut brauchbare Wörter verlorengegangen.” (p.196)
In the mainland languages, native vorde (Old Danish warthæ, Old Swedish varþa, cf. ON verða, German werden) has
as good as been ousted by the MLG derived form bli(ve)/bliva (although vorde still survives in poetic and biblical
usage). In Danish, the loaned forms arbejde "work" and men "but" ousted Old Danish ærvæthæ "work, labour" (cf.
ON erfiði) and æn "but, and" (cf. ON en), as well as use of uden/utan “except”. Older Danish børje (cf. Swedish börja
(which is still the preferred choice in that language), Nynorsk byrje) gradually lost the struggle against loaned
begynde, while the same fate was suffered by older anlæte “face” to ansigt (anlete still exists in Swedish though
alongside ansikte), øbe/öpa "cry, shout" to råbe/ropa (a Nordic word whose meaning has been influenced by the
MLG cognate ropen) and MLG import skrige, older røne “try, experience” fell to prøve (cf. Norwegian røyne though)
and genest fell to MLG import straks (genast still exists in Swedish though - alongside strax), in Swedish older má fell
to måste, Scandinavian ván “hope” was ousted by MLG hope (Danish håb, Swedish hopp), as was vónast by hopast,
frjáls by fri, everðeligr by evig and samþykkiliga by endrægteliga, while common verbs of motion ganga and standa
both lost out to MLG forms gân and stân, resulting in modern gå and stå. Furthermore, þarf fell to behóf “need”,
gøyma and varðveita to bevara “preserve”, sanna and prófa to bevisa “show, demonstrate”, skipta to býta “change,
swap”, lutr to deil “part”, vitr to klókr “wise”, giäf (Old Swed.) to gava, máttr and veldi to makt “might, power”, háttr
to máti “custom; manner”, hyggja and ætla to meina “intend”, ætla to akta (MLG achten), kenna “teach” and nema
“learn” to læra “learn; teach” (MLG lêren), (in Denmark) kenna lost meaning of “feel” to følæ (MLG vôlen), løyfi to
orlof “leave”, stríð to krig “war”, ætt to slekt “lineage”, hyggia, ætla and hugsa to þenkia “think”. Furthermore, in
Danish we can note the loss of neita to MLG-derived nægte, nytja to bruge, rædd to bange and reyna (ODan. rønæ)
to forsøge. Social changes led to such words as bygd, træl, kone and rise becoming antiquated in Danish, although in
modern times they have been partly revived due to Norwegian influence. Peter Skautrup notes some further words
that were lost in Danish in the early modern period (1350-1500): bukser “trousers” replaced brog, dog “however”
replaced tho, straks “immediately” replaced thegær, and sådan “such” replaced slig.
When a choice still exists and there are two forms to choose from, the Low German loan generally tends to take
precedence. Some otherwise obsolete Norse forms, however, still survive and are used preferentially in Norwegian
Nynorsk. There are far too many in Nynorsk to give here.
Following the MLG model in late medieval Swedish the k-sound was reproduced in writing as ch, and this can still be
seen in och “and”, cf. Danish og. In Danish of the same period [sk] was written sch-, e.g. Schanning “Skåne”.
In some cases words were borrowed differently or provided different inspiration in the respective recipient
languages. So, for example, Danish loaned MLG merschûm “meerschaum” as merskum, whereas Swedish rather
loan-translated it as sjöskum. Similarly, Danish loaned MLG schadenfroh (cf. German Schadenfreude) as skadefro,
whereas Swedish loan-translated as skadeglad. In other cases one language borrowed a word which was never
taken up in another. The classic example is Swedish fönster “window” where Danish still uses the Nordic word
vindue. Other well-known examples are Swedish bädd versus Danish seng, Swedish börja versus Danish begynde,
Swedish fråga versus Danish spørge, Swedish förgäta versus Danish glemme, Swedish ficka versus Danish lomme,
Danish føle versus Swedish känna, Swedish hustru versus Danish kone, Swedish rita versus Danish tegne, Swedish
skicka versus Danish sende, and Swedish äta versus Danish spise. More examples are given in the table below:
MLG-derived word Native Nordic equivalent Meaning

Swedish Danish
anspråk krav, fordring claim
belåten mæt satisfied, full
bittida tidlig early
bädd seng bed
drabba træffe hit, strike, befall
ficka lomme pocket
flod elv river
fort rask, hurtigt fast, quickly
fråga spørge ask
fönster vindue window
förgäta glemme forget
förlora miste, tabe lose
förlust tab loss
förstöra ødelægge destroy, wreck
hustru kone wife
hyra leje rent, hire
inrymma inholde contain, include
lärjunge lærling apprentice
ort sted place, locality
rita tegne draw
skicka sende send, dispatch
stad by town
tillhopa helt, helt og aldeles altogether, in all
umbära undvære do/go without
upprepa gentage repeat
uppsåt forsæt (also from MLG) intent, purpose
även også, ligeledes also, too
*** *** ***
Danish Swedish
altid jämt always
bange rädd afraid
begynde börje begin
forfærdelig hemsk awful
forkert orätt, vrång wrong, incorrect
forlade lämna leave
fornøden --- necessary, needful
forskel skillnad difference
føle känna feel, perceive, know
hvordan hur how
kundskab kännedom knowledge
utan but
måske kanske, kanhända (ske and perhaps
hända also from MLG)
nøle tveka hesitate
omtrent omkring around, about
rejse (køre is Nordic åka go, drive, travel
however)
slem elak bad, nasty
smuk fager, vacker pretty, fair
spise äta eat
straks genast immediately
sådan dylik such
tænke tycka think
undertiden ibland, stundom sometimes
undervejs --- underway, in motion
undskylde ursäkta excuse
årsag skäl (orsak also exists in reason, cause
Swedish)
The average speaker in Bergen, Oslo, Copenhagen or Stockholm could not help learning enough Middle Low German
to be tempted to colour their speech and writing with them. The German settlers enjoyed the economic and social
advantage and it was natural for the locals to use a kind of Mischsprache for their communication needs. The
settlers from northern Germany put down their roots not only in the commercial centres but in all towns in Norway
and their higher status meant that they did not need to learn the complexities of the Norse language.
This settlement resulted in a large expansion of the vocabulary for everyday things, as well as more abstract
concepts, and the developing urban dialects were strongly characterised by Low German loans. The influence of
Middle Low German on the later development of the Scandinavian languages was succinctly described by the
Norwegian Nordicist Didrik Arup Seip when he remarked:
"Two Norwegians cannot in our day carry on a conversation of 2-3 minutes without using Low German
loanwords...of course without knowing that they are doing so."
This statement applies in equal measure to Swedish, and perhaps even in slightly greater measure to Danish.
As we would expect, it would be reasonable to suppose that because of its geographical proximity, as well as closer
political and trading ties, Denmark was the initial borrower of most of these terms. It is at any rate unlikely to have
received many terms later than Swedish, and in fact probably transmitted not a few items into Swedish and
Norwegian, rather than MLG itself being the donor language. There are only a few cases, however, for which it can
be proven by linguistic methods that MLG words came into Swedish via Danish. The most typical Danicism in
phonology – the weakening of intial stops k, p and t – has only left small traces in Swedish (one therefore concludes
that the transmission into Swedish was overwhelmingly direct). Both Swedish and Danish opened the door in
Norwegian to MLG words and they had already borrowed many words, especially in the written language. Because
all three languages took up much the same MLG words and word-forming elements, it in some respects brought the
three languages closer together.
According to some Swedish linguists up to 75% of the modern Swedish vocabulary derives from MLG or MLG-
mediated words. (But this figure is clearly absurd – the actual percentage must be much lower, probably 25-30%).
Most of such words came into Old Swedish in the 12th-14th centuries. In fact it is difficult to arrive at a reliable
figure, but there can be no doubt that MLG loans, words inspired by them or words made form originally MLG
elements are among the most common in the language.
In many cases the loans were for new concepts, e.g. borgmeistari and radman – these were institutions not
previously in existence in Scandinavia. New professions or offices were imported that bore the name of the owner
or actor, e.g. skómakari, bartskærer, bøssemager, maler, pladeslager, mægler, portner, tolk. Even the word handel
“trade” is itself of MLG origin. Furthermore in connection with their notable seafaring prowess the Low German
seamen and traders brought with them such loans as galei, jakt, kogge, mers and mast.
Some MLG words were importated to express negative or destructive elements in society, e.g. skalkar “rogue”,
rövare “robber, thief” and bödel “hangman”.
To describe animals there were also new words such as bæver, falk “falcon”, flädermus (Swed.) “bat”, hingst
“stallion”, kamel, lærke “lark”, løve “lion”, näktergal (Swed.) “nightingale”, panter, rotte “rat”, sköldpadda “tortoise,
turtle”, vagtel “quail”. These words often eventually rendered the native terms – if such existed – obsolete.
Swedish took in most loans after 1350, where we find such everyday words as bädd, frukost, rock, språk, släkt, fri,
from, klar, klen, smal, arbeta, bliva, bruka, lära, smaka, sådan. Other loans from MLG are falskhet (valschheit), frihet
(vrîheit), and ärlighet (êrlikheit). Of words made on Danish or Swedish soil but formed using MLG elements we could
mention such words as benægte, begagna, benägen, forfremme, forsinke, förbrylla, undeselig and undvære (loaned
into Swedish as umbära).
Many common, everyday words which make up a speaker of modern Scandinavian’s basic vocabulary were brought
in during this period of Hansa domination when MLG when the prestige language, e.g. nouns such as arbete “work”
bevis “proof, evidence”, bukse “trousers”, fel “error” förstånd “reason, intelligence”, kopp “cup”, papir “paper”,
skrin “box”, støvler “boots”, tröja “sweater”, tvivel “doubt”, vilkor “conditions” verbs such as bevisa “prove, show”,
forklare “explain”, forlike “reconcile”, mene “mean, intend”, prøve “test” and skaffe “procure”, adjectives such as
falsk “false”, fin “fine”, främmande “foreign”, färdig “ready, done”, klok “wise”, möjlig “possible” svag “weak”,
adverbs such as altid “always”, bittida “early”, blott “only”, ganske “quite”, straks “immediately” and även “also”,
and conjunctions such as jo “yes; oh” and men “but”. We could also mention some common expressions that came
into Mainland Scandinavian from MLG: dit og dat “one thing and another” (dit un dat), få i sigte “to sight” (sichte),
göra klart “make clear; prepare”, klappet og klart “ready, all set” (klapp un klar), med rätta “rightly, justly” and till
godo “to the good, in credit”, til rette “in order, to rights” (to rechte). We can also note that the plural of Swedish
stad “town” is städer, which is due to MLG influence (in Old Swedish it would be stathir).
A word frequency study by Martin Gellerstam of 6,000 of the most common Swedish words shows that 24.1% of
these are from German and for 30.3% of the words, German was the medium of borrowing. And yet to a modern
speaker of Scandinavian the low and high German element in their languages now appear as if they were there from
the beginnings of the language. As Gellerstam puts it:
“Vem tycker idag att de lågtyska lånen språk, arbete, lära, fråga är något annat än gamla hederliga svenska ord?”.
Dierecks and Braunmüller, quoting Moberg, make the point of how easy it was for words of MLG origin to enter the
Swedish language and quickly become adopted:
“Die Anpassung der mittelniederdeutschen Lehnwörter an das altschwedische Flexionssystem konnte im
allgemeinen ohne größere Schwierigkeiten geschehen. Aufgrund der ähnlichen Struktur und oft verwandten
Wortbildungsmuster konnten viele Substantive, Adjektive und Verben relativ einfach an entsprechende
einheimische Wortgruppen anschließen.” (p.23)
Another point worth bearing in mind is how the mutual loaning into the Nordic languages meant all three languages
more closely approached each other in terms of vocabulary, something which no doubt eased communication
between Scandinavian speakers and continues to do so today.
It is just at the end of the middle ages that the modern Scandinavian languages were taking shape and precisely
during and by the end of the this period of MLG influence that modern Scandinavian languages as we know them
were coming into being. MLG had much to do with their modernisation and the present form. As Marquardsen says
of Danish:
“Diese moderne Form, die sich während der zweiten Hälfte des 14. und im 15. Jahrhundert herausbildete, weicht
so wesentlich von der Sprache der vorhergehenden Period ab, dass innerhalb des Zeitraums von 1350-1500 eine
durchgreifende Veränderung der Dänischen Sprache zu constatieren ist.” (p.405-406).
Borrowed Affixes
German-derived prefixes and suffixes play a major role in the modern Scandinavian languages.
Scandinavian speakers were adept at resolving Middle Low German forms into their own sound and inflexional
systems, and many affixes borrowed from Middle Low German later became productive in the formation of native
Scandinavian words on home soil. Middle Low Saxon and Middle Dutch thus had an effect at a morphological level,
as well as a lexical one. Indeed the fact that such word-forming elements were borrowed and made so productive
serves to stress just what an extraordinary influence MLG exerted on the Mainland Scandinavian languages (it is true
to say, however, that the language was already in the process of simplification before contact with MLG – but this
language contact accelerated and intensified the change). Native abstract suffixes which were common to North and
West Germanic -dom, -inge and -skap were revitalized and the vocabulary enriched owing to masses of MLG imports
in -schap, -inge, -en(t) and -nisse which become productive elements in the borrowing languages (with -nisse
becoming -else in Scandinavian), e.g. broderskap, betalning, bedrövelse. Furthermore, the elements -hed/-het, -
inde/-inne and -ske/-ska which appeared in the 1300s were better suited to the creation of new words than the
native affixes, some of which were weakened by syncope and the reduction of unstressed syllables, meaning there
were fewer options for word-formation based on native Scandinavian elements. The imported elements thus
fulfilled a need. The suffix -hed becomes completely common in Danish during the 1400s. The native intensifying
prefix for-/för- was reactivated by MLG vor- (and later by High German) – new words coined from native resources
with this prefix are legion, for example, forarbejde “prepare, process”, forbedret “improved”, fortabe “forfeit”,
forskyde “displace”, forøde “waste, squander”, forglemme “forget” (ODan. forglømæ based on MLG vorgeten),
forbryde “forfeit” (ODan. forbrytæ based on MLG vorbrêken). MLG -ent is still very productive in Swedish forming
nouns in -ende and -ande, e.g. letande “searching”, vetande “knowledge, learning”. The adjective suffixes -agtig/-
aktig (equivalent to HG -haftig), -bar, -dan, -vortes/-vörtes were borrowed after around 1400. Native suffix -sk
became -isk from a MLG model, while -ugh became -ig (see below).
Kurt Braunmüller makes the point that the loaning of word-forming elements from MLG changed the nature of the
Scandinavian languages, making them less Nordic in character and bringing them closer to West Germanic:
“Ein Ergebnis dieses intensiven Sprachkontakts war – wie gezeigt – z.B. die typologische Annäherung des
Skandinavischen an das Mnd./Westgermanische auf den Gebieten der Morphologie und besonders der
Wortbildung.” (p.159).
H. Bach makes the interesting observation that these borrowed affixes became so productive with both loaned and
native lexical elements that the Scandinavian languages have in the course of time developed a large number of
words which now have direct parallels in modern High German, which separately created the same words using the
same affixes and lexical material. There are far too many to examine here, but a few examples will suffice to clarify
the point: forandring <> Veränderung, forfalske <> verfälschen, fordragelig <> verträglich, indgang <> Eingang,
udgang <> Ausgang, udsætte <> aussetzen, opgang <> Aufgang, overenstemmende <> übereinstimmend,
medarbejder <> Mitarbeiter, modstand <> Widerstand, tilflugt <> Zuflucht, tilstand <> Zustand, tillade <> zulassen,
undergang <> Untergang, understøtte <> unterstützen.
What follows is a list of the main affix loans, illustrated with examples from all three modern languages (many of
these will be familiar to readers who know German):
Affix Meaning
Nordic affix Modern examples
(MLS)
recommend, accuse, attack

an- (late 1300s) an- anbefale, anklage, angrepp
bidrage, behandle, contribute, treat, consider,

be- (since 1350) be-, bi- decision
betænke, beslut
assent, support
bi- (Swed.) bi- bifalla, bistå
forekomst, foretrække, occurrence,
fore- vor-
foredrag lecture/address
cautious/careful, condemn
för- (Swed.) vor- försiktig, fördöma
omgive, omstendighet, surround, circumstance,

om- um- circumference
omkreds
overbevise, overhøre, convince, interrogate,

over- over- translate
oversætte
arrogance/pride, translate
över- (Swed.) over- övermod, översätta
un-/und- (since escape/evade, excuse, do

unt- undgå, undskylde, unnvære or go without
around 1400)
varaktig, karlaktig, enduring, manly, lying,

-aktig (Swed. post-
lögnaktig, dåraktig, foolish/silly,petty, urban,
1450, Nor.); -achtich
småaktig, byagtig, livagtig, lifelike, precise
-agtig (Dan.)
nøjagtig
-ande (c.1400 in influence, enterprise,
Swed.), inflytande, forehavende, appearance
-ent
udseende
-ende (Dan., Nor.)
brukbar, frugtbar, kostbar, usable, costly/precious,
-bar (1500s in
-bâr holdbar, strafbar, stridbar, durable/tenable,
Swed.)
åbenbar punishable
sådan, ligesådan, hvordan, so, thus, similar, how,
-dan (Dan.) -dân(ne) ligedan similar
-else (many orig. skapelse, overdrivelse, shape/creation,

-sel exaggeration, spectre
in –nisse) spøgelse
-are (Swed.), -er borgare, jägare, bæger, citizen, hunter, beaker,

-êre painter, teacher
(Dan., Nor.) maler, lærer
-eri (pre-1400 in fiskeri, bedrageri, tyveri, fishery, fraud, theft,

-erîe abattoir
Dan.) skriveri, slagteri
-(er)ska (Swed.) laundress, student,

tvätterska, studentska, seamstress, housekeeper
-ske (Dan.) (pre- -ersche
syerske, husholderske
1400)
-het (Swed. pre- novelty, greatness,
-heit, - nyhed, storhet,
1375; Nor.), ambiguity,
hêt flertydighet, rigtighed
-hed (Dan.) correctness/truth
-häftig (Swed. mannish, firm
post-1450), -heftig
(Nor) -heftich mandhaftig, standhaftig
-haftig (Dan)
-inna (Swed.) princess, duchess,
-inde (Dan.) (pre- countess, goddess
1400) -inne, - furstinna, hertuginde,
-inne (Nor.) in grevinde, gudinna
-isk (loaned or courteous, rebellious,

-isch høvisk, upprorisk, jordisk earthly/wordly
influenced)
-liken very likely, rather;

-liken troligen, skäligen, reasonably,
-ligen (Swed.)
-mager (Dan.) hatter, cobbler,
hattemager, skomager, watchmaker
-maker (Nor.) -maker
urmaker
-makare (Swed.)
-näre (Swed.), -ner artist, gardener, squire

-(e)nêre kunstner, gartner, väpnare
(Dan., Nor.)
-skap (Swed., friendship, landscape,

vennskap, landskab,
Nor.) -schap marriage
ekteskap, borgerskab
-skab (Dan.)
tinsmith, con man
-slager (Dan.) -släger blikkenslager, plattenslager
Not all of these affixes are productive in the modern languages. Some like an-, be-/bi-, fore-/för-, -ska and und-/unn-
are no longer productive as word forming elements, while om- and over-/över- are active elements. The following
suffixes used to form adjectives, agent nouns and abstract nouns are still very productive: -aktig/-agtig, -bar (also
from HG influence), -else, -er, -hed/-het, -ig/-lig. Productive adjectival endings in the past were -et, -sk, -som
(agtsom, arbejdsom, beslutsom) and -vorn (drillevorn, sladdervorn, slingrevorn). Most of these suffixes could be
used with both native and loaned words. –else becomes much used with word material of native Scandinavian
origin. Old Scandinavian was relatively poor in word-forming elements for abstract concepts, whereas MLG provided
such elements in abundance.
Niels Åge Nielsen’s Dansk Etymologisk Ordbog (3rd ed. 1976) contained no less than 283 words with the MLG-
derived prefix be-. A large dictionary of Danish will contain many more.
Although -ing was productive and native to the Old Scandinavian dialects, this noun-forming suffix was greatly
expanded in terms of use and scope owing to MLG influence, in which the suffix was highly productive (it is also
native to the West Germanic languages cf. Eng. -ing, Dutch -ing, German -ung). Since -ing had a direct native
equivalent in Old Swedish (Danish, Norse), it could easily be loaned in or form new words without further ado. In
Swedish and Norwegian (especially Nynorsk), -ing has been replaced by variant -ning. This element often denoted an
activity or person.
The same ease of adoption cannot be ascribed to another MLG noun-forming suffix, -nisse (cf. Eng. -ness, German -
nis), which as stated in the table above, has been transformed into -else in the modern Scandinavian languages,
from association with a small group of words in the languages which originally had this ending (e.g. Old Danish
døpælsæ from Old Saxon dopilsi). Thus MLG vengenisse becomes fängelse “prison”, begencnisse becomes
begängelse “cremation”, bedrovenisse becomes bedrøvelse “sorrow, grief” and schickenisse becomes skickelse
“decree”. Initially only appearing in loanwords, it later quickly became productive in the formation of new
compounds made from native Danish words, e.g. hændelse “event, occurrence”, styrelse “control, governance”,
lignelse “likeness”, tilhørelse “belonging”, skikkelse “form; character”, velsignelse “blessing” and fristelse
“temptation” etc. This suffix became far more productive in the Scandinavian languages than did the corresponding
element -ilsi in German. However, according to Norwegian linguists Didrik Arup Seip and Olav Næs this ending in -
else is native and found in south-east Norwegian as early as 1150, i.e. before it was used to domesticate words from
MLG. It has to be said that Seip and Næs are in a minority in this belief.
The prefix be- first appeared in Norwegian in 1376 (behalda) – bytala was already known in Swedish from 1370.
Bitala appeared in Norwegian before 1400, beating off competition from the native terms gjalda, greiða and reiða.
The prefix und- was related to ON undan meaning that words such as undfly were supported by native fly undan.
The suffix -heit is found in Norwegian as early as 1353. It was already productive in Danish and Swedish for making
abstract words (e.g. falskhet, frihet, ärlighet, gudelighed, vanvittighed, retighed, vitterlighed, barmhjertighed, with
wârheit and swârheit providing the models for sandhed and tunghed), and in Norwegian it become the most
productive suffix for turning adjectives into nouns, so making it difficult for scholars to decide whether a word was
borrowed or formed on home soil. So, for example, in Middle Danish, witscap “knowledge” could be a native
construct as both wit + -skap are found in the language. But the word is thought to be loaned in its entirety from
MLG witscap. This element -hed competed with native -lek and -ned and as good as ousted them from Danish (-nad
is somewhat common in Swedish and Norwegian however).
The suffixes -dom and -skap were rare, however they are found in small number of words, e.g. vennskap,
borgerskap, hedendom, trældom.
The affixes ge- and er- appeared late (around 1550 and the late 1500s respectively) and were probably more due to
the influence of High German than Low German.
In the 1400s -eri appeared in Norwegian and was used for a range of professions and business institutions (thus
denoting activity or place of activity) e.g. skriveri, as well as forming words with derogatory meanings such as
ketteri, røveri, svineri, tiggeri, snobberi. It is also still productive in Danish and Swedish (e.g. avguderi
“heathendom”, baktalari “slander”). Another important suffix is represented by nouns ending in -er and denoting
“doer/agent”, e.g. borger, lærer.
The other main affixes are detailed in the lists below. Mention also needs to be made of MLG influence on the use of
the native adjective and adverbial ending, -lig (-ig). Although this element is common Germanic (cf. ON -ligr, -legr,
OE -lîc, OHG -lîh, Goth. -leiks, ODan. -likær, OSwed. -lîker), its present popularity and widespread usage in word-
formation has a great deal to owe to MLG influence, through the suffix -lîk. Niels Åge Nielsen (see booklist) makes
the point in his Dansk Etymologisk Ordbog:
"De Nord. adj. (og adv.) på -lig er for en stor dels vedkommende lånt fra el. påvirket af de modsv. former mnty. -
lîk, nty. -lik, ty. -lich." (P.261; he then procedes to give a list of examples of native words in -lig and those which
have been loaned from, or influenced by, MLG). Indeed, the nominalizing suffix -leikr almost disappeared in Danish,
and fell togther with the adjectival ending -lig (but cf. Norwegian kjærleik, Swedish kärlek).
Similar observations regarding Swedish -ig are made by Bertil Molde (see booklist below):
"Att -ig dominerar som avledningselement för adjektivbildning (blodig, stenig) beror också i hög grad på
inflytande från lågtyskan." (p.78)
The influence of MLG adjectival suffix -ich was to render native nouns in -ogh to change form to -ig (an easy change),
words in -ig were activated and became productive due to MLG influence.
Direct loans, however, are, for example, Middle Swedish ävigh “eternal”, pliktligh “bound, obliged” and värdigh
“worthy” from MLG êwich, pliktigh and werdich.
Forms in -ug from a native Swedish adjectival suffix are still, however, found in some northern Swedish dialects e.g.
nyttug “useful”, stenug “stony”, tokug “silly”.
Diminutives -ken, -ke and -lín (cf. German -chen, -lein) as a rule only exist in direct loans from MLG, e.g. frøken
“Miss”, tallerken “plate”, nellike “clove”, sønneke “lad, sonny”, hønnike “pullet”.
H. Bach mentions lykke, klog and smuk as probable Modewörter, and points out that these words are MLG imports
in High German as well.
Middle Low German had a slighter effect on syntax and such morphological aspects as nominal inflexional endings,
although most scholars do agree that that MLG influence is behind the general levelling of the Scandinavian
inflexional system and the more analytic (relying on word order to convey meaning), rather than synthetic (case-
endings bear the grammatical information) structure of Scandinavian syntax which developed over the period in
question, meaning that by the 1500s the Mainland Scandinavian languages had developed into the language stage
we have now. (The most intense period of language contact appears to have been 1300s and 1400s, and the Nordic
languages were most influenced during this period of high intensity). As Lars S. Vikør puts it (p.41): “The influence
from Low German may have been even more profound…it may have stimulated the morphological simplification
of [Mainland] Scandinavian.” That having been said, inflexional levelling and increasingly analytical syntax has
occurred in all the Germanic languages to a greater (e.g. English) or lesser (e.g. German) extent, regardless of the
nature of language contacts. Some commentators have argued that these features were the result of Low German
users being unable to speak Scandinavian correctly and so a grammatically-simplified Mischsprache arose - which is
a defensible viewpoint. (This view is especially prominent among Swedish scholars). The real nature of such a mixed
language first becomes clear when the number of loanwords has reached such an extent that a direct effect on the
grammatical structure of the native language is visible. Many of the MLG words did not fit easily into the
Scandinavian case system and this leads to the alternative view, i.e. that the loanwords themselves were the cause
of the loss of the classic case system. Keith Boden presents a counter-argument to the Mischsprache theory,
pointing out that Hanseatic Germans, as the speakers of the prestige language, would have no motivation to learn
Scandinavian until the decline of the Hansa and the resurrgence of the Scandinavian kingdoms. Therefore improper
learning by Low German speakers cannot account for the MLG influence on the Scandinavian form system.
Whatever the cause, however, it seems likely, as argued above, that MLG contact both accelerated and helped
determine the direction of these already existing processes in the Mainland Scandinavian languages.
In summary of the above, worth repeating here are comments made by Bertil Molde concerning the relative ease
with which MLG loans could be assimilated into the native Scandinavian phonological, morphological and lexical
systems:
"Detta lågtyska språk hade på vissa viktiga punkter stora likheter med svenskan (och danskan). Det hade t.ex. inte
högtyskans diftonger, och den s.k. högtyska ljudskridningen (dvs. övergangen av t.ex. äldre /p/ till /f/) hade inte
genomförts i lågtyskan. Detta gjorde att lågtyskan hade ordformer som sten, hûs, ôge, tunge, dragen, gripen
(motsvarande högtyskans Stein, Haus, Auge, Zunge, tragen, greifen) dvs. former som uttals- och stavningsmässigt
låg mycket nära svenskans. Sådana likheter mellan lågtyskan och den medeltida svenskan var av avgörande
betydelse för möjligheterna för svenskan att ta emot lån från lågtyskan. Dessa lån kom att bli av väldig
omfattning, och de finns inom praktiskt taget alla områden." (p.77)
and further:
"Deres allmänna struktur (i fråga om ljud, stavning, böjning) låg redan från början så nära strukturen hos
inhemska ord att assimilations processen gick snabbt." (p.79)
To those listed by Molde, we might add such MLG forms as open, tam, eten, riden, vören, varen, leggen, setten, gôt
and dôt (cf. the close Swedish words öppen, tam, äta, rida, föra, fara, lägga, sätta, god and död). Compare these
with the rather more distant High German offen, zahm, essen, reiten, führen, fahren, liegen, setzen, gut and tot.
This closeness in vocabulary and sounds of the language is given by Moberg as one important reason why MLG did
not become the language of the Scandinavian nations despite being so well ingrained. The Scandinavian languages
were close enough to MLG for it not to seem very alien and due to the loaning of new, productive affixes, speakers
of Scandinavian were quite easily able to form new words based on either native or loaned elements as the need
arose. The natives did not feel they were learning and using a language so different from their own. The fact that
elements with no independent meaning could be loaned from one language to another and form productive word
classes indicates the in some respects closeness of MLG and the late medieval Scandinavian languages.
Furthermore, a class of bilingual speakers which arose from intermarrying between the natives and the Low German
immigrants would have intensified the influence of MLG on the less prestigious Scandinavian languages and is
another reason why MLG came to impact on Scandinavian in the way that it did. Moberg mentions a Helmik van
Nörden who kept the records for Stockholm’s rådstuga at the close of the 1400s. Helmik does not hesitate to use
words with originally Low German endings affixed to native bases, e.g. sanhet, thunghet for MLG wârheit and
swârheit. He switches effortlessly between native läkiare “doctor”and import arst, between native vindögha
“window” and import fenster, and between native anlite “face” and import ansikt.
Gradually as the power of the Hanseatic League declined in the 1400s, and the New World was discovered, so did
the influence of Middle Low German on the Nordic tongues. (However, as Ahldén demonstrates in his article, MLG
loans into Scandinavian continued in far smaller numbers into the 1800s). It is unlikely that many Scandinavians
developed a full command of MLG. This partial bilingualism gradually faded, the Germans were assimilated and soon
spoke a Scandinavian coloured by LG.
At the same time, the advent of printing, and later the Luther Bible, brought a new High German influence to bear.
Indeed, the many MLG loans in the Mainland Scandinavian languages eased the passage for these High German
loans or models to begin arriving in force from the middle of the 1500s. The 1526 Swedish New Testament was
aimed at the town dwellers and eschewed older native words and expressions such as found in the Vadestena Bible
with the aim of being clear and easily understandable for its intended audience, who were by now users of a
considerable number of Low German loanwords. So we find words such as fråga instead of native spörja, begynna
instead of native börja, behaga and behaglig instead of native thäkkias and thäkkelig, måste instead of måtte,
ansikte instead of anlete. The Scandinavian letter å came in from around this time from the Low German literary
tradition. Not only the Bible but many psalms and songs were based on German models.
By 1540 the chancellery of the Danish king had made the switch to High German. The Lutheran Reformation in
particular, opened the way for a flood of High German lexical items and syntactical influence. Many of the men of
the Swedish Reformation had been schooled in Germany. High German as a source of loans and other linguistic
features, which was still very influential up until 1945, will be considered in a separate article. It is as well to point
out here, however, that MLG loans and words based on MLG loaned elements have never been as much the object
of the language purists’ energies as the later High German imports – indeed many could barely identify MLG words
to be such, so ingrained were they in the language.
MLG would have been reflected in speech before writing, so our knowledge of its exact route is limited. One of the
greatest controversies in this field is whether the loans in Swedish came in via Danish, or directly from MLG. For a
small number of words, e.g. bagare, the forms in Swedish indicate that they have passed through Danish first. But
for the great majority of the words in Swedish the jury is still out until more detailed studies are made. This
controversial but important issue cannot be considered any further here.
Whatever their route, MLG-derived words are attested even in rural Swedish dialects by the late 1500s and studies
by Lennart Elmevik have shown that the dialects have been penetrated by LG to a far higher extent than previously
believed.
By 1600 the MLG loans were so well assimilated that few suspected such words were of foreign origin (unlike many
later High German loans that were purged from the languages). Nowadays only linguists among Scandinavian
speakers recognize that such words are of MLG origin.
When Esaias Tegnér the Elder (1782-1846) in the poem Språken (1817) described Swedish as “Ärans och hjältarnas
språk!”, he presumably was not aware of the irony that the three nouns in his sentence are all descended from
MLG!! (êre, helt, sprâke).
**
*NOTE: these lists can only give some of the more common, important or else interesting MLG loans. There are
thousands and whole books have been written detailing them. Deliberately excluded are some specialised registers,
especially in the field of fishing and shipping, but also quite a few terms about the natural world. All the words in the
lists, as far as I know, are still current in all or at least one of the Mainland Scandinavian languages - and the lists give
the modern forms of these, along with their current meanings. Loans into Icelandic and Faroese from MLG are a
separate and more complex issue and will be treated later. However a few general remarks about the uptake of Low
German loans into these insular Nordic languages is appropriate now.
Icelandic and Faroese received far fewer direct loans from Middle Low German mainly owing to their remote
location and trade agreements with Norway, and later, Denmark. Most loans into these North Atlantic languages
therefore were taken up indirectly with Norwegian or Danish (especially the latter) acting as an intermediary. There
were fewer loans into Icelandic compared to the mainland, but those that existed were used with vigour in the
learned written language until the 1600s when the tide began to turn against them. Such loans (as well as those that
were entirely Mainland Scandinavian in origin) were increasingly frowned upon as corruptive and unncessary. This
feeling gradually increased and culminated last century in the hreintungustefna (policy of linguistic purism) which
still defines the criteria concerning the adoption of foreign words into Icelandic. Many Low German loans through
Danish as well as pure Danish words have been ejected in favour of native constructs and most of the productive
word-forming elements loaned from the original imports have been cleansed from the written language. The result
is a purer but rather different Icelandic from that of the 1600s and before. A similar principle guides some of the
more ardent adherents of Norwegian Nynorsk, who want to see Low German "interference" minimised. The
situation with Faroese is rather more complicated, as the language is still subjected to considerable Danish
influence. There has been a movement for a less mixed language there too, but the impetus has been weaker.
Consequently the Low German lexical influence in Faroese (mostly through Danish) is more noticeable, but still not
nearly so important as the corresponding effect on the Mainland Scandinavian languages.
A few words in the lists below are element loan-translations (e.g. domkyrka from MLG dôm and (originally) ON
kirkja), but these have been included as important or interesting words).
Middle Low German forms use circumflexes as a diacritic to indicate long vowels because using macrons was
impossible in an HTML text.
In many cases, supposedly Middle-Low-German-derived words in Scandinavian seem more closely related to the
corresponding ModLS forms than to the corresponding MLG forms as we know them from written sources. This is
especially obvious where front vowels (represented by the letters y, ö/ø and ä/æ/e) correspond to front vowels in
ModLS (ü/üü, ö/öö, ä/ää e/ee) while corresponding to what are represented as back vowels in Middle Low German
writing (u/û, o/ô, a/â). Other MLG loans in Scandinavian are more similar to their ModLS cognates than to the
written MLG ones in other ways. This may be an indication that such loans came from spoken Low Saxon dialects in
which vowel fronting (umlauting) and other changes had already taken place, while this was not yet reflected in the
more or less standardized and assumedly rather conservative written language at the time. Also, in some cases
comparisons between the Scandinavian forms and the ModLS forms reveals that there was more than one MLG
donor dialect. For example, the Swedish word sedel is related to ModLS Zedel, while the Danish equivalent seddel is
related to the ModLS variant Zeddel. For this reason ModLS and, where deemed necessary, Modern Dutch (Du)
cognates are added for comparison. This is limited to actual cognates, i.e. to directly corresponding words. It does
not mean that closely related words do not exist. A cognate may or may not have the same meaning as that of the
loanwords in Scandinavian.
ModLS has many dialects and so far no standard dialect and standard orthography. ModLS forms are here provided
in a North Saxon dialect of Germany in conventional German-based orthographies. A long vowel is represented by a
single letter if it is in an open syllable (e.g., Damen 'ladies') and by a double letter if it is in a closed syllable (e.g.,
Daam 'lady') or anywhere before two or more consonant letters (e.g., Paaschen 'Easter'). Long /i/ is always written
as ie . German-based spelling distinguishes long vowels from diphthongs only optionally by a small hook (ogonek)
underneath e and ö to mark monophthong long vowels. However, this is rarely utilized. Instead of placing a hook we
underline a letter that represents a long vowel; e.g., beden [be:dn] ~ [bE:dn] 'to request', 'to pray' vs. beden [bEIdn]
~ [baIdn] 'to offer', Kööm [kø:m] 'caraway' vs. kööm [kœIm] ~ [kOIm] 'came', Toon [to:n] 'tone' vs. Book [bouk] ~
[bauk] 'book'. An apostrophe following a consonant indicates that, where an older -e has been dropped,
"superlength" or "drawl tone" applies: the consonant does not undergo the usual devoicing, and the preceding
vowel or diphthong is extra long.
* note: a number of possible MLG loans appear in my article on High German loans in the
Scandinavian languages
1 - NOUNS
(Dates given for first appearance in Swedish).
*All loans assumed to be Middle Low Saxon (MLS) unless given
otherwise.
Mod LS or
Swedish Danish English MLS Old Norse
Du
------ bødker cooper bödiker
------ forskel difference vorschel munr Verscheel,
Verschääl
------ forsæt intention, vorsat mál, ætlan Vörsatt
purpose (decision,
plan)
------ fætter cousin vedder frændi Vedder
------ kok cook koch
------ køgemester master cook kôkenmester
------ maler painter Maler
------ optog procession, optoch ---
paegeant
pebersvend bachelor
------ taske bag tasche Tasch
------ tæppe carpet teppet
------ udtog abstract, ûttoch Uttog
summary
adel adel nobility adel Adel
document, Akt(e); akte
akt agt âcht rit; lög
record; act (Du)
alvara (loan (alwaar
allvar alvor earnestness alwâr
from MLG) 'whereas' (Du))
amma amme nurse amme Amm
amt ambacht,
amt county Amt
(1620) ammecht
andakt andagt devotion, andacht bænir Andacht
(c.1620) prayers
andel andel share, andêl hlútr Andeel
portion
andrake andrik drake anderik andarsteggr ---
anval,
anfall anfald attack áhlaup Anfall
aneval
angrepp angreb attack angrepe áhlaup Angreep
anhang
anhang supplement anhang Anhang
(1527)
ankomst ankomst arrival ankumpst koma, Ankumst
kváma
anrop anråb challenge anrop áskoran Anroop (call)
ansikte ansigt face ansichte andlit
anskri anskrig cry, scream anschrî óp, öskr ---
anslag anslag impact; anslach ætlan Anslag,
estimate; Anslach
allowance
anspråk ------ claim, ansprake kröf Anspraak
demand
anstöt anstød offence anstôt afbrot Anstoot
antal antal number antal tala aantal (Du)
antal antal number, antal tal Antall,
figure Antaal
arbete arbejde work, labour arbeit erfiði Arbeid
armôt,
armod armod poverty fátækð Armood
armôde
Aard, Aart,
art art kind, sort art tigund, kyn
Oort
avdelning afdeling division afdêlinge deild afdeling (Du)
avlösning afløsning relief aflosinge
bagare bager baker bakker Backer
bedrift bedrift achievement, bedrif afrek, dáð Bedriev,
exploit; Bedrief
enterprise
bedrövelse bedrøvelse sorrow, grief bedrôvenisse
order,
befallning befalning Befehl
command
befordring befordring conveyance
idea, begrîp,
begrepp begreb Begreep
concept begrêp
begär begær desire, beger þrá, lyst Begehr
craving
behag behag pleasure, behach lyst, ánægja Behaag,
satisfaction Behaach,
Behagen
behov behov need behôf þorf behoef (Du)
behov behov requirement, behôf þörf, nauðr ---
need
behåll behold keeping, beholt geymsla, ---
preservation, varðveizla
retention
worry,
bekymmer bekymring concern, bekumberinge áhyggja
anxiety
belevenhet ------ good belewtheit kurteisi ---
breeding,
fine
manners
belopp beløb amount belôp beloop (Du)
image, Bild; beeld
beläte billede bilde, belde mynd
picture (Du)
beråd beråd doubt, berât tvímæli, ---
hesitation, tvísýni
uncertainty
besked besked message beschêd boð Bescheed
beslag beslag fittings, beslach Beslag,
mountings Beslach
beslut beslutning decision, beslut ákvæði Beslutt
resolution
bestyr (bestyrelse) work, bestür verk, stjórn, Bestüür
business, viðskipti
management
bestånd bestand stock, bestant birgðir Bestand
number
beställning bestilling order
bezetting
besättning besættelse occupation besettinge hernám
(Du)
betryck betryk distress, bedruck nauð ---
need
bevillning bevilling grant, bewillinge veiting ---
appropriation
bevis proof,
bevis bewîs sannindi Bewies
evidence
bevåg ------ responsibility, bewach ábyrgð ---
(c.1540) authority
------ appendage,
bihang bîhank viðauki
appendix
enclosure,
Bi(e)lage, Bi
bilaga bilag supplement, bilage
(e)laag'
insert
image, Bild; beeld
bild billede bilde, belde mynd
picture (Du)
bisittare bisidder assessor, bisitter Bisitter
observer
bislag bislag porch bislach Bislag,
Bislach
blick
blik look, gaze blick ásyn
(c.1593)
borgare borger citizen borgere Börger
borgmästare borgmester burgomaster borgermêster Börgermeester
bovete boghvede buckwheat bôkwête Bookweten
brännvin brændevin brandy, gin bernewîn Brandwien
bukt bugt bay, gulf bucht vík Bucht
bult bolt bolt bolte Bult, Bült
franchise;
burskap borgerskab bûrschap borgarlýðr
citizens
trousers, Büx(e), Bux
byxa bukse buxe
breeches (e)
Bollwark
rampart, bolwerk
bålverk bolværk bolwerk
bulwark (MLG)
(Du)
båtsman bådsmand boatswain bôtsman bátsmaðr Bootsmann
bädd ------- bed bedde rúm, sæng Bedd, Bett
Backer,
bägare bæger baker beker bakari
Bäcker
Bever,
bäver bæver beaver bever bjórr
Bewer
executioner, bodel,
bödel bøddel Bödel, Bodel
hangman boddel
Börs(e)
börs (LG), fjárfundr, ('purse',
börs børs purse, fund
burse (MLG) sjóðr 'stock
exchange')
gun;
bössa bøsse busse Büss(e), bus
cashbox
? bøssemager gunsmith ? ------
part,
del del dêl, deil hlutr Deel
fraction
dikt digt poem dichte kvæði
MDu dok,
docka dok dock
MLG docke
domherre
domherre
(1640)
(now judge dômherre dómsmaðr Doomherr
(now
dommer)
domare)
dôm (MLG)
domkyrka domkirke cathedral + dómkirkja Dookark
kirkja (ON)
dop dåb baptism dope
drake drage dragon drake dreki Drake
dryckenskap drukkenskab drunkenness drunkenschap drykkjuskapr
umbúningr,
dräkt dragt dress, garb dracht Dracht
klæði
thunder,
dunder dunder dunner
rumble
fight, clash,
dust dyst dust, diest bardagi
tussle
däck dek (LG or
dæk deck
(c.1690) Du)
döp dåb baptism dôpe skírn Dööp
ebb Ebb; eb(be)
ebbe low tide, ebb ebbe (Du) fjarra
(1787) (Du)
êgendôm
egendom ejendom property eign Egendoom
(MLG)
egendom ejendom property, egendom eign, bú Egendom
estate
elände ------- misery ellende aumleikr Elend
endräkt endragt harmony, eindracht samræði, Eendracht
concord samhljóðan
(suffix
forming
-eri -eri -erîe -eree, -erie
nomen
agentis)
line, trade;
fack fag vak (MLG) Fack
subject
fadder fadder godparent vadder
falk falk falcon, hawk valke haukr, fálki Falk(e)
deceit, falsch
fals fals vals lygi
falsehood 'wrong'
falsness,
falskhet falskhed valschheit Falschheit
duplicity
banner,
fana fane vane merki Faan, Fahn
standard
fara fare danger vâre hætta Faar, Fahr
Faartüüg,
fartyg fartøj vessel, ship fartüg (MLG) skip
Fahrtüüg
feber Fever,
feber fever feber
(c.1533) Fewer
feud, strife,
fejda fejde veide stríð, ófriðr Fede, Feed'
war
fel mistake,
fejl feil, fegel villr Feel
(c.1520) error
fat, lard, fett
fett fedt feitr Fett
grease (MLG)
ficka ----- pocket ficke Fick
fiol fiol violin viole
flagg flagge (MLG)
flag flag Flagg(e)
(1605) or vlag (Du)
escape, vlucht, Flucht,
flykt flugt flótti
flight vlücht Flücht
flöjt fløjte flute flöite
sheriff,
fogde foged voget sýslumaðr Voogt
bailiff
fotfolk fodfolk infantry vôtvolk fótgönguherr
infantryman
fotgängare fodgænger (now vôtgenger fótgöngumaðr
"pedestrian")
frakt
fragt freight vracht farmr Fracht
(1524)
fru frue lady; Mrs vrouwe kona Fru, Fro
breakfast
Fru(h)kost
frukost frokost (Dan. vrôkost
Frö(h)kost
="lunch")
frukt frugt fruit vrucht Frucht
Forcht,
fruktan frygt fear, dread vruchte hræzla, ótti
Furcht
fröken young lady; vrouwekin,
frøken
(1560) Miss vrouken
damp,
fukt fugt vucht
moisture
Vullmacht
fullmakt fuldmagt authority vulmacht yfirskipan
Vollmacht
fullmäktig fuldmægtig principal, vulmechtich forstjóri Vullmacht
delegate
vorste,
furste fyrste prince vísir
vurste
furstinna fyrsteinde princess vorstinne dróttning Förstin
fyr fyr fire vûr, vuer eldr Füür
fält felt sphere; field velt Feld
prison;
fängelse fængsel vengnisse fangelsi
imprisonment
färg farve colour, hue varwe, varve litr Farv(e)
fästning
fæstning fortress vesteninge
(c.1630)
cause,
föga føje ground, vôge
(falla till (falde til reason (in de vôge örsok
föga) føje) (yield, fallen)
submit)
fönster vinster, Finster,
(ousted OSwed. ------ window gluggr
vindögha) venster Fenster
förakt foragt contempt, voracht ---
disdain
förbud forbud ban, vorbot
prohibition
förbund forbund union, vorbunt lag, Verbund
league, samfélag
federation
fördel fordel advantage vordêl gagn Fördeel
lecture,
fördrag ------ address, vordrach verdrag (Du)
delivery
förekomst forekomst occurence, vorkumpst ---
incidence
föreståndare forstander principal, vorstender forstjóri ---
director
förfall forfald decay, vorval niðrfall Verfall
decline
förfång ------ detriment; vorvank ---
prejudice
förgift forgift poison vorgift eitr ---
förgängelse (forgængelighed)corruption vorgenknis spilling ---
förhänge forhæng curtain, vorhenge tjald Vörhäng
drape; veil
förhör forhør interrogation (vorhören)
förköp forkøb pre-emption vorkôp Verkoop

förlopp forløb lapse; vorlop
course of
events
förlov forlov permission, vorlôf leyfi Verlööv,
leave Verlööf
förlust ------ loss, vorlust tapan, skaði Verlust
damage
sense,
förnuft fornuft vornuft skynsemd
reason
förräder forræder traitor vorrêder svikamaðr Verrader,
Verräder
förstånd forstand intellect, vorstant vitsmunr, Verstand
brains, skynsemd,
reason samvizka
förtret fortræd annoyance, vordrêt skapraun; Verdreet
vexation, skaði
harm
gaffel gaffel fork gaffel(e) Gaffel
garwer,
garvare garver tanner gerwer (LG) sútari Garver
gemål consort,
gemal gemâl maki
(c.1565) spouse
gesäll gesel journeyman geselle Gesell(e)
gevär Geweer,
gevær rifle, gun gewêre
(1620) Gewehr
gikt
gigt gout gicht, jicht Gicht, Jicht
(c.1578)
Graaf
greve greve count, earl greve, grave jarl
Greef
grevinna grevinde countess grevinne greifinna (Gräfin)
border, grense, Grenz(e),
gräns grænse merki
boundary grenitze Grenß(e)
favour,
gunst gunst gunst náð Gunst
grace
gjöf; giäf
gåva gave gift, present gâve Gaav', Gave
(Old Swed.)
-walker, - -genger, -
-gängare -gænger fótgöngmaðr -gänger
goer ginger
haj
haj shark haai Hai
(1674)
trade,
handel handel handel
commerce
hantschô,
handske handske glove hanzki Handsch(e)
hantsche
handskmakare handskemager glover
Handwark;
hantwerk handicraft,
håndværk hantwerk iðn handwerk
(1540) trade
(Du)
skynding,
hast hast haste, hurry hast Hast
skyndir
thie hêlagon
helgon (pl.) helgen saint
(OSax.)
gentleman; maðr,
herre herre hêrre (MLG) Herr
Mr karlmaðr
Herrschup
master and hêrschop, (p)
herrskap herskab
mistress hêrschap Herrschop
(p)
hertoch, Hertog,
hertig hertug duke hertoga
hertich Hertoch
hertiginna hertuginde duchess hertochinne
hinxt,
hingst hingst stallion hestr Hingst
hingest
hjälte helt hero helt hetja Held
hjältinna heltinde heroine
hope,
hopp håb hôpe (MLG) ván hoop (Du)
expectation
court, noble
hov hof hof hirð Hoff
society
pride,
högmod hovmod hogmôt
arrogance
household
husgeråd husgeråd hûsgerât
utensils
husman husmand smallholder hûsman smábóndi
Huusfru,
hustru hustru (house)wife hûsvrouwe húsfreyja
Huusfro
hytt hütt, hütte
hytte cabin Hütt
(1842) (LG)
hecht; haft
häkte hægte custody, jail hechte varðhald
(Du)
shelter, Harbarg;
härbärge herberg herberge gisting
lodging herberg (Du)
origin, Herkumst,
härkomst herkomst herkumpst ætterni
lineage Herkomst
höft
------ hip hûfte mjöðm Hüft(e)
(c.1538)
högfärd ------ pride, vanity hôchvart hégómadýrð ---
pride, hogemôt, Hoogmood
högmod hovmod dramb
arrogance homôt Hoochmoot
högmod højmod magnanimity hôgmôd gjöfli Hoogmood,
Ho(o)
chmoot
provision
hökare
høker dealer, höker (LG) Höker
(1693)
huckster
hoofdman
hövitsman høvedsmand captain hôvetman
(Du)
innbyggjare indbyggere resident inbûwe
ingefära ingefær ginger ingever Ingwer,
Engwer
inkomst indkomst income, inkomst ávinningr Inkumst
profit
fem. noun-
-inna -inde forming -inne, -in -in
suffix
innandöme ------ inside, ingedöme Ingedööm(t)
interior (inner
organs)
inpass indpas footing, inpas innganga ---
entry
intrång (indtrængen) encroachment, indrank ágangr, ---
trespass yfirgangr
intåg indtog entry intoch innganga Intog, Intoch
Inwa(h)ner
invånare indvåner inhabitant inwoner íbyggjari
Inwohner
----- isenkræmmer ironmonger isenkremer
eagerness,
iver (1560) iver keenness, îver ákafi, kappi Iewer, Iber
zeal
hunt,
jakt jagt jacht veiðr
hunting
Jungfer,
jungfru jomfru virgin juncfrouwe mær Jumfer
Jümfer
junker young junkman,
junker jungherra
(1788) gentleman jungman
jägare jæger hunter jeger veiðimaðr Jager, Jäger
moaning,
jämmer
jammer lamentation, jammer kveinkani Jammer
(1540)
misery
kaj Kai; kaai
kaj quay kaai (Du) bryggja
(1807) (Du)
kammare kammer small room kamer herbergi Kamer
bardagi,
kamp kamp battle kamp
orrosta
kant
kant edge, border kant, kante jaðarr Kant
(1643)
coat, cloak,
kappa kappe kappe skikkja Kapp(e)
cape
kejsare kejser emperor keiser keisari Kaiser
kista kiste chest, coffer kiste kista (loan) Kist(e)
klensmed klejnsmed locksmith klensmede
klippa klippe rock, cliff klippe bjarg, klettr klip (Du)
klocke
klocka klokke clock, bell bjalla Klock
(MLG)
monastery,
kloster kloster klôster
convent
------ sveinn,
knape youth, swain knape
drengr
knop Knoop,
knob, knop knot knoop (Du)
(c.1698) Knop
koffert kuffert trunk koffert
koger kogger quiver koker örvamalr Köker
cog
kogg kogge kogge
(shipping)
konst kunst art kunst, konst list Kunst
konstnär artist, kunstener,
kunstner listamaðr
(1538) artisan kunstner
kopp
kop cup kop, koppe bolli Kopp
(1539)
kopparslagare (kobbersmed) coppersmith koppersleger koppari
korg kurv basket korf karfa (loan) Korf
kort
kort card; map kort (MLG) spjáld Kaart, Koort
(1587)
kost kost fare, food koste
cramp,
kramp krampe krampe Kramp
spasm
wreath,
krans krans kranz Kranz, Krans
garland
krig krig war krîg stríð Krieg
kristen kristen Christian kristen kristinn
Kroog,
krog kro inn, tavern krôch, krûch ölhús
Krooch
krona krone crown krône, krûne Kroon
krus krus jug, tankard krûs
krut krudt gunpowder krût púðr
kræmmer
krämare shopkeeper krêmer
(krovært)
kröger,
krögare innkeeper Kröger
kruger
chronicle,
krönika krønike kroneke annáll Krönk, Krünk
annals
kungöra kundgøre announce kunt maken ? ?
Kundschup
knowledge, (p)
kunskap kundskab kuntschop kunnusta
skill Kundschop
(p)
military
kunskapare ------ kuntschopper njósarmaðr
scout
kunst kunst art kunst Kunst
kust kost (MLG)
kyst coast, shore strönd Küst
(1660) or kust (Du)
Küper,
kypare Kuper
kyper waiter kûper þjónn
(c.1669) ('cooper');
kuiper (Du)
chastity, hreinlífi,
kyskhet kyskhed kûschheit Kuuschheit
virginity hreinleiki
kelleri
källare kælder cellar Keller
(OSax.)
köpman købmand merchant kôpmann Koopmann
koke,
kök køkken kitchen eldhús Köök, Köken
kokene
head chef
köksmästare køgemester kôkenmester
master cook
------ trade,
köpenskap kopenschap verzlan
business
Ka(r)sbeer
körsbär kirsebær cherry kersebere
(e)
lamp lampe lamp lampe lampi Lamp
lekman lægmand layman lêkmann leikmaðr
lots lods pilot lots ? Loots
luder luder whore luder
luft
luft air; sky luft lopt Luft
(1630)
lukt


hamingja,
lycka lykke fortune, luck lucke
gæfa
låda lade box, case lade Laad'
long shears, lanksax
långsax langsaks sax
knife (MLG)
län len fief lên lén Leen, Lehn
Leerjung,
lärjunge ------ pupil lêrjunge lærisveinn Lehrjung
Liehrjung
lärka lerke lark lêwerike lævirki Lewark
-makare -mager -"maker" -maker -smiðr -maker
makt magt power, force macht máttr, veldi Macht
whirlpool, maalstroom maalstroom
malström malstrøm röst
maelstrom (Du) (Du)
Mannschup
(p)
manskap mandskab crew; troop manschap skipan
Mannschop
(p)
margrave,
markgreve markgreve markgrêve markgrefi
marquis
marshal, maarschalk
marskalk marskalk marschalk
steward (Du)
marskland marsch,
marskland marshland mýrr Marsch
(1713) mersch
mist (MLG)
mist Mist; mist
------ mist, fog or
(1750) (Du)
mist (MDu)
monik,
munk munk monk munkr Mönk
monk
murare murer mason
munte,
mynt mynt, mønt coin, mint peningr Münt
monte
målare maler painter maler Maler
måltid måltid mealtime mâltîd máltíð Maaltied
manner,
måtta måde mâte háttr Maat
way, mode
human mennisco
människa menneske maðr
being (OSax.)
marse,
märs mærs top (sail) Mars
merse
meister,
mästare mester master, lord meistari Meester
mêster
pattern,
mönster mønster munster Munster
design
mutze,
mössa mytse cap musse, húfa Mütz(e)
musche
narr
nar fool, idiot narre Narr
(1614)
näktergal nattergal nightingale nachtegale
nederlag nederlag defeat nedderlage úsigr Nedderlaag'
gagn,
nytta nytte use, benefit nûtte Nütten
nytsemd
nåd nåde grace, mercy gnâde (MLG) miskunn Gnaad'
omständighet situation,
omstændighed ummestendicheittilstaða
(1530) circumstance
orlov orlov leave orlof leyfi ---
cause,
orsak årsag orsake Oorsaak
reason
ort place,
------ ort staðr Oord, Oort
(1535) locality
úkunnandi,
ovetenhet uvidenhed ignorance unwetenheit unwetenheit
fákunnasta
pack riff-raff,
pak pak Pack
(1535) rabble
pansar panser armour panser
pant pant pledge, lien pant
papir papir paper pappîr
par par pair, couple pâr par Paar
pil pil arrow pîl ör Piel
place, plâtse,
plats plads staðr Plaats, Platz
location plâtze
plikt pligt duty, plight plicht skuld Plicht
pain,
plåga plage nuisance; plâghe þjáning Plaag'
plague
prakt magnificence,
pragt pracht dýrð Pracht
(1550) grandeur
pris pris worth; price pris verð Pries
prov
prøve test, trial prôve tilraun Proov'
(1595)
pränt prent print prente
prêstar Preester,
präst præst priest prestr
(OSax.) Preister
pump pumpe pump pumpe Pump
påska påske Easter pasche páskar Paasch(en)
pâwes,
påve pave Pope páue
pâwest
päls
pels pelt, hide pels, pletz feldr Peltz, Pelß
(1560)
tool, rêdeschap Reedschopp,

implement (LG) Reedschupp,
redskap redskab verkfæri Reschopp
resa rejse trip, journey reise ferð Reis', Reise
riddare ridder knight ridder riddari Ridder
rim rim rhyme rîm rím Riem
rock rok coat, jacket rock Rock
roder ror rudder, helm rôder, rôr roer (Du)
loot,
rov rov plunder, rôf herfang Roof
spoils, booty
Rucksack
ryggsäck rygsæk rucksack rugensak
(HG)
frægð,
rumour, ruchte,
rykte rygte orðstírr,
report; fame rochte
orðrómr
ryttmästare cavalry ritmeester
------- ritmêster
(1500s) captain (Du)
Raadhuus
rådhus rådhus town hall râthûs
Raathuus
Raatsmann,
rådman rådmand alderman râtman sveitarmaðr
Raadsmann
Raadsherr
rådsherre rådsherre councillor râthêre
Raatsherr
råtta rotte rat rotte Rott
Rekenschup
regningskab
(p)
räkenskap (now accounts rekenschop
Rekenschop
regnskab)
(p)
ränta rente interest rente
right, réttindi,
rättighet rettighed rechticheit
privilege réttr
þjóðr,
rövare røver robber, thief rôver Röver
raufari
Sad(d)
sadelmakare sadelmager saddler sadelmaker söðlari
elmaker
note, slip, sedel, Zedel,
sedel seddel
bill cedele Zeddel
mind; hugr, geð,

sinne sind sin Sinn
temper skap
siala (OSax.)
själ sjæl soul or sál Seel
siele (OFris.)
självsvåld ------ high- sulfwalt ---
handedness,
wilfulness
skilling skilling shilling schilink skillingr Schilling
custom,
----- skik schick
practice
skinka skinke ham schinke svínaflesk Schinken
skinnare skinder skinner
skola skole school scôla (OSax.) skóli School
schômaker, Scho(h)
skomakare skomager cobbler skósmiðr
schômeker maker
skorsteinn
skorsten skorsten chimney schorstein Schösteen
(loan)
Schrader,
schrâder,
skräddare skrædder tailor skraddari Schröder
schrôder
(surname)
skuldra skulder shoulder schulder(e) öxl Schuller
schutter
skytt skytte marksman schutte
(Du)
schildepadde,
tortoise,
sköldpadda skildpadde schiltpadde
turtle
(LG)
skirt,
skört skørt schört
petticoat
skåp skab cupboard schap Schapp
invective,
skällsord skældsord scheldewort bannan
abuse
skänk
skænk gift, present schenke gjöf
(1530)
slag slag kind, sort slâg tigund, háttr Slag, Slach
slagter
slaktare (replaced butcher slachter Slachter
kødmanger)
tube, hose;
slang slange slange Slang
snake (Dan.)
castle,
slott slot slot höll Slott
palace
slut
slut finish, end slût lok, endi
(1610)
släkt slægt family, kin slechte ætt
taste,
smak smag smak, smake Smack
flavour
smitte,
smitta smitte infection mein
smette
smärta Smart,
smerte pain, hurt smerte verkr
(1670) Smatt
snaps
snaps snaps snaps (Du) Snaps
(1800)
joiner, Snieder
snickare snedker sniddeker trésmiðr
carpenter 'tailor'
socka sok sock socke leistr Sock
Zucker,
socker sukker sugar sucker
Sucker
spann
spand span span Spann
(1680)
spêgel, Spegel;
spegel spejl mirror
spiegel spiegel (Du)
Speel, Spill,
spel spil game, play spil, spel leikr
Spell
språk Spraak, Spro
sprog language sprâke mál, tunga
(1535) (o)k
späck spæk fat; bacon spek
equerry,
stallmästare staldmester stalmêster stalmeester
ostler
stam stamme stem; tribe stam ættbálkr Stamm
stift
stift diocese stift, steft Stift
(1550)
hegning,
straff straf punishment straffe Straaf
refsing
strumpa
strømpe stocking strumpe sokkr Strump
(c.1585)
stråle stråle ray, beam strâle geisl Straal, Strahl
Straat, Stro
stråt stræde path, way strâte
(o)t
styrbord
styrbord starboard stûrbort stjórnborði Stüürbord
(1687)
first mate; stûrman
styrman styrmand stýrimaðr Stüürmann
helmsman (MLG)
state,
stånd stand stant Stand
condition
statholder, stedehouder
ståthållare stadholder governor
stedeholder (Du)
stämma stemne, Stimm; stem
stemme voice rödd
(1580) stemme (Du)
stötta support,
støtte stutte stoð Stütt
(1670) prop; stay
Stevel,
stövel støvle high boot stevel
Stebel
sump marsh, sump,
sump fen, mýrr Sump
(1525) swamp sumpt
svaghet svaghed weakness
svalg svælg throat swalch kverk
brother-in-
svåger svoger swâger mágr Swager
law
Swegersch
svägerska (early mod.
(e),
Dan. sister-in-law swegersche mágkona
(c.1633) Swägersch
svogerske)
(e)
sword-
cleaner
svärdfejare sværdfeger (Swed.) swertveger sverðskriði
sword-smith
(Dan.)
sylta sylte brawn sulte zult (Du)
såpa sæbe soap sepe
sälhund sælhund seal selhunt selr Saalhund
society, selschop, Sellschup(p)
sällskap selskab félag
association selschap Sellschop(p)
Teller, Töller
tallrik tallerken plate tallorken diskr (-ken
diminutive)
tavla tavle table, board tafele, taffel
tegel tegl tile tegel
news, tiding
tidning tidende (now: tîdinge frétt, tíðindi Tieding(e)
"newspaper" (Swed.))
tillbehör tilbehør fixtures, tôbehöre Tobehöör
fittings,
parts
tillflykt tilflugt refuge, tôvlucht skýli Toflucht
haven
tillfälle tilfælde occassion, tôval dæmi, mál, Tofall
case, kostr
instance
tillgift tilgift something tôgift ---
thrown in,
added
inducement
tillkomst tilkomst advent, tôkumst upphaf, Tokumst,
origin, uppruni, Tokunft
creation tilkoma
timmerman tømmermand carpenter timmerman trésmiðr Timmermann
tolk tolk interpreter tolk, tollik tolk (Du)
tower, torn, tarn,
torn tårn turn Toorn
steeple toren
staircase,
trappa trappe trappe Trapp
stairs
printing
tryckeri trykkeri works prentsmiðja
trots defiance,
trods trotz, tros gagnstaða Trutz, Trotz
(c.1600) obstinacy
sweater,
tröja trøje jersey, troie, troge Troier
jacket
tukt tugt discipline tucht agi Tucht
duty, toll,
tull told toll tollr Toll
customs
dispute;
tvist tvist twist deila
twist
Twiewel,
tvivel tvivl doubt twîvel vafi Twievel
Twiefel
------ laundress,
tvätterska
washerwoman
efni;
material,
tyg tøj tûch klæðnaðr, Tüüg
clothes
fat
train,
tåg tog toch lest Tog, Toch
waggon
tält
telt tent telt, telde tjald Telt
(1680)
okyskhet ukyskhed unchasteness
olycka ulykke misfortune, ungelucke
accident
undersåte undersåt subject undersâte undirmaðr, ---
þegn
menntan,
undervisning undervisning education unterwîsen ünnerwiesen
fræðinæmi
upplopp opløb crowd, uplôp hópr, þröng Uploop
gathering;
riot
Uproor,
uppror rebellion,
oprør uprôr upprás Uprohr
(1540) insurrection
Oprohr
uppsikt sensation, Upsicht,

opsigt upsicht
(1525) stir Opsicht
uppståndelse opstandelse resurrection; upstannisse upprisa; Upstand

excitement, uppreisn
stir
uppsåt ------ intention, upsat mál, ætlan ---
purpose
uppträde optræden scene, uptrede ---
(c.1630) disturbance
(Swe.);
appearance;
conduct
ur
ur clock, watch ûre Uhr (HG)
(1670)
utgift udgift expenditure ûtgift kostnaðr U(u)tgift
decision,
utslag udslag ûtslacht ákvæði
result
utträde udtrædelse retirement, ûttrede ---
withdrawal
watch,
vakt vagt wacht vörðr Wacht
guard
conduct,
vandel vandel wandel hegðan Wannel
behaviour
article,
vara vare ware vara (loan) Waar, Woor
product
warwulf, Weerwulf,
varulv varulv werewolf varúlfr
werwulf Wehrwulf
wedderlach,
vederlag vederlag compensation bót
-lage
vedermöda ------ hardship weddermöde ---
vederpart vederpart ? wedderpart Wedderpart
sadness,
vemod vemod wêmôt
melancholy
foreman, forráðamaðr,
verkmästare værkmester werkmêster
supervisor höfuðmaðr
verkstad værksted workshop werkstede Warksteed'
Wetenschup
(p),
vetenskap science, Wetenschop
videnskab wêtenschap vísendi
(1630) knowledge (p);
wetenschap
(Du)
wicht,
vikt vægt weight þyngð Wicht
wichte
formáli,
condition,
villkor vilkår willekor skildagi,
stipulation
skilorð
vinkel vinkel angle winkel horn Winkel
vrak vrag wreck wrak flak Wrack
våffla
vaffel waffle wâfel (LG) Waffel
(1710)
Wach, Wagg
våg vove wave, billow wâge bylgja
(e)
woninge,
våning våning flat; storey woning (Du)
wounge
väktare vægter watchman wechter varðmaðr Wächter
väpnare væbner squire wêpener sveinn
värd host,
vært innkeeper, wert gestgjafi We(e)rt
(c.1560) landlord
hostess,
värdinna værtinde innkeeper, werdinne
landlady
värv work, task,
hverv wert, wart Warf
(1560) duty
being, wesen,
väsen væsen Wesen
creature wesent
vört
urt wort, herb werte, wert jurt
(1540)
ålderman oldermand alderman olderman sveitarmaðr Öllermann
ångest angst angst, fear angest Angst
echteschop,
äktenskap ægteskab marriage hjúskapr
-schap
ängd (1541) (egn) tract jegen (LG) svæði
ära ære honour êre heiðr Eer, Ehr, Ihr
adventure,
äventyr eventyr eventuren ævintýr Eventüür
fairy tale
instant,
ögonblick øjeblik ogenblick augabragð Ogenblick
moment
orloge,
örlog, örlig orlog naval battle orloch stríð Oorloog
orlech
överdåd overdådighed sumptuousness, overdât munaðr ---
(c.1670) luxury
överenskommelse overenskomst agreement, overeenkomst samþykt, Övereenkumst,
arrangement sammæli Öbereenkumst
överflod abudance,
overflod overvlôt Överfloot
(1610) profusion
överhand overhånd upperhand, overhant gagn, hagr Överhand,
advantage Öberhand
överhet øvrighed the overheit yfirvöld Överheed;
(c.1541) authorities (emLG) overheid
(Du)
övermod overmod pride, overmôt dramb, Övermood,
arrogance, drambskapr Övermoot,
overweening Öbermoot
2 - ADJECTIVES
*All loans assumed to be Middle Low Saxon (MLS) unless given
otherwise.
Mod LS or
Du
einn,
------ alene alone alle(i)ne alleen, allein
einsamall
----- bange afraid bange hræddr bange
------ belejlig convenient belegelik hentugr, ---
þægiligr
------ fordrukken drunk vordrunken drukkinn ---
------ forkert wrong, vorkêren verkehrt
incorrect
------ fornøden necessary, van nôden nauðsynligr ---
required
(försmadligt forsmædelig ignominious vorsmâdelik fyrirlitligr ---
(adv.))
------ forsætlig intentional, vorsetlik ---
deliberate
------ gesvindt quick geswinde
------ gevaldig tremendous, gewaldich
enormous
------ indstændig urgent; instendich instännig
earnest
------ overhørig disregarded, overhôrich ---
ignored
beautiful,
------ smuk smuck, smuk smuck
fine
------ udlændig exiled ûtlendich útlægr ---
serious,
allvar alvor alwâr alvarligr
grave
defective,
avfällig apostate;
affældig afvellich afvallig (Du)
(1541) decrepit
(Dan.)
merciful,
barmhärtig barmhjertig barmhertich miskunnsamr barmhartig
compassionate
bedrövlig bedrøvelig sad, bedrôvelik hryggr, aumr ---
miserable,
melancholy
befaren befaren experienced bevaren ---
behjälplig behjælpelig helpful behelplik hjálpsamligr ---
behändig behændig agile, behendich fimr behändig,
dexterous behänn,
behann
behörig behørig due, fitting behôrich tilhlýðiligr ---
bekant bekendt known bekent kunnr bekannt
bekväm bekvem comfortable; bequême þægiligr bequeem
convenient
beredd beredt prepared, berêde búinn ---
ready
berömd berømt famous, From MLG
renowned berômen
beskedlig beskeden meek; beschêden

modest
beskäftig (beskæftiget)meddlesome, bescheftich afskiptinn ---
(c.1650) fussy
constant,
beständig bestandig bestendich
lasting
strange, besunderlik,
besynnerlig besynderlig (sünnerlich)
odd, curious besunderich
betänklig betænkelig serious, bedenklich vandræðasamr ---
grave;
difficult
bevågen bevågen well bewogen velviljaðr ---
disposed
cheap,
billig billig bilik, billich billig
inexpensive
bister bister fierce, grim bister grimmúðigr
(c.1525)
good,
excellent;
well (Swed.);
bra brav honest, brav
good,
worthy
(Dan.)
lovely,
dejlig dejlig degelik unaðsamr
beautiful
dov
døv deaf dôf doov, doof
(1710)
bold, drîst,
dristig dristig djarfr driest
courageous drîstich
duktig capable, duchtig,
dygtig düchtig
(1665) able düchtig
dunkel,
dunkel dunkel dark, dusky dökkr
dunker
dusin dozen dosin
egentlig proper, real, êgentlik egenlik,
egentlig eiginligr
(1542) actual (MLG) egentlich
endräktig endrægtig harmonious eindrechtich samhljóðr
enig enig agreed, enig samráða, enig, eenig
united, samsáttr
unanimous
single,
enkel
enkel individual; ênkel, ênkelt enkel
(1556)
simple
enständig ------ urgent instendich instännig
(c.1630)
evig evig eternal ewich eilífur ewig
ósannr,
falsk falsk false, wrong valsch falsch
rangr
fin fin fine, good fîn fagr, ágætr fien
flack
flad flat, level vlak jafn flack
(1638)
flau flau
flov embarrased flau
(1845) (LG)
quick,
flink nimble; flink
flink hvass flink
(1650) smart, clever (LG)
(Dan.)
free, at
fri fri vrî, vrîg frjáls frie, free
liberty
sound, fresh;
frisk frisk vrisch nýr frisch
cheerful
pious, fraam,
from from vrome guðrækinn
devout fromm
fruktbar frugtbar fertile vruchtbar frjósamr fruchtbar
foreign, vremede, fremd,
främmande fremmed erlendr
strange vromede frömd
complete, vullständig
fullständig fuldstændig vulstendich
entire
(adjective -vellich, -
-fällig -fællig -fällig
suffix) veldich
ready,
färdig færdig verdich fardig
completed
(adjective
-färdig -færdig -verdich -fardig
suffix)
versch,
färsk fersk fresh, new nýr vers (Du)
varsch
förborgad forborgen secret, vorborgen leyniligr verbargen

hidden
förfaren forfaren experienced, vorvaren ---
skilled
förfärlig forfærdelig awful, vorvêrlik ógurligr ---
terrible,
horrible
förgänglig forgængelig perishable, vorgenglik spilliligr ---
corruptable
------ forloren false, fake vorloren
förmäten ------ presumptuous, vormeten drambsfullr ---
arrogant
förnuftig fornuftig sensible, vornuftig vitrligr vernünftig
reasonable
vergnöögt
satisfied, vornögd
förnöjd fornøjet 'happy',
contented (LG)
'merry'
försiktig forsigtig careful, vorsichtich gætinn, varr vörsichtig
cautious
förståndig forstandig sensible, vorstandich vitrligr, vitr verständig,
wise verstännig
förtretlig fortrædelig annoyed, vordrêtlik skapraunaði verdreetlich
vexed
changed,
förvant forvandlet vorwant breytinn
altered
common, gemêne,
gemen gemen almenniligr gemeen
public gemeine
gemen gemen public gemên almennr, gemeen
(arch.) opinberr
coarse,
grov grov grof groff
rough
pious, god-
gudfruktig gudfrygtig godevruchtich guðrækinn
fearing
golden,
güllen, gollen
gyllen gylden golden gullinn
gülden gülden,
güllen
hurried,
hastig hastig hastich hastig
rapid
secret,
hemlig hemmelig hidden, hêmêlîk leyniligr heemlich
covert
häftig violent,
heftig heftich ákafr heftig
(1550) heated
händig
hændig handy handich hannig
(1506)
harðgörr,
härdig ------ hardy, tough herdich
hraustr
splendid,
härlig herlig herlik dýrligr herrlich
magnificent
courteous;
hövisk høvisk decent hövesch
courteous,
hövlig høflig hovelik hööflich
polite
idel idel sheer, pure, itel
mere
invändig indvendig internal, inwendich innri inwennig
(c.1673) interior
invärtes indvortes internal, inwordes, innri ---
inner inwerdes
ready; clear, búinn;
klar klar klâr klaar
distinct greiniligr
klen klejn feeble; tiny klêne kleen
klok klog wise, sage klôk vitr klook
short, brief, stuttr,
kort kort kort kort
abrupt skammr
weak, bad;
krank krank krank slæmr, illr krank
sick
curved,
krum krum crooked, ben krum krumm
t
chaste,
kysk kysk kûsch hreinlátr kuusch
virginal
loose,
lättfärdig letfærdig lîchtverdich lichtfardig
frivolous
middle,
medel middel middel miðr middel
centre
compassionate,
medlidande medlidende medelident
sympathetic
second-rate,
mediocre;
medelmåttig middelmådig middelmâtich meðallagr middelmatig
medium,
average
motvillig modvillig averse, môtwillich mótsnúinn, moodwillig,
reluctant mótdrægr mootwillig
authoritative,
myndig myndig mundich münnig
masterful
possible,
möjlig mulig mogelik möguligr mööglich
feasible
sober,
nykter nuchtern, nüchtern,
nøgtern down-to- skynsamligr
(1520) nochtern nochtern
earth
platt
plat flat, low plat platt
(1520)
nådig nådig gracious genedelik
bound,
pliktig pligtig
obliged
plutzlik (via
snöggr,
plötslig pludselig sudden HG plötzlich
skyndiligr
from MLG)
uncommon;
rar rar râr raar, ro(o)r
nice, kind
rask rask quick, rapid rasch fljótr, snöggr rasch
ringa ringe small, little ringe smár, lítill ring
rund rund round runt, rund kringlóttr rund
righteous,
rättfärdig retfærdig rechtverdich réttlátur rechtfardig
just
rättmätig rightful, rechtmatig
------ rechtmêtich
(1586) lawful (Du)
salig salig blessed sâlich, sêlich sæll selig
slanting,
skrå skrå schrât
inclined
beautiful, schöön,
skön skøn schône fagr
fair, nice scheun
smal smal narrow, thin smal small, smaal
smidig supple,
smidig smîdich smiedig
(1530) pliant, soft
still, calm,
stilla stille stille kyrr still(e)
quiet
stolt stolt proud stolt stolt
styrbar styrbar dirigible
grand,
ståtlig statelig impressive, statelik vörpuligr
stately
healthy,
sund sund sunt, gesunt sund
sound
svag svag weak, feeble swak veikr swack
particular; sunderlik,
synnerlig ------ sünnerlich
pronounced sunderich
safe, certain,
säker sikker seker øruggr, víss seker
secure
sällsam ------ strange, seltsam ---
(c.1555) peculiar
tapper brave, dapper,
tapper hugaðr tapper
(1560) corageous tapper
tidig tidlig early tîdich snembúinn tiedig
tillbörlig tilbørlig due, fitting tobôren
tillfreds satisfied, tovreden,
tilfreds tofreden
(1558) content tovredich
round,
trind trind plump, trint
chubby
submissive,
auðsveipr, ünnerdänig,
underdånig underdanig humble, underdanich
auðmjúkligr ünnerdänich
subservient
underdånig ------ humble, underdânich auðmjúkr, ünnerdänig
subservient, hlýðinn
obedient
underlägsen underlegen inferior underlegen ---
underst underst lowest, underst neðast ünnerst
bottom
obvious, apenbaar,
uppenbar åbenbar openbâre auðsær
evident openbor
sincere,
uppriktig uprichtig,
oprigtig heartfelt, uprichtich
(1545) oprichtig
honest
upprorisk oprørsk rebellious, uprôrisch ---
mutinous
outward,
utvändig udvendig external, ûtwendich u(u)twennig
exterior
vedervärdig ------ repulsive wedderwerdich wedderworig,
wedderwordig,
wedderwortig
well known,
witlik, alkunnr,
veterlig vitterlig obvious,
wetelik opinberr
notorious
essential,
väsentlig weselik,
væsentlig main; aðal- wesentlich
(1540) wesentlik
substantial
yppig luxuriant,
yppig uppich
(1612) lush
extreme,
ytterlig yderlig ûterlich ýztr
outermost
ädel
ædel noble edel edel, eddel
(1516)
genuine,
äkta ægte real, echte, echt sannr echt
legitimate
äregirig ærgerrig ambitious erengîrich metnaðargjarn
ärflig
arvelig hereditary ervelik erfelijk (Du)
(1612)
honest, eerlich,
ärlig ærlig frank, êrlik ehrlich
sincere iehrlich
överdådig overdådig luxuriant, overdâdich överdadig
sumptuous
överflödig overflødig superfluous overvlôdich ---
övermodig overmodig arrogant, overmôdich drambsfullr, övermodig,
overbearing, stoltr övermodig
proud
övrig øvrig the rest, the överich övrig
(c.1625) remainder,
what's left
3 - ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, PRONOUNS and

PREPOSITIONS
*All loans assumed to be Middle Low Saxon (MLS) unless given otherwise.
Mod LS or
Du
------ alene solely, only allêne
(redan) allerede already al(ge)rêde þegar
------ foran before, in voran vöran
front of
------ forleden the other vorliden
day
------ formedelst through, by vormiddelst ígegnum, við ---
means of
------ måske perhaps, mach schên
maybe
------ omtrent approximately, ummetrent um ümtrent
about,
around
tillförne tilforn formerly, to-vören
before, of
yore
------ under tiden sometimes undertîden stundum
------ undervejs en route underwegen áleið ünnerwegen
(s)
achter
akter agter astern (MLG) or eptir achter
(MDu)
alltid altid always, ever alletît alltied
allting alting everything al dink
constant(ly),
stöðugr,
beständig bestandig continuous bestendich
einart
(ly)
bittida ------ early bitîde snemma biti(e)den
blott only, simply; einga, eina,
blot blôt bloot(s)
(c.1600) mere, very einfaldliga
well,
excellently;
quite, very
bra bravt (Swed.); brav
stoutly, well
(Dan.)
(adv.
desto desto deste
particle)
one thing
dit un dat
ditt och datt dit og dat and another, dit un dat
düt un dat
this and that
dock dog however, yet doch þó doch
efter hand efterhånden gradually, na der hand smátt ok naderhand
by degrees smátt,
smám
emellertid imidlertid however middeler tît þó
fort
------ fast, quickly vort fljótr foort
(c.1538)
ready; done,
färdig færdig verdich fardig
finished
little; hardly,
föga ------ vöge varla
barely
förbi vorbî
forbi past, over hjá vörbi
(1536) (MLG)
vergevens,
förgäves forgæves in vain vorgevens
vergeevs
förmodligen formodentligpresumably, vormôdelik ---
probably
quite, mjök;
ganska ganske ganz ganz, ganß
rather; very nokkuð
hej hi, hello;
hej hei he(h)
(1536) goodbye
how, in
hvernig,
hurudan hvordan what wôdân wodennig
hversu
manner
yes, indeed;
ju jo ju, jo ja, jo, jau
you know
nevertheless,
likväl alligevel lîkewol þó liekerwelt
all the same
men men but men, man en man
(derivation): möglich,
möjligen muligvis possibly
mögelik mööglik
exactly,
noga nøjagtig nouwe nau
precisely
recently; just
nyss nys nies, niges nýliga nies, nieges
now
namely, that nameliken,
nämligen nemlig nämlich
is nemeliken
redan (allerede) already rêde, rêden þegar
sakta sagte slowly; softly sâchte sacht(en(s))
and also,
samt samt samet, samt ásamt sam(t)s
plus
purely,
einfaldliga;
slätt slet simply; slecht slecht
illa
badly
still, calm,
stilla stille stille still
soft
immediately,
strax straks strackes stracks
at once; just
such, like so-dân, so- sodennig,
sådan sådan þannig
that dânich sodannig
to rights, in torecht,
till rätta til rette to rechte
order trecht
til forn before, tovoren, tovörn,
tillförne forðum
(arch.) formerly tovorens tovöörn
tillhopa ------ altogether, tô hôpe tohoop
in all
also,
besides, togelîke,
tillika (1540) tillige og, líka to(g)liek
moreover, tolîke
as well
altogether, tosamen,
tillsamman tilsammen tôsamene saman
in all tosomen
trots trot, tros,
trods despite
(1600) trotz, tratz
rather,
tämligen temmelig temmelik nokkuð teemlich
fairly, quite
understundom------ sometimes, understunden ---
now and
then
utvärtes udvortes externally, ûtwerdes útan utwarts
outwardly
weldich,
väldig vældig awfully, very mjök
waldich
at last,
äntligen endelig endeliken loks endlich
finally
------ also, too, as
även evene, even líka, ok even
well
överalt overalt everywhere overal överall
överens overens be in overêns övereens,
concord, overeen,
concord öbereens
with
överljutt overlydt noisily, overlût ---
loudly
övermåttan overmåde extremely, overmâte övermaten,
very öbermaten
övrig the rest,
øvrig overich ö(ö)vrig
(1625) what's left
4 - VERBS
* All loans assumed to be Middle Low Saxon (MLS) unless given
otherwise.
Mod LS or
Du
------ bagvaske defame, bakwaschen bakmæla, --
slander niðra
------ bedrive commit; do bedrîven fremja bedrieven,
bedrieben
------ befrygte fear bevruchten hræðast, --
óttast
------ belære teach, beleren
instruct
------ beråbe sig appear, berôpen koma fram beropen, sik
refer
------ beskænke provide beschenken beschenken,
alcohol beschinken
'bestow
gifts'
(utarme) forarme impoverish vorarmen rýra --
------ forbavse surprise, vorbâsen (verbaast
astonish 'astonished')
------ fordøje digest vordouwen melta verdauen
------ forlange ask for, vorlangen beiða, krefja verlangen
demand
------ forskyde displace vorschêten
------ fortabe forfeit

------ forøde waste,
squander
kenna (in
------ føle feel, sense vôlen fö(h)len
ODan.)
------ knæle kneel knelen
------ opsætte establish, upsetten stofna upsetten
set up
------ overtrække cover overtrekken þekja, hylja övertrecken
------ slæbe haul, tow, slepen
drag
------ sprede spread, spreden
disperse
------ tvivle doubt twivelen
------ underkøbe suborn, underkôpen fitla --
tamper with
------ undlive kill, destroy entlîven drepa; eyða --
------ undløbe run away, entlôpen komask --
escape undan
------ undse sig not partake untsên --
of
------ undsige challenge, untseggen skora, hóta, entseggen
threaten ógna,
heitast
------ undslå sig decline, entslân neita --
refuse
? forlide pass (time) vorlîden líða --
ana ane suspect, ane gruna ahnen
have a
feeling
akta agte esteem, take achten ætla
care of;
intend
anbringa anbringe place, put, anbringen setja, leggja anbringen
fix, mount
andraga andrage put forward, andragen sækja á andregen
advance
anfäkta anfægte tempt anvechten freista --
state, angeven,
ange angive angeven segja, skýra
mention angeben
angå angå concern, angân varða, angahn
refer to snerta, visa
til
angöra ------ call at, andôn; nálgast andoon;
approach anmaken anmaken
(Du)
accuse,
anklaga anklage anklagen kæra anklagen
charge
anmoda anmode request, anmôden beiða --
solicit
annamma annamme receive annâmen fá, taka við annehmen
anropa anråbe call up, call anrôpen heita, kalla á anropen
upon
anse anse look upon, ansên líta á ansehn
regard as
anstå anstå be proper, anstân sæma (anstännig
be suitable 'proper')
anteckna antegne record, note antekenen skrásetja anteken
down
anträda ------ start off, antreden byrja, hetja antreden
begin
antvarda antvorde answer antwarden svara antwoorden
använda anvende use, employ, anwenden nýta anwennen
(c.1550) utilise
arbeta arbejde work, toil arbeiten vinna, starfa arbeiden
detest,
avsky afsky afschuwen
loathe
bebåda bebude announce, beboden kunngera --
herald
bedarra ------ calm down, sik bedaren kyrrast bedaren
lull
deceive,
bedraga bedrage bedrêgen svikja bedregen
swindle
bedriva bedrive carry on, bedriven halda áfram bedrieven,
pursue bedrieben
sadden, bedröven,
bedröva bedrøve bedrôven hryggja
grieve bedröben
bedyra bedyre assert, bedüren lýsa yfir, beduren
protest, krefjast
avow
bedåra bedåre fascinate, bedôren --
captivate
bedöva bedøve anaesthetize bedöven
order,
befalla befale bevalen skipa befehlen
command
befatta befatte be bevaten varða, befaten
concerned snerta
with
befinna befinde be, feel, find bevinden finna, kenna befinnen
oneself
befordra befordre convey, bevorderen flýtja, senda befördern
transport,
send
befria befri liberate, free bevrîen frelsa, leysa befreen,
befrien
befrynda sig ------ acquire sik mægjast befrünnen
kinship befründen
through
marriage
bege begive proceed begeven
jarða, grafa begraven,
begrava begrave bury, inter begraven
niðr begraben
begripa begribe grasp, begrîpen skilja begriepen

comprehend
begråta begræde moan, bewênen gráta, syrgja,
lament harma
begin,
begynna begynde beginnen byrja, hefja beginnen
commence
begaan,
commit,
begå begå begân fremja, gera begahn
perpetrate
begohn
demand;
begära begære request, begeren krefja, beiða bege(h)ren
require
please,
behaga behage behagen (be)hagen
appeal to
behandla behandle treat, behandelen fara með behanneln
handle, deal
with
behjälpa behjælpe assist, be behelpen hjálpa, stoða behelpen
helpful
behålla beholde keep, retain beholden varðveita, beholden
geyma
behäfta behefte encumber beheften hamla, --
teppa
need,
behöva behøve behôven þarfa
require
excuse, beklagen,
beklaga beklage beklagen harma
regret; pity beklogen
bekosta bekoste pay for bekosten greiða bekösten
'provide
room and
board'
confirm, staðfesta,
bekräfta bekræfte bekreften
ratify steðja
trouble,
bekymra bekymre bekummeren bekümmern
worry
belamra belemre clutter up, belammern belämmern
(c.1700) encumber (LG)
belägga belægge engage, beleggen fást við; beleggen
occupy; þekja
cover, coat
belägra belejre besiege belegeren sitja um, --
umkringja
bemänga ------ mix, mingle bemengen blanda bemengen
bemöda bemøje take pains, bemôien bemöhen
take trouble
benåda benåde pardon, benâden afsaka, --
reprieve fyrirgefa
berama beramme fix, plan, berâmen festa, ráða --
appoint
bereda berede prepare berêden vinna, greiðabereden
berida beride break in a berîden --
horse
berätta berette tell, narrate, berichten segja frá berichten
recount,
report
berömma berømme extol, praise, berômen lofa, hrósa berö(h)men
laud
beröra berøre touch, affect beroren snerta berö(h)ren
bese bese look at, see besên líta á, sjá besehn
besegla besegle seal besegelen innsigla
consider;
besinna besinde collect one's besinnen hugleiða besinnen
thoughts
besitta besidde possess, besitten eiga, ráða besitten
hold, have
beskatta beskatte levy tax beschatten --

beskicka beskikke appoint beschicken nefna (beschicken
'to
accomplish')
beskita beskide soil beschîten skíta beschieten
beskriva beskrive describe beschrîven lýsa beschrieven,
beschrieben
beskydda beskytte protect, beschûdden verja --
shelter,
shield
beskåda beskue contemplate, beschouwen horfa á, líta beschoen,
regard á beschuen
beskära beskære cut, trim, bescheren klippa --
crop
beschermen
beskärma beskærme protect beschermen
(Du)
decide,
besluta beslutte beslûten besluten
resolve
beslå beslå mount; stud beslân beslaan,
beslagen
besmitta besmitte infect, taint besmitten --
bespeja ------ spy upon bespên njósna --
bespisa bespise feed bespîsen fæða bespiesen
besticka bestikke bribe, pay bestechen múta --
off, suborn
bestrida bestride deny, bestrîden neita bestrieden

contest
bestyra bestyre run, manage bestûren handla, bestüren
valda
bestaan,
be, exist;
bestå bestå bestân vera bestahn
last
bestohn
beställa bestille order, book bestellen bestellen
bestimmen;
bestämma decide,
bestemme bestemmen ráða, festa bestemmen
(1524) determine
(Du)
besvika besvige defraud beswîken svíkja e-u --
besvimma besvime faint, pass beswîmen beswiemen
out
answer,
besvära besvare beswêren svara
reply
besvära besvære trouble, beswêren angra besweren
bother
besvärja besværge conjure up, besweren kalla á, særa beswören
raise, invoke
besätta besætte occupy, fill besetten fylla besetten
besöka besøge visit besôken heimsækja besöken
besörja besørge see to, besorgen gæta til e-s besorgen
attend to
beta betage move, benemen flýtja benemen,
transport; benehmen
charm
beta(h)len,
betala betale pay betalen greiða
betohlen
beteckna betegne represent, betêkenen tákna beteken
denote
condition;
betinga betinge bedingen
stipulate
consider, horfa á, líta
betrakta betragte betrachten
look at á
betro betro entrust betrûwen fela, treysta --
betvinga betvinge subdue, bedwingen yfirbuga, (dwingen)
overpower undiroka
mean, merkja,
betyda betyde bedûden bedüden
signify þýða
betyga ------ certify, betûgen betügen
vouch for;
declare,
profess
consider, bedenken,
betänka betænke bedenken íhuga, hugsa
bear in mind bedinken
bevaka bevogte guard, bewêken gæta --
watch
bevara bevare keep, bewâren varðveita, bewa(h)ren
preserve gøyma bewohren
bevilja bevilge grant, bewillen --
accord
prove, sanna,
bevisa bevise bewîsen bewiesen
demonstrate prófa, vísa
---- bevæge move bewegen bewegen
bifalla bifalde assent, bîvallen játa bifallen
approve
bistå bistå aid, assist bistân hjálpa, stoða bi(e)stahn
bisätta bisætte inter in a bisetten bisetten
vault
bliva become;
blive blîven verða blieven
(c.1300) stay, be
blända blænde blind, dazzle blenden blennen
guarantee,
borga borge borgen tryggja börgen
vouch for
bringa
bringe bring, carry bringen færa, flytja bringen
(1524)
bruka bruge use, apply brûken nýta bruken
snap, break,
bräcka brække breken brjóta breken
crack
change,
byta bytte bûten skipta
exchange
ought to, (bören
böra burde boren eiga að
should 'bear')
danzen,
dansa danse dance danzen dansa
dansen
dela dele divide, share dêlen delen
write,
dikta digte dichten dichten
compose
hit, strike, hitta;
drabba ------- meet; drapen hittast, drapen
happen møtast
drypa dryppe drip, trickle druppen
dôpian
döpa døbe baptise skíra döpen
(OSax.)
entlediga ------ dismiss, entledigen --
(c.1577) remove
offer,
erbjuda (tilbyde) erbêden bjóða
present
erfara
erfare experience ervaren reyna
(1647)
remind;
erinra erindre remember erinneren minna erinnern
(Dan.)
erövra erobre conquer, eroveren, vinna, sigra erövern,
(c.1563) win, capture erövern eröbern
comprehend,
fatta fatte vaten skilja faten, foten
grasp
stríða,
feud, make berjast,
fejda fejde veiden
war eigast við
deildir
run away,
flykta flygte vluchten
flee
continue, go vortsetten
fortsätta fortsætte halda áfram
on (MLG)
vruchten, hræðast, früchten,
frukta frygte fear, dread
vorchten óttast fröchten
question, fragen,
fråga ------ vrâgen spyrja
ask frogen
fullborda fuldbyrde complete, vulborden fullgera --
accomplish
fullkomna fuldkomme perfect vulkomen fullkoma vullkamen,
vullkomen
catch, trap;
fånga fange vangen, vân grípa, ná
take captive
fäkta fægte fence, fight vechten skylmaz fechten
förakta foragte despise vorachten fyrirlíta verachten
förandra forandre change, voranderen breyta, verännern
alter skipta
förarbeta forarbejde prepare, vorarbêiden
process
förarga forarge annoy, vorargen skaprauna verargen
provoke
förbanna forbande curse vorbannen bölva --
förbarma sig forbarme sig take pity on vorbarmen (barmen)
förbehålla forbeholde reserve vorbeholden varðveita, --
geyma
förbinda forbinde connect, join vorbinden tenglsa, verbinnen
samsetja
förbittra forbitre embitter vorbitteren verbittern
ban, forbid, vorbêden,
förbjuda forbyde banna verbeden
prohibit vorbeiden
consume,
förbruka forbruge vorbruken
use
offend,
förbryta forbryde break the vorbrêken brjóta verbreken
law
förbyta forbytte mix up, vorbûten --
substitute
fördela fordele distribute, vordêlen skipta verdelen
allocate
fördra fordre demand, vôrderen krefja föddern,
claim feddern
fördra fordrage bear, vordrâgen þola, vara verdregen
endure,
stand
fördriva fordrive drive away, vordrîven reka verdrieven,
expel verdrieben
fördärva fordærve corrupt, vorderven spilla, eyða verdarven,
spoil verdarben
condemn,
fördöma fordømme vordômen fordæma verdömen
denounce
happen;
appear; vörkamen,
förekomma forekomme vorkomen koma fram
hinder vörkomen
(Swed.)
join, unite, vorênen, tenglsa,
förena forene vereenen
combine voreinen samsetja
förevita ------ accuse, vorwîten --
reproach
förfalla forfalde decay, vorvallen hnigna, verfallen
decline, fall hrørna
to ruin
förfara ----- proceed vorvaren
write, verfaten,
författa forfatte vorvaten skrifa
compose verfoten
förfoga forføje make vorvôgen hverfa --
oneself
scarce
förfära forfærde terrify, vorvêren hræða, verferen
appal, skelfa
dismay
förfärdiga forfærdige produce, vorverdigen skapa, gera --
manufacture
förfölja forfølge pursue, vorvolgen ofsækja, verfolgen
chase reka
förföra forføre seduce vorvôren tæla, lokka --
förfördela forfordele wrong, vorvordêlen skaða --
injure
förgifta forgive poison vorgêven eitra vergeven,
vergeben
förgripa forgribe assault vorgrîpen ráðast á vergriepen
förgylla forgylde gild vorgulden gylla vergüllen
förgå forgå perish, pass vorgân farast vergahn
away,
vanish
förgäta forgætte forget vorgeten gleyma vergeten
(poet., dial.)
förhandla forhandle negotiate vorhandelen semja, miðla verhanneln
förhasta sig forhaste sig be in a hurry vorhasten skynda --
förhindra forhindre prevent, vorhinderen tálma verhinnern
hinder
förhöja forhøje raise, vorhôgen auka, reisa --
increase
question, verhören,
förhöra forhøre vorhoren
interrogate verhüren
förkasta forkaste reject, vorwerpen neita --
repudiate,
refuse
verklaren,
förklara forklare explain vorklaren skýra
verkloren
förkorta forkorte shorten, vorkorten stytta verkörten,
abbreviate verkötten
förkunna forkynde proclaim, vorkunden kunngera verkünnen
announce
förkyla sig forkøle sig catch a cold vorkôlen verküllen,
verköhlen
förlika forlige reconcile vorlîken sætta
förlisa forlise be lost, be vorlîsen spillast --
wrecked
förljuda forlyde report, vorluden segja frá verluden
rumour
verleren,
förlora ------ lose vorloren
verlieren
förlossa forløse deliver, vorlosen frelsa --
(c.1500) redeem
förlova sig forlove sig be engaged vorloven trúlofa sér verloven,
to verloben
förlusta forlyste amuse, vorlusten skemta --
entertain
forgive; fyrirgefa;
förlåta forlade vorlâten
leave (Dan.) yfirgefa
förläna forlene endow, vorlênen veita, gæða verlohnen
grant
förlänga forlænge lengthen, vorlengen lengja verlangen
extend
förlöpa forløbe pass, elapse vorlôpen líða verlopen
förlösa forløse deliver vorlôsen frelsa --
förmana formane exhort, vormanen áminna vermahnen
admonish
förmedla formidle vormiddelen miðla vermiddeln

mediate,
bring about
think,
förmena formene vormênen hyggja
believe
presume, vormôden, gøra ráð vermoden,
förmoda formode
suppose vormûden fyrir vermauden
förmå formå be able, be vormogen mega vermögen
capable of
förmäla formelde tell, convey vormelden segja frá vermellen
förnedra fornedre debase, vornederen niðra --
degrade
feel,
förnimma fornemme perceive, vornemen skynja vernehmen
sense
förneka fornægte disavow,
deny
förnöja fornøje gratify, vornôgen þokknast vernögen
please
förorsaka forårsage cause vororsaken valda veroorsaken
förorätta forurette wrong, vorunrechten skaða verunrechten
injure
förplikta forpligte oblige, have vorplichten skylda verplichten
a mandate
for
förringa forringe minimise, vorringen --
belittle
förrycka forrykke disturb, vorrucken raska --
dislocate
förråda forråde betray, give vorrâden svíkja verraden
away
perform, vorrichten
förrätta forrette fremja verrichten
accomplish (MLG)
forsake, go
án vera,
försaka forsage without, vorsaken
yfirgefa
renounce
församla forsamle gather, vorsamelen samna versammeln
collect
förskaffa forskaffe procure
förskriva forskrive order, write vorschriven verschrieven,
for verschrieben
förskräcka forskrække scare, terrify vorschrecken hræða verschrecken
förskulla forskylde be to blame, vorschulden verschüllen,
be verschullen
responsible
for
suffice, be
förslå forslå vorslân nægja, duga
enough
försmå forsmå disdain, vorsmân hafna versmaden,
reject versmajen,
versmaan
försmäkta forsmægte pine away, vorschmêcten versmachten
languish, die
förspilla forspilde waste, vorspilden eyða, spilla verspillen
forfeit
verstaan,
förstå forstå understand vorstân skilja verstahn
verstohn
destroy,
wreck, spoil;
vorstôren,
förstöra forstyrre disturb, eyða, spilla
vorsturen
interrupt
(Dan.)
förstöra ------ destroy, vorstören eyða ---
wreck
försumma forsumpe neglect, vorsûmen vanrækja; versümen
leave hniga
undone;
stagnate,
decline
(Dan.)
defend,
försvara forsvare vorantwarden verja verantwoorden
justify
disappear,
försvinna forsvinde vorswinden hverfa verswinnen
vanish
försvärja forsværge forswear, vorsweren fyrirsverja
abjure
försäkra forsikre assure, vorsekeren tryggja versekern
insure
försända forsende send, vorsenden senda versennen
dispatch
försöka forsøge try, attempt vorsôken reyna versöken
försörja forsørge support, vorsorgen stoða, sjá versorgen
maintain, fyrir
provide for
förtelja fortælle tell, narrate vortellen segja frá vertellen
vordênen,
förtjäna fortjene deserve verðskulda verdenen
vordeinen
förtolka fortolke interpret vortolken þýða ---
förtro ------ entrust, vortruwen fela vertrugen,
commit to s- vertruun,
one vertroon
förtrycka fortrykke oppress vordrucken kúga verdrücken
förtränga fortrænge drive out, vordrengen reka verdrengen,
expel, oust verdringen
förtvivla fortvivle despair vortwîvelen örvænta
förtänka fortænke blame, vordenken kæra, gruna verdenken,
suspect verdinken
förundra forundre surprise, vorwundern verwunnern
astonish
förvandla forvandle change, vorwandelen umbreyta verwanneln
transform
förvara forvare keep vorwaren varðveita, verwaren
halda
förverka ------ forfeit vorwerken fyrirgera ---
förvilla forvilde confuse, vorwilden rugla ---
bewilder
förvisa forvise banish, vorwîsen útlægja verwiesen
deport
förvissa forvisse assure vorwissen ---
förvärva ------ acquire vorwerven öðlast ---
föryttra ------ sell, part vorüteren selja ---
with
förära forære present, vorêren bjóða, gefa verehren 'to
bestow honour', 'to
admire', to
adore'
garva garve tan garwen
gaan, gahn,
gå gå go, walk gân ganga
gohn
handla trade, shop;
handle handelen kaupa hanneln
(1523) act
handle,
handle, hanteren,
hantera håndtere manage, hantêren
valda hantern
wield
höpen,
hôpen,
hoppas håbe hope, expect vænta hapen,
hapen
hopen
hyra
hyre rent, hire hûren hüren
(1530)
arrest,
häkta hægte hechten fanga
apprehend
hamper,
hämma hæmme impede, hemmen
inhibit
härska
herske rule, reign hêrschen ríkja
(1620)
inbilla imagine,
indbilde inbilden inbillen
(1604) fancy
införliva ------ incorporate invorlîven
(c.1550)
inkräkta ------ encroach, inkrechten ganga á ---
trespass
inrita ------ draw in inrîten inrieten
inrymma ------ contain, inrümen inrümen
include
intyga ------ certify, intügen sanna ---
attest,
affirm
jaga jage hunt, shoot jagen veiða jagen, jogen
moan,
klaga klage klagen kvarta klagen
complain
squeeze,
klämma klemme klemmen klemmen
hug
kaken,
koka koge boil, cook koken sjóða
koken
cost, kösten,
kosta koste kosten kosta
amount to kosten
curl, frizzle;
krusa kruse krusen
ripple
announce,
kungöra kundgøre kuntmaken kunngøra
make known
kämpa kæmpe fight kempen berjast
köpen,
köpa købe buy kopen kaupa
kopen
suffer,
lida lide lîden lieden
endure
le(h)ren,
lära lære learn; teach lêren kenna
liehren
inform,
meddela meddele communicate, mededelen
notify
think,
mênen,
mena mene believe; hyggja, ætla menen
meinen
mean
misuse,
missbruka misbruge misbrûken únýta mißbruken
abuse
malen,
måla male paint mâlen skrifa
molen
must, have
måsta (måtte) moste hljóta
to
pattern;
munstern,
mönstra mönstre scrutinise, munsteren skoða
münstern
examine
nalkas ------ approach nâleken nálgast
feed,
nära nære neren fœða nähren
nourish
constrain, þvinga,
nödsaka nødsage nôtsaken
compel nauðga
omkomma omkomme die, perish ummekommen farast, ümkamen
(c.1560) ándast
omkomma andast, ümkamen,
omkomme die, be killed ummekommen
(1560) látast ümkomen
ordna arrange,
ordne ordenen skipa
(1550) order
packa pakke pack, cram packen packen
adjust,
passa
passe adapt; mind passen gæta passen
(c.1540)
to
torment, pína (loan),
pina pine pînen
torture misþyrma
plundra plunder,
plyndre plunderen ræna plünnern
(1500) loot, sack
torment; plagen,
plåga plage plâgen
bother plogen
be in the
pläga pleje habit of plegen plegen
be used to
talk, chat;
prata talk prâten, praten,
prate orða, segja
(1650) nonsense prâtelen proten
(Dan.)
pränta print, write printen,
prente prenten ríta
(1500) carefully prenten
pröven,
try, attempt,
pröva prøve prôven reyna proven
test
pröben
regera regere rule, govern rêgeren stýra regeren
resa rejse travel, fare reisen fara reisen
ropen,
ropa råbe call, cry out rôpen kalla
raupen
consult, ask
rådfråga (rådspørge) râtvrâgen ráða, spyrja
advice
rädda redde save, rescue redden bjarga redden
calculate,
reckon; rekenen,
räkna regne telja rekenen
work out, reken
solve (Dan.)
rob, pillage,
röva røve rôven raufa rövern
steal
collect, samelen,
samla samle safna sammeln
assemble samenen
happen,
ske ske schên gerast (ge)schehen
occur
send,
skicka skikke schicken senda schicken
dispatch
skildra describe,
skildre schilderen lýsa schillern
(1700) depict
scream, cry schrîen, schrie(ge)n,
skria skrige hrópa
out schrîgen schreen
schrieven,
skriva skrive write schrîven ríta, skrifa
schrieben
protect,
skydda beskytte (be)schutten verja schütten
defend
desecrate,
skända skænde schenden
ravage
present; schenken,
skänka skænke schenken
pour schinken
finish,
sluta slutte slûten enda, lúka sluten
conclude
smaka smage taste smaken
smitta smitte infect smitten slá, ljósta

smuggla smuggeln
smugle smuggle smuggeln
(1830) (Du)
smycka adorn,
smykke smucken smücken
(1558) decorate
hurt, be
smärta smerte smerten smarten
painful
snacka snakke talk, chat snacken tala snacken
leika
spela spille play spelen (in most spelen
senses)
spisa spise eat spisen spiesen
spöka
spøge haunt spôken spöken
(1550)
stinka
stinke stink, reek stinken stinken
(1570)
stop up,
stoppa stoppe stoppen stoppen
plug, fill
straffa straffe punish straffen refsa, hegna strafen
sträcka strække stretch strecken rétta strecken
sträva streven,
stræbe strive, toil streven starfa, vinna
(1640) streben
stå stå stand stân standa stahn
stötta
støtte support stutten stoða, hjálpa stütten
(post-1670)
svinga
svinge swing, wave swingen sveifla swingen
(1619)
sylta sylte preserve sulten zulten (Du)
tilldraga sig tildrage sig come to sik tôdragen gerast todregen
(c.1550) pass, befall
tillfalla tilfalde be alloted to tôvallen tofallen
forgive, togeven,
tillgiva tilgive togêven fyrirgefa
pardon togeben
tillgå tilgå reach togân ná togahn
tillkännagiva tilkendegive declare, tô kennen kunngera, to
inform, geven segja frá kennen/kinnen
express geven/geben
ascribe s-th
tillräkna tilregne to s-th; torekenen torekenen
blame
ascribe to toschrieven
tillskriva tilskrive toschrîven eigna sér
attribute to toschrieben
tillskynda tilskynde prompt, tôschunden hvetja, eggja ---
urge, incite
admit,
tillstå tilstå tostân játa tostahn
confess
träda træde step, tread treden ganga, stíga treden
---- trække pull, draw trecken trecken
think, hugsa, dinken,
tänka tænke denken
believe hyggja, ætla denken
tøve hesistate,
töva toven
tarry
------ do without,
umbära untberen án vera
go without
umgälla undgælde pay, suffer untgelden ---
for
omit, ünnerlaten
underlåta undlade underlaten vanrækja
neglect ünnerloten
underrätta inform,
underrette underrichten segja til ünnerrichten
(1615) notify
understicka ------ hide away, understecken fela, hylja ---
put out of
sight
dare to, sik
understå understå
venture understân
undersöka investigate, kanna,
undersøge undersoken ünnersöken
(1680) examine skoða
undertrycka undertrykke suppress, underdrucken ünnerdrücken
crush, put
down
educate,
undervisa undervise instruct underwîsen kenna ünnerwiesen
undfly undfly avoid, shun entvlên forðast ---
untvân,
undfå undfange receive hljóta, fá
entvangen
avoid, forðast;
undgå undgå evade, shun; entgân komast entgahn
escape undan
escape, get untkômen,
undkomma undkomme entkamen
away untkâmen
apologise,
undskylla sig undskylde entschülligen
excuse entschulden
(1585) sig entschulligen
oneself
undsätta undsætte relieve, entsetten létta; bjarga ---
rescue
undvara undvære do without, untberen, án vera ---
(c.1795) go without entberen
(LG)
undvika undvige avoid, entwiken forðast; ---
evade; komast
escape undan
uppdaga updagen
opdage discover finna
(1680) (MLG)
bring up,
uppdraga opdrage updragen ala upp
educate
uphören,
upphöra ophôren, hætta,
ophøre cease, stop ophören
(1620) uphôren stöðva
ophüren
upprepa ------ repeat, upreppen endrnýja upreppen
reiterate
upprymma oprømme broach, uprumen uprümen
ream
uppskjuta opskyde shoot up, upschêten sprétta upscheten
sprout;
expend
uppträda optræde appear, act, uptreden koma fram; uptreden
perform fremja
utesluta (udelukke) exclude, bar ûtsluten u(u)tsluten
utplåna ------ obliterate, ûtplanen afmá, eyða ---
extinguish,
efface
utreda udrede investigate, ûtrêden kanna,
analyse; útskýra,
clear up, greina
explain
uträtta udrette do, achieve; ûtrichten fremja; utrichten
straighten greiða
out
utstyra udstyre equip, fit ûtstüren utstüren
out, furnish
u(u)tstaan,
suffer,
utstå udstå ûtstân þola utstahn
endure
utstohn
utträda udtræde retire, ûttreden uttreden
withdraw
ramble,
vandra vandre wanderen ganga wannern
wander
take care of;
wa(h)ren,
vara vare guard waren vara
wohren
against
vara vare last, endure waren
vederfaras vederfare(s) befall, weddervaren ---
happen to
vedergälla vedergælde return, weddergelden ---
requite,
repay
vederkvicka vederkvæge refresh wedderquicken ---
venture,
---- vove wagen wagen
risk, dare
make s-one (EmodLG)
---- ængste engesten
anxious
practise,
öva øve ôven öven, öben
train
överantvardaoverantvordedeliver up, overantworden ---
commit
överbevisa overbevise convince overbewîsen ---
assault,
överfalla overfalde overvallen ráðast á överfallen
attack
överhala overhale overhaul overhalen overhalen,
överholen
överila sig overile sig act rashly overîlen överielen,
öberielen
överlåta overlade hand over, overlâten afhenda, överlaten,
assign, fela öberlaten
entrust
överlägga overlægge deliberate, overleggen líta á, íhuga överleggen,
reflect öberleggen
överse overse survey, oversên líta yfir överse(h)en

assess; öberseh(e)n
overlook
översetten,
översätta oversætte translate oversetten þýða
öbersetten
överträda overtræde infringe, overtreden brjóta, övertreden,
transgress ganga á öbertreden
overtyde
convince,
övertyga (older overtûgen övertügen
persuade
overtye)
consider, hugleiða,
överväga overveje overwegen
contemplate íhuga
överväldiga overvælde overwhelm, overwelden sigra, ---
overcome yfirvinna
*sources:
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© Edward Smith 2011. E-mail the author
Many thanks to Reinhard Hahn - a speaker, writer and passionate supporter of Low Saxon - for his friendly and
expert advice concerning the structure and content of this article. Reinhard also supplied most of the words in the
modern Low Saxon/Dutch columns.
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Mainland Scandinavian: Loans from Middle Low German

(Written: 2000; last updated: 22 Nov 2012)

(Deutsche Fassung: hier klicken!)

Color key to the words:

Introduction and Orientation

Arveord Lånord ON (OSwed.) Meaning

allesteds overalt allsstaðr everywhere

hest hingst hestr horse

MLG-derived word Native Nordic equivalent Meaning

recommend, accuse, attack

bidrage, behandle, contribute, treat, consider,

omgive, omstendighet, surround, circumstance,

overbevise, overhøre, convince, interrogate,

un-/und- (since escape/evade, excuse, do

varaktig, karlaktig, enduring, manly, lying,

-else (many orig. skapelse, overdrivelse, shape/creation,

-are (Swed.), -er borgare, jägare, bæger, citizen, hunter, beaker,

-eri (pre-1400 in fiskeri, bedrageri, tyveri, fishery, fraud, theft,

-(er)ska (Swed.) laundress, student,

-isk (loaned or courteous, rebellious,

-liken very likely, rather;

-näre (Swed.), -ner artist, gardener, squire

-skap (Swed., friendship, landscape,

fara fare danger vâre hætta Faar, Fahr

frukt frugt fruit vrucht Frucht

förköp forkøb pre-emption vorkôp Verkoop

köpman købmand merchant kôpmann Koopmann

tool, rêdeschap Reedschopp,

råtta rotte rat rotte Rott

mind; hugr, geð,

uppsikt sensation, Upsicht,

uppståndelse opstandelse resurrection; upstannisse upprisa; Upstand

beskedlig beskeden meek; beschêden

förborgad forborgen secret, vorborgen leyniligr verbargen

3 - ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, PRONOUNS and

------ fortabe forfeit

begripa begribe grasp, begrîpen skilja begriepen

beskatta beskatte levy tax beschatten --

bestrida bestride deny, bestrîden neita bestrieden

förmedla formidle vormiddelen miðla vermiddeln

smaka smage taste smaken

smitta smitte infect smitten slá, ljósta

spisa spise eat spisen spiesen

överse overse survey, oversên líta yfir överse(h)en

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