Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

The botanical materia medica of the Iatrosophikon—A collection of

prescriptions from a monastery in Cyprus
Andreas Lardos ∗
Received 5 July 2005; received in revised form 21 December 2005; accepted 30 December 2005
Available online 3 February 2006

Abstract
This article analyses the botanical material that is contained in the Iatrosophikon, a collection of prescriptions from a monastery in Cyprus written
down during the island’s Ottoman period (1571–1878). A total of 494 herbal prescriptions were detected in the record and 231 plants belonging
to 70 different botanical families, as well as 21 various substances of botanical or mixed origin were identified. The distribution of the plants, the
plant part used, the use of the material, and the mode of application are discussed. Parallels with other medical writings of the Greek-speaking
Ottoman world suggest a local popular as well as a classical Greek and Byzantine influence. The latter is particularly supported by the relationship
of the majority of the plants described to plants mentioned by Dioscorides. Additionally the question of what other sources might have contributed
to this herbal knowledge is discussed. The results also show that most of the plants described originated from the island itself, only a minority
of the botanical material presumably had to be imported. All the mentioned plants of local origin are also cited in modern ethnopharmacological
studies on Cyprus, the Iatrosophikon demonstrates their use at a time from which no other written source of comparable detail exists.
© 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Medicinal plants; Monastic medicine; Eastern Mediterranean; Cyprus

1. Introduction
The research of the medicinal plant treasures of humans
is not only based on present-day existing but also on his-
torical systems of traditional and local medicine. An impor-
tant approach to historical sources constitutes the rediscov-
ery of the knowledge that has been preserved in monaster-
ies. In accordance with this, a research group focusing on
monastic medicine has recently been established in Wuerzburg
(Forschergruppe Klostermedizin, 1999). Consequently, there is
increasing research activity in this area, at least as far as herbal
medicinal scriptures from monasteries in Western Europe are
concerned (Mayer and Goehl, 2001; Piendl, 2001; Windhaber,
2001). In contrast, so far only minimal knowledge from con-
vents of the Byzantine tradition in the Eastern Mediterranean
has been made accessible. During the spread of Christianity,
this area was mainly part of the Byzantium, the Eastern Roman
Empire. Whereas, after the fall of Rome, the knowledge of clas-
∗ Present address: Thurwiesenstrasse 16, 8037 Zurich, Switzerland.
Tel.: +41 44 350 63 17.
E-mail address: andreas.lardos@swissonline.ch.
sical Greek medicine became increasingly lost in the Latin West,
it survived in the Byzantium. However, due to the perception of
Byzantine Christianity, which considered the ancient medicinal
scriptures as dogmas of faith that consequently impeded any
alterations, Byzantine medicine was of a conservative nature
(Fronimopoulos and Lascaratos, 1988; Petrucelli, 1994).
During the times of the Ottoman Empire, many important
Greek Orthodox monasteries featured well-organized hospi-
tals of the Byzantine tradition. These hospitals were run by
physicians who used pharmacists employed to gather medici-
nal plants and prepare remedies, originating from both classical
Greek and popular medicinal practice (Littlewood et al., 2002;
Varella, 1999). On the Eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus,
monasteries played an important role in the conservation and
tradition of knowledge of medicinal plants. The only extensive
record of local origin in this respect is the Iatrosophikon (“iatr-
”, medicine-/healing-; “sophia”, wisdom), which is a monastic
scripture from the Ottoman period on the island (1571–1878).
This manuscript contains prescriptions that were compiled and
written down in 1849 by the monk Mitrophanous (1790–1867)
at the Greek Orthodox monastery of Makhairas in Cyprus. The
monastery lies in the eastern Troodos massif at 884 m above sea
level and 37 km south-west of the capital Nicosia and is still in

0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.12.035
388 A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406
operation today. According to the Byzantine foundation docu-
ments, it was founded by a Palestinian monk from Jordan in the
middle of the 12th century and became a bishop’s residence a
few decades later (Constantinides et al., 2000).
Although the Iatrosophikon is known by local specialists and
is quoted in the relevant literature about the area, no detailed
investigation has been published so far. Therefore, it was the
aim of the present study to systematically review the botani-
cal material contained within the Iatrosophikon to elucidate its
identity and use. In addition, the historical background and the
origin of this herbal knowledge has been addressed.
2. Methodology
2.1. Approach of the text
The original manuscript of the Iatrosophikon is stored in the
archives of the library at the Makhairas monastery and is usually
not accessible to the public. Therefore, an identical transcription
in print, which was written by monk Filaretos of the Makhairas
monastery in 1924, was used as the primary tool (Filaretos,
1924–1925). However, to rule out the taking over of transcrip-
tion errors, the collected data were verified with the original
manuscript, which could be studied at the monastery with the
permission of the monastic community.
2.2. Identification of the botanical material mentioned in
the “Iatrosophikon”
Each prescription mentioned in the record was numbered and
those containing botanical material were included in this study.
The name of the drug including – if available – the plant part
used, as well as the use of the corresponding prescription and the
mode of application, were recorded in a database. The identifi-
cation of a drug was carried out by comparing the corresponding
drug name mentioned in the record with the following literature:
(i) “Explanatory Table to the Iatrosophikon of Makhairas”–an
etymological glossary quoting most of the drugs mentioned
in the Iatrosophikon (Myrianthopoulos, 1925).
(ii) Old and recent Cypriot–Greek and Greek etymologi-
cal encyclopaedias and dictionaries containing data on
botanical drugs (Gennadius, 1914; Hadjiioannou, 2000;
Papangellou, 2001).
(iii) Old (Chrysanthis, 1942) and recent (various publications,
journal/newspaper articles) popular literature references on
local herbal medicine (complete literature list available
from the author).
(iv) Recent scientific, popular technical and official refer-
ences: (a) for drugs derived from local taxa, ethnob-
otanical and ethnopharmaceutical references on Cyprus
quoting vernacular names (Cypriot–Greek and standard
Greek or Cypriot–Turkish and standard Turkish, respec-
tively), along with scientific names, were used (Arnold-
Apostolides, 1985; Della, 1995; Georgiades, 1987/1992;
Kyprianou, 2000, 2001; Savvides, 2000; Tsintides et al.,
2002; Viney, 1994; Zanettou-Panteli, 1998, 2000); (b) for
drugs derived from exotic taxa, references quoting ver-
nacular names, along with scientific names, were used
(Afifi and Abu-Irmaileh, 2000; Blaschek et al., 1998;
Ghazanfar, 1994; Greek Food and Drink Codex/Kodikas
Trofimon Kai Poton, 1988 (edition 1993); Hanlidou et al.,
2004; Hänsel et al., 1992–1994; Turkish Food Codex/Türk
Gıda Kodeksi, 1997 (edition 2005)). As complementary
references the ancient treatise of Disocorides (Berendes,
1988/1992; Mazal, 1999), as well as studies from neigh-
bouring regions quoting vernacular plant names in Greek
or Turkish, respectively, were consulted (Akçin et al., 2004;
Ertuğ, 2000, 2004; Hanlidou et al., 2004; Sezik et al., 2001).
The name of the drug was first checked with the references
under (i) and (ii) and any information relevant for the subsequent
assignment to a botanical taxon was collected. The references
under (iv) were considered most reliable. Therefore, identifica-
tion and verification was primarily done using these references.
The references under (iii) were used as a supplementary source
for verification in the first line and only in the case of a lack of
other references were they used as a main source for identifica-
tion. The reliability of all the used sources was cross-checked.
The distribution status of local plants was checked with the
Flora of Cyprus (Meikle, 1977/1985) and the origin of exotic
plants with major pharmacognostic references (Blaschek et al.,
1998; Hänsel et al., 1992–1994; Wichtl, 2002).
2.3. Relationship to the “materia medica” of Dioscorides
The relationship of a plant to the materia medica of
Dioscorides was analysed by consulting the following editions:
Codex Neapolitanus–Codex medicus Graecus I (Berendes,
1988/1992) and Codex Constantinopolitanus (Vienna Diosc-
orides)–Codex medicus Graecus I (Mazal, 1999).
2.4. Interviews
Interviews based on the subject of the Iatrosophikon were
conducted with members of the monastic community during
two visits to the Makhairas monastery. The purpose of these
interviews was to gather information on the background and the
origin of the record and on the role of the monastery in herbal
drugs and medicine.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Content, structure and language of the
“Iatrosophikon”
There are a total of 671 prescriptions listed in the record:
494 contain botanical material, 177 exclusively mineral and/or
animal material (the investigation of material of non-botanical
origin lies outside of the scope of this study). Within the record
the prescriptions are arranged according to the part of the body
or according to the ailments that they are used for. At the end
of the record, there is a chapter containing prescriptions of non-
medicinal use, such as cosmetics, colourings and incense. The
 A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406
structure of a prescription usually follows the same pattern: the
headline giving the use or the ailment to be cured, followed
by a text or a table listing the ingredients with the correspond-
ing amounts. The second part of the prescription describes the
method of preparation and the mode of application. The lan-
guage used is the Greek popular speech of that time, with a
strong influence from the Cypriot–Greek dialect.
3.2. The botanical material in the “Iatrosophikon”
All botanical material traced in the record is presented in
Appendices A and B. Appendix A is arranged according to plants
and Appendix B contains miscellaneous drugs. A total of 231
taxa (Appendix A: 228; Appendix B: 3) (species, subsp., var.,
undefined species) were identified.
In Appendix A, Angiospermae, Gymnospermae and Pteri-
dophyta belonging to 70 different families are listed. The best-
represented families in relation to the total number of taxa are
Labiatae (18 taxa; 7.8%), Compositae (16 taxa; 7.0%), Legumi-
nosae (15 taxa; 6.5%), Rosaceae (12 taxa; 5.2%), Liliaceae (11
taxa; 4.8%), Graminae (4.3%) and Umbelliferae (9 taxa; 3.9%).
In Appendix B, 21 miscellaneous drugs are listed. Among
these are products obtained by further processing of certain plant
parts (e.g., wines and spirits) but also mixtures, such as the-
riac. Theriac was an important multi-ingredient preparation from
antiquity until modern times. Initially designed as an antidote to
all known poisons it became a universal panacea containing more
than 50 ingredients including various mineral, herbal and even
animal drugs (Parojcic et al., 2003). There are also drugs, which
could not be assigned to one defined taxon as different sources
are possible (flower water, gum resin, manna, spirits of turpen-
tine, tar/pitch) or such that are of unclear origin (amber, soot).
In the record, drug names are usually given in their
Cypriot–Greek form. Many of the names are derived from
Turkish or Arabic but also from Romance languages or are
directly given in one of these languages (Appendices A and
B, superscripts “c1, c2, d1, d2”). Cypriot–Greek has always
been receptive to influences of foreign languages, the cultures
of which came in contact with the island (Hadjiioannou, 2000;
Papangellou, 2001). Some of the drug names listed in Appendix
A are similarly applicable to two or more taxa (same or differ-
ent genus). These cases refer to morphologically related taxa
within the same genus (e.g., “trisakida” for Centaurea spp., or
“moloha” for Malva spp.) but also between different genus (e.g.,
“periplokadin” for Convolvulus spp. and Calystegia sepium).
This shows that in certain cases plants of similar habit were not
distinguished, and it can be concluded from this that they were
used as equivalent substitutes for the same indication. This is
also confirmed by the results of an ethnopharmacological study
on local herbs (Arnold-Apostolides, 1985). Moreover, it was
found that the plant source of a drug can change in the course
of time, whereas the name of the drug remains unchanged (e.g.,
Cyprus turpentine, “trimintina”, from Pistacia terebinthus or
sugar, “zaharin”, from Saccharum officinarum) (cf. Appendix
A, superscripts “n” and “o”). The influence of the time factor on
the botanical identity of the plant source is of particular impor-
tance in the analysis of historical data such as the present study.
389
The greater part of the taxa cited in Appendix A have a rela-
tionship to the plants mentioned by Dioscorides; in 154 of the
cases (67.5%) the species is identical and in 32 of the cases
(14.1%) the genus is identical but the species is different. Only
in 42 of the cases (18.4%) there is no relationship to any plant
mentioned in this reference. This suggests an influence of the
ancient materia medica on the choice of drugs mentioned in
the Iatrosophikon (cf. Section 3.4). A considerable share of
Dioscorides plants in the herbal inventory is also reported from
ethnobotanical studies in Greece (Hanlidou et al., 2004).
The majority (200; 86.6%) of all the taxa can be found in
Cyprus; most of them are wild growing, either as indigenous,
adventive or escapes from cultivation (142 taxa; 61.5%) or as
endemics (7 taxa; 3.0%), others are found only planted (51 taxa;
22.1%). Only 31 taxa (13.4%) are exotic (Appendices A and B).
The high percentage of local taxa corresponds to findings of an
extensive ethnopharmacological research conducted by Arnold-
Apostolides (1985), in which 830 of the approximately 2000 taxa
of the local flora were categorized as medicinal plants used in
the 1980s. This wealth of the medicinal herbs may be explained
by the island’s geographical position at the junction of three con-
tinents, as well as its topographical diversity that creates various
microclimatic zones. The fact that all the mentioned taxa of local
origin are cited in the above-mentioned study or in other modern
publications on local herbal medicine (Georgiades, 1987/1992;
Kyprianou, 2000, 2001; Savvides, 2000; Zanettou-Panteli, 1998,
2000), allows to draw the conclusion that they have been in con-
tinuous use on the island over the period of the last two centuries.
Whole aerial parts or flowers, fruits, leaves and roots are the
most frequently recorded plant parts to be used. Specific plant
parts (e.g., petals, stigmas) or plant tissues (e.g., fruit skin, root
bark) but also products of plant metabolism (e.g., gums, resins
or balms) or products obtained by processing of certain plant
parts (e.g., distillates, essential oils) are recorded for other cases.
Nineteen different cases where the part to be used was referred
to by a commercial name, most of them gums, resins and balms
(e.g., benzoin, ladanum, olibanum), were mentioned (Appendix
A). In many prescriptions, however, the part to be used was not
specified. It can be assumed, therefore, that it was clear to the
adept, which part had to be used in these cases.
Most of the drugs were applied externally (topical applica-
tions or baths) and/or orally. In some cases, the drug’s scent (e.g.,
essential oils) or fume (e.g., resins) was applied by inhaling,
air-conditioning or exposing the part of the body to be treated
(Appendices A and B).
Given the extensive number of different indications men-
tioned in the record, some of them had to be summarized
into categories according to indication range (e.g., rheumatic
conditions) or disorder of the corresponding apparatus (e.g.,
urinary-tract disorders). Categories comprising different indi-
cations were subgrouped. As far as possible, indications are
reported as quoted in the record. Most of them are clear or can be
translated into medical terminology, a few, however, appear odd
and seem to be connected to diseases or infections difficult to
define (e.g., fever accompanied by fainting and coated tongue,
laboured breathing, paralysis, worms in the ear). The indications
refer to different organs or body parts, to acute (e.g., common
390 A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406
cold) or chronic diseases (e.g., asthma) and to bacterial infec-
tions (e.g., leprosy, malaria) or parasites (e.g., leeches, worms).
Some deal with injuries (e.g., burns, cuts, wounds) or animal
bites/stings, others aim at health maintenance, prophylaxis or
convalescence. A few of the prescriptions are not intended for
use in man but describe the manufacturing of incense or colour-
ing for painting. As the results in Appendices A and B show
most of the botanical material is used in combination with other
drugs. Mixtures of different ingredients are common in herbal
medicine and are also reported from other monastic prescrip-
tions (Piendl, 2001).
The most cited species of local origin are Ruta chalepen-
sis (35×), Vitis vinifera (23×), Allium sativum (21×), Laurus
nobilis (20×), Allium cepa (18×), Artemisia arborescens (18×),
Ficus carica (16×), Mentha spicata (16×) and Punica grana-
tum (16×). Plants that played an important role as a source for
the manufacturing of various products were Rosa damascena
(e.g. distillate, essential oil) and Vitis vinifera (e.g. wine, vine-
gar) (Appendices A and B). These plants and products thereof
are reported as being among the most important herbal drugs in
today’s traditional medicine of the island (Arnold-Apostolides,
1985; Kyprianou, 2000; Zanettou-Panteli, 2000). On the other
hand, the most cited clearly defined botanical drug is mas-
tic (34×) from Pistacia lentiscus followed by anise seed from
Pimpinella anisum, olibanum from Boswellia sacra, cinnamon
from Cinnamomum zeylanicum and cloves from Syzygium aro-
maticum (each 19×), cumin seed from Cuminum cyminum, olive
oil from Olea europaea, resin from Pinus spp., Rhubarb root
from Rheum spp. and sugar from Saccharum officinarum (each
16×). Mastic, anise and cumin seed as well as olive oil and
rhubarb root are widely used in the popular medicine of the
neighbouring al-Sham/Levant but are also reported from Greece
(Hanlidou et al., 2004; Lev and Amar, 2000, 2002; Said et al.,
2002). Olibanum, cinnamon and cloves are exotic substances
that are well-established in local herbal medicine (Arnold-
Apostolides, 1985). This suggests that the island must have been
well connected to the corresponding trading routes, which enable
them to secure a constant availability of these materials.
The number of plants used for a particular range of indi-
cations provides a certain insight into the frequency of the
related diseases; the following therapeutic categories seem to be
of particular importance: respiratory tract diseases (RS)—122
plants (52.8%); skin diseases (SK)—83 plants (35.9%); gastro-
intestinal tract disorders (GI)—70 plants (30.3%); wounds
(WO)—49 plants (21.1%). These indications are related to living
conditions, work and climate of the time; some of them include
infectious diseases and may be linked to poor hygiene. They
all seem typical for a population group living in a rural envi-
ronment. The area around the Makhairas monastery is a remote
mountain region, still today the economy of the local villages
is based on agriculture. Many of the people seeking help at the
monastery must have been farmers coming from this area.
3.3. Reliability of the found identification
The identification of the drug names mentioned in the record
was carried out according to the procedure described under Sec-
tion 2.2. The great majority of the names were identified and
verified by two or more scientific, popular technical or offi-
cial references of recent time (cf. Section 2.2 (iv)). In 12 cases
(Appendix A, superscript “a”) the plant name could be identified
by only one of the latter, not allowing a cross-check verification
with comparable references. Ten cases (eight plant names and
two plant part names) (Appendix A, superscript “b”) could be
identified only by etymological and/or popular literature refer-
ences (cf. Section 2.2 (i–iii)). They can be assigned to one or
more of the following problems: (1) the name is old and hardly
used today; (2) the name is a regional idiom; (3) the name is
foreign. In these cases, therefore, the identity established for a
respective name is less sure. Difficulties with the identification
of drug names are also reported from other studies dealing with
historical data (Lev and Amar, 2000; Moussaieff et al., 2005;
Vokou et al., 1993).
3.4. The role of the Makhairas monastery in traditional
medicine and the cultural-historical background of the
knowledge described in the “Iatrosophikon”
Until the first half of the 20th century, the Makhairas
monastery was an important medical centre. It provided medic-
inal preparations, advice and care as one of its main features,
especially for the inhabitants of the villages in this part of the
island. With the loss of the monastery’s medical role due to the
introduction of a modern healthcare system and the spread of
allopathic medicine, the use of the knowledge that is described
in the record had come to an end.
Today, no other literature on herbal medicine that could
have influenced the Iatrosophikon can be found in the library
of the Makhairas monastery. A devastating fire struck in 1892
destroying a large part of the monastery’s original buildings
(Constantinides et al., 2000). Although it is unknown to what
extent this fire has affected the library, it cannot be excluded
that relevant literature has been lost.
Detailed information, which could shed light on the origin
of the prescriptions that are contained in the Iatrosophikon, has
not been handed down. However, to approach the question of the
historical background of this record, it should be put in relation to
other medical literature of the Greek-speaking Ottoman world. A
profound influence of classical Greek and Byzantine heritage is
well known for numerous manuscripts and medical books of the
Ottoman period in Greece. The evaluation of these sources has
revealed that the greatest part of them consisted of iatrosophia.
The iatrosophia, initially a product of hospital medicine of the
Byzantine Empire, were compiled manuals for practical use that
kept being enlarged (Varella, 1999). They contained identical or
modified copies of classical Greek or Byzantine texts, as well as
prescriptions of folk medicinal origin and the author’s personal
experience (Karamperopoulos, 2004; Varella, 1993; Vokou et
al., 1993). Several parallels to this kind of medical writings can
be found in the Iatrosophikon:
(i) In some prescriptions popular-healers and classical Greek
or Byzantine authors, such as Aetios, Dioscorides, Galen
and Mithridates are mentioned as sources.
 A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406
(ii) The majority of the plants cited have a relationship to the
plants mentioned by Dioscorides (cf. Section 3.2).
(iii) The role of the record as a practical tool is emphasized by
the author Mitrophanous, who stated that the Iatrosophikon
was designed for the practitioners within the monastic com-
munity to help other monks or any sick person calling at
the monastery.
These findings also support the view of the monks of
the Makhairas monastery, which believe that different sources
have provided the basis for the knowledge described in the
Iatrosophikon: (i) old, handed-down prescriptions once kept
in the Makhairas monastery; (ii) practical experience gathered
by the practitioners of the monastic community; (iii) various
external sources, such as folk-healers, other monasteries and
literature.
Based on this, it seems reasonable to understand this record
as representative of the iatrosophia. In Greece, these compila-
tions maintained their fundamental position during the whole
Ottoman period. In some monasteries, they were updated with
new prescriptions until the first half of the 20th century (Varella,
1999). Considering this, the late that date the Iatrosophikon was
written down (1849) becomes more comprehensible. Moreover,
it can be concluded that, especially in rural areas, the monaster-
ies in the mid-19th century could still retain their position in the
island’s health-care system.
The nature of medical writings of the kinds of the iatrosophia
suggest a popular as well as a classical Greek and Byzantine
influence. The question remains of what other sources have
influenced the Iatrosophikon. Data analysis of the results in
Appendix A has revealed that 42 plants are not mentioned by
Dioscorides (cf. Section 3.2). This suggests that many of them
were not in use in classical Greek medicine. Among these are
important crops, such as representatives from the Citrus fam-
ily or plants that were cultivated earlier such as Gossypium
herbaceum and Saccharum officinarum. Numerous exotics also
belong to this group: Cinnamomum camphora, Coffea arabica,
Commiphora opobalsamum, Liquidambar orientalis, Myristica
fragrans, Piper cubeba, Senna alexandrina, Styrax benzoin,
Syzygium aromaticum and Tamarindus indica. Most of them are
considered to have become established in the traditional medic-
inal system of the al-Sham/Levant in the course of the spread of
Muslim medicine and still belong to the herbal inventory of Mid-
dle Eastern countries (Ghazanfar, 1994; Lev and Amar, 2000;
Lev, 2002; Lev and Amar, 2002). Unknown in classical Greek
medicine were also those of the exotic taxa which originated
from the New World. Of these, Cinchona pubescens, Croton
eluteria, Pimenta dioica, and Smilax medica are mentioned here
for the first time as being used in traditional medicine of Cyprus.
It should be noted that 10 of the above-mentioned exotics are
referred to by a Turkish or Arabic name or by a local name
not related to the Greek standard but directly derived from one
of these languages. Another two are referred to in a foreign
name related to a Romance language. The origin of the name
allows us to draw conclusions regarding the trading routes of
the corresponding material. Therefore, it can be assumed that
the majority of the above-mentioned exotics must have been
391
introduced into the local herbal inventory when these languages
were prevailing in the region’s trade. Myrianthopoulos (1925)
writes that the exotic substances mentioned in the Iatrosophikon
were mainly imported from Syria and Egypt and that they could
be bought from the akhtarides (druggists). The akhtarides (Turk.
aktarcı) were found in all cities of the Ottoman Empire, they pur-
veyed herbal remedies and products but also dispensed advice
of various kinds (Murphey, 1992). The results also suggest, that
not only material obtained from exotic taxa, but also materi-
als that actually could be obtained from the native flora, were
imported from abroad. This can be recognized by the Turkish
names that are used for corresponding materials (e.g. karapash
yaghi – lavendar oil from Lavandula stoechas or neft yaghi –
spirits of turpentine from Pinus spp.). Presumably these drugs
were also provided by the akhtarides, and their Turkish names
suggest that they were imported from Anatolia or other parts of
the Ottoman Empire.
Even though some of the drugs described in the Iatrosophikon
had to be imported, already Myrianthopoulos (1925) stated, that
most of them could be obtained from plants growing in Cyprus.
This is supported by the analysis of the distribution of the plants,
which reveals that the great majority of them can be found in
Cyprus (cf. Section 3.2). It is notable that many of these local
taxa are also reported to be used medicinally in neighbouring
regions, such as south-western and central Anatolia and the al-
Sham/Levant (Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2000; Ertuğ, 2000; Honda et
al., 1996; Said et al., 2002; Sezik et al., 2001; Yeşilada et al.,
1993). This congruence in the herbal inventory can be attributed
to comparable climatic and environmental conditions, but may
also be understood as evidence for the culture linkage between
Cyprus and its neighbouring regions.
4. Conclusion and outlook
The analysis of the herbal prescriptions mentioned in the
Iatrosophikon of the Makhairas monastery has led to an insight
into the nature of the botanical material contained in this record
and its use in the traditional medicine of Cyprus. The results
allow an analysis of a large part of the herbal medicine in
use during the Ottoman period on Cyprus (1571–1878). Given
the fact that the Iatrosophikon is particularly related to the
Greek–Cypriot tradition of the island, it would be interesting
to compare corresponding data from Turkish–Cypriot sources.
A detailed comparison of the content of this record with classical
Greek, Byzantine and local popular medicinal but also Ottoman
and European references will allow a deeper insight into the
origin of this medical knowledge.
In a continuation of this work, a critical evaluation of the pre-
scriptions with respect to not only their scientific plausibility, but
also regarding the way of preparation, needs to be undertaken. In
doing so, new ranges of indication and synergistic mechanisms
of herbal mixtures, which have not been recognized until now,
might be detected.
Although the present study considers only the botanical
material contained in the record, the Iatrosophikon consti-
tutes a significant document of its time in terms of medical
history, ethnopharmaceutical and ethnobotanical aspects–not
 study the original manuscript of the Iatrosophikon.
the Makhairas monastery for their help and the possibility to

Acknowledgement

area.
only for Cyprus, but also for the whole Eastern Mediterranean

392
The author would like to thank the monastic community of

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

Appendix A
The botanical materia medica of the Iatrosophikon—the plants
Scientific name Family Common name Dioscorides Distribution Name according to Part used Application Indication Citation
Iatrosophikon

Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Leguminosae Gum Arabic tree + x kommi aravikon Gma (rs) n CO 3
Acorus calamus L. Araceae Calamus + x eghric2 , kalamos rt o GI 7; HP; HR 1
aromatikos
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adiantaceae Venus maidenhair + w skorpidkia (pl.) lf e RS 2; SK 3,9; WO 3
Aeonium arboreum (L.) Webb et Crassulaceae Tree-like houseleek + w amarantona lf, ts e EA 1; EY 2; HA; SK 3 4
Berthel.
Alkanna tinctoria Tausch Boraginaceae Alkanet + w havachouac1 rt e CM 4; SK 5 1
Allium cepa L. Liliaceae Onion + p krommidin bl e, o CM 3; CV; EA 1; FV; GI 18
3; LP; MS; PR; RP; SB;
SK 3,8,10; VD 2
Allium porrum L. Liliaceae Leek + p kouraththesc1 igoun ap, fl, lf, rt, sd e, o CV; EA 1; EY 4; HG; 12
prasa (pl.) HR; IL; IS; MS; PA 4
Allium sativum L. Liliaceae Garlic + p skordo bl, lf e, o CV; FV; GI 8; IS; MT 3; 21
PA 4; PR; PS; RD; RP;
RS 2; SB; SK 2,6,7,10;
TP 4
Alnus orientalis Decne. Betulaceae Oriental alder − w sklidros lf, tw e RS 2 2
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Liliaceae Bitter aloe + w aloin Alo (sl) e, o AL; CL; CU; EA 5; EY 11
2,10; FG; GI 1,2,4,5,8; HA;
JD; LX; PR; PS; RS 2,3,5,6;
SC; SK 4,7,9; VD 3
aloin igoun asvain Als (so) e, o EY 5; GI 4; SK 8; WO 6
Anchusa azurea Mill., and spp. Boraginaceae Italian alkanet + w voudoglossa rt e CU; WO 1
Apium graveolens L. Umbelliferae Celery + w sellino ap, sd o BB; CL; GI 6; PR 3
Apium nodiflorum (L.) Lag. Umbelliferae Fool’s water cress − w agriosellino lf e SK 3 1
Arbutus andrachne L. Ericaceae East. strawberry tree + w antrouklia fr, lf, tw e, o HG; RS 2 2
Aristolochia sempervirens L., Aristolochiaceae Birthwort + w aristolokhia lf, rt e, o EA 5; EY 2,10; HA; MS; 3
and spp. RS 2,5,6; SC; WO
Artemisia absinthium L. Compositae Common wormwood + x artemisia, avrotanon, ap, rt e, o HR; RP 2
(pilinos)
Artemisia arborescens L. Compositae Tree wormwood + w apsithkia, apsinthion, ap, fl, rt, sd, ts e, o AL; DR; EA 5,6; GI 4,7; 18

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

ghenia, tou gherou HA; HR; IL; PS; RP; RS
2,3; SK 10; WO
Artemisia dracunculus L. Compositae Tarragon − (p) trahourina ap o GI 6 1
Arum dioscoridis Sibth. et Sm., Araceae Lords and ladies (+) w drakontia, loufatos, lf, tb e, o GI 4,5; HR; MB; RP; RS 13
and spp. papoutsa aloupou 2,3; SK 3,9,10; VD 3; WO
Arundo donax L. Graminae Giant reed + w kalamos ap, lf, rt e, o, s EY 3,5; PR; RS 2; SK 2,3; 7
UT 3
Asparagus acutifolius L., and Liliaceae Wild Asparagus + w agrellia, sparangia rt, ts e, o CV; TP 4; UT 3 3
Asparagus stipularis Forssk. Wild asparagus (+) w igoun agrellia (pl.)
Asphodelus aestivus Brot.f Liliaceae Asphodel (+) w agrioskyllokrommida, rt, tb e, o CM 3; HA; SK 6,9; TP 4 5
skyllokrommida, (asfodelos)
tsirishinc1 Arp (rt) o VD 1
Asplenium ceterach L. Aspleniaceae Common spleenwort + w asplinon, imionitis, lf e, o RS 2; SK 2,3,9; SP; WO 4
skolopendrion,
skorpidkia (pl.)
Beta vulgaris subsp. cicla (L.) Chenopodiaceae Leaf beet + p lahanon lf e SK 1 1
Alef.
Boswellia sacra Flueck. Burseraceae Frankincense tree + x livanos arsenikos Olb (rs) e, o, f CM 4; FV; GI 3,5,7,8; HP; 19
HR; IN; PA 2,4; RS 3; SK
5,8,10; TP 3; VD 1,3; WO
Brassica nigra (L.) Koch Cruciferae Black mustard + w sinappin sd e, o HG; MB; PS 3
Brassica oleracea var. capitata Cruciferae Cabbage + p kramvin lf, rt, sd e, o, f CM 2; CV; GI 6; PA 2,4; 9
(L.) Alef. PS; RD; RS 2; SK 1
Calamintha incana (Sm.) Boiss. Labiatae Calamint (+) w agriovasilikia fh, lf e RS 2 1
ex Benth.
Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi Labiatae Calamint + p kalaminthia fh, lf e RS 2 1
Calycotome villosa (Poir.) Link Leguminosae Spiny broom + w aspalathos igoun lf e RS 2; SK 1 2
spalathkia
Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br. Convolvulaceae Bindweed + w periplokadin fh e RS 2 1
Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae Hemp + w kannavurin rt e CM 3 1
Capparis spinosa L. Capparaceae Caper + w kapparka ap, rt e EA 6; SK 8; TP 4 4
Capsicum annuum L. Longum Solanaceae Hot pepper − p piperka kapsera (pl.) fr e RS 3 1
group

393
 394
Appendix A (Continued )

Scientific name Family Common name Dioscorides Distribution Name according to Part used Application Indication Citation
Iatrosophikon

Cardopatium corymbosum (L.) Compositae Black chameleon + w pyrethron, opyron rt e MT 1 1

Pers.
Cassia acutifolia Delile Leguminosae Alexandrian senna − x synamikic1 , fr, lf e, o AL; CL; EA 5; EY 2,10; 7
sinamikkinc1 FV; HA; GI 2,4; RD; RS
2,3,5,6; SC
Castanea sativa Mill. Fagaceae Sweet chestnut + p kastana (pl.) fr e MB 1
Cedrus libani A. Rich subsp. Pinaceae Cyprus cedar − e kedros sd o HR 1
brevifolia (Hook.f.) Meikle
Centaurea aegialophila Compositae Knapweed − w kalangkaththin rt e SK 6; WO 3
Wagenitz
Centaurea hyalolepis Boiss., and Compositae Star thistle − w trisakida ap, lf e RS 2 1

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

spp.
Centaurium erythraea Rafn Gentianaceae Common centaury + w kentavrion, fh, fl, rt e, o CU; PS; RP 3
subsp. rhodense (Boiss. et t’agiannitou
Reuter) Melderis
Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) Rubiaceae Ipecac − x ipekakouanad2 rt o BA 1
A. Rich.e
Ceratonia siliqua L. Leguminosae Carob + w teratshia fr o HG; RS 3 2
Cicer arietinum L. Leguminosae Chick pea + w koudames, revinthin sd o GI 3; MB; MS; RS 4 5
Cichorium endivia L. Compositae Wild Endive + w antidia (pl.) lf o VD 3 1
Cichorium intybus L. Compositae Wild chicory + w radikia (pl.) lf, rt o LX 1
Cinchona pubescens Vahle Rubiaceae Red peruvian bark − x kinad2 bk o CL 1
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) T. Lauraceae Camphor tree − x kamfora Cmp (rs) e, o, s BA; PR; RD; RS 2; SK 4; 8
Nees and C.H. Eberm. WO
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume Lauraceae Ceylon cinnamon + x kanella bk e, o, f, s AL; BA; CL; DR; GI 4,8; 19
HA; HR; IN; PA; PR 4,5;
RS 2,3; SP; TR
efkaira je yemata (pl.)b fr o BA 1
anthi kanellas (pl.) fl s IN 1
kanelloladon es (lf) e, o, f AL; CU; FG; GI 1,8; IN; 5
JD
Cistus creticus L. var. creticus, Cistaceae Cretan rockrose + w xistaria fh, lf e RS 2 1
and
Cistus ladaniferus L. Gum cistus (+) w ladanos Ldn (rs) e, s CM 2; HR; PR; SK 9; WO 5
Cistus salvifolius L., and spp. Cistaceae Sage-leaved cistus + w xistaria fh, lf e RS 2 1
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Cucurbitaceae Bitter apple + w kolokynthidab , petran- fr, rt o EA 5; EY 2,10; HA; RS 2
Schrad. gouria 2,5,6; SC
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. Cucurbitaceae Water melon − p pattihac1 fr e MB 1
et Nakai
Citrus aurantium L. Rutaceae Bitter orange − p kitromilia fr, lf, sk e, o CM 2; EM; MT 3; RS 2,3; 6
TP 4
Citrus bergamia Risso Rutaceae Bergamot orange − p pergamonton es (sh) f IN 1
Citrus limetta Risso Rutaceae Sweet lime − p glykolemona (pl.) fr o RS 3 1
Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. Rutaceae Lemon − p lemonia fl, fr, lf, sd e, o EM; FV; HA; PS; RS 2; SK 13
8; UT 1
lemonoladon es (sh) f IN 1
Citrus medica L. Rutaceae Citron − p kitron sh o GI 4 1
Citrus sinensis Osbeck Rutaceae Sweet orange − p portokallin sh o GI 4 1
Coffea arabica L. Rubiaceae Coffee − x kafes sd o GI 3; RS 3 2
Commiphora myrrha Engl. Burseraceae Myrrh + x myrra Myr (rs) e, o, f, s AL; CU; EA 5; EY 2,10; 5
FG; GI 1,8; HA; IN; JD;
PR; RS 2,3,5,6; SC; SK 5
Commiphora opobalsamum Burseraceae Balsam tree − x valsamon tis Mekkas Blm (rs) e SK 2 1
Engl.
Convolvulus althaeoides L., and Convolvulaceae Mallow-lvd. bindweed + w periplokadin ap e RS 2 2
Convolvulus arvensis L. Field Bindweed + w
Convolvulus scammonia L. Convolvulaceae Scammony + x mahmoudiac1 Scm (sa) o AL; CL; GI 4; PR; RS 2,3 2
Corylus avellana L., et al spp. Corylaceae Common Hazel + w fintoukkia, lf, sh, tw e, o RS 2; VD 2
leptokarydia
Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae Saffron crocus + (p) krokos igoun st e, o FV; GI 1,4,7,8; HP; HR; 6
zafaranc2 MS; SK 5

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

Crocus veneris Tapp. ex Poech Iridaceae Aphrodite’s crocus (+) e krokos fl, st e, o, n AL; BA; CL; CO; CU; EA 11
and spp. 5; EY 2,10; FG; GI 8; HA;
JD; PR; RS 2,3,5,6; SC
Croton eluteria Benn.e Euphorbiaceae Cascarilla − x amber kabughib,c2 , bk e SK 5 1
kapnisman, tourkikonb
Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Cucurbitaceae Giant pumpkin + p kolokin kokkinon fr e WO 1
Cucurbita pepo L., et al spp. Cucurbitaceae Marrow, pumpkin + p kolokynthin, kolokin fr e, o HA; SK 10 2
Cuminum cyminum L. Umbelliferae Cumin + p artyshia, kyminon sd e, o CL; CV; EA 5; FF; FV; GI 16
4,5; PA 4; RD; RP; RS 3;
SK 10; TP 2; TR; VD 2,3
Cupressus sempervirens L. Cupressaceae Italian cypress + w kyparissin fr, tw e, o GI 3; SK 1; RS 2,3; TP 2,4 6
Cyclamen persicum Mill., and Primulaceae Persian violet (+) w kyklaminon ap, tb e CM 3; IL; SC; SK 1,10 7
spp.
Cydonia oblonga Mill. Rosaceae Quince + p kydonia frc, lf, tw e TP 4; RS 2 2
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Graminae Bermuda grass + w argasti ap, rt e, o GI 7; HR; RS 2; UT 2,3; 4
VD 1
Daucus carota L. Umbelliferae Carrot + w dafkin, stafylinos lf, rt e, o SK 9; UT 3; VD 1; WO 3
Delphinium peregrinum L. Ranunculaceae Larkspur + w kalogherakib fl e CU; WO 1
Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Cucurbitaceae Squirting cucumber + w agriangourka, ap, fr, rt e, o, f AL; GI 4; JD; PS; RD; RP; 7
Rich. agriangouron RS 2,3; SK 9
Elettaria cardamomum Maton Zingiberaceae Chester cardamom + x kakkoullac1 , (kardamomon) fr e, o, s BA; EA 4; GI 1,4; PA 4; 4
PR
Euphorbia helioscopia L., and Euphorbiaceae Sun spurge + w galatzida ap, rt o UT 3; VD 1 1
spp.
Ferula gummosa Boiss. Umbelliferae Galbanum + x halvani, mavron kapnisman Glb (rs) e, o IA; PA 4 2
Ficus carica L. Moraceae Common Fig + w sykia fr, lf, mj, rt e, o CM 1; CV; DR; IS; PA 16
3; PS; RS 1,2,3,4; SB; SK
6,8; WO
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Umbelliferae Fennel + w marathos ap, rt, sd e, o CL; CV; EY 2,7; HR; GI 14
4,8; LP; MB; MS; PR; RD;
RS 2,3
Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl., and Oleaceae Narrow-leaved ash (+) p fraxinos lf, rt e, o PS; RP 2
spp.
Fumaria officinalis L., and spp. Papaveraceae Common fumitory + w kapnohortin igoun sahteric1 fh o MT 3 1
Gentiana lutea L. Gentianaceae Yellow gentian + x gentiani rt o CV 1

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Appendix A (Continued )
Scientific name Family Common name Dioscorides Distribution Name according to Part used Application Indication Citation
Iatrosophikon
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Leguminosae Liquorice + w glykorizon, ppiambalic1 rt o RS 1,3 4
Gossypium herbaceum L., et al Malvaceae Levant cotton − (p) vamvakia sd e, o GI 4; SK 2,10; WO 5
spp.
Hedera helix L. Araliaceae Common ivy + w kissos fr, lf e, o AS; EY 1; HA; RS 2; UT 1 5
Helleborus niger L. Ranunculaceae Christmas Rose + x skarfib rt o VD 3 1
Hippeastrum spp. Red cultivars Amaryllidaceae Red amaryllis − p krinos o kokkinosa rt o VD 1 1
Hordeum vulgare L. Graminae Barley + p kritharin sd e CU; GI 1; RD 3
Hypericum perforatum L. Guttiferae St. John’s wort + w soummakin, t’agiannitou fh, fl e CU; RS 2 2
Hypericum triquetrifolium Turra Guttiferae St. John’s wort + w psylitta, kaloiraki fh, fl e CU; RS 2; WO 2

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

Imperata arundinacea Cyrilli Graminae Cogongrass − w kalaminthib rt e RS 2 1
Inula viscosa (L.) Aiton Compositae False yellowhead + w konyzos ap, lf e CU; HS; LS; RS 2; WO 7
Iris florentina L. Iridaceae Orris + w krinosa , vourdoulishiaa,d1 fl, lf, rt e, o IL; MS; RD; SK 2,9 5
Iris germanica L., and spp. Iridaceae Tall bearded iris + w krinosa rt e, o IL; MS; SK 2,9 4
Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae Persian walnut + w karydia fl, fr, lf, sh e, o CV; EM; HG; MB; PR; 11
PS; RD; RS 2; SK 2,10
karideleon ol (sd) e, o EA 3; SK 5 3
Juniperus phoenicea L., and spp. Cupressaceae Phoenician juniper + w aoratos lf, ts e RS 2 1
Lactuca sativa L., and spp. Compositae Lettuce + p maroulia (pl.) lf, sd e, o EY 1; GI 6; LP; SK 3 3
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Cucurbitaceae Bottle gourd − p kolokynthin kreatos fr e PA 4 1
Standl. makria
Larix decidua Mill. Pinaceae European larch + x trimintina venetini Tpv (rs) o VD 3 1
Lathyrus ochrus DC. Leguminosae Cyprus vetch − w louvana sd e EY 10 1
Laurus nobilis L. Lauraceae Bay laurel + w dafni fr, lf, sd e, o BB; CV; EA 1; EM; GI 20
4,5; HM; IL; IS; MS; PA
4; RS 2,3; SK 1,2,7; TP 4;
VD 2,3; WO
dafnoladon es (fr) e FB; PA 2 2
Lavandula stoechas L. Labiatae French lavendar + w myrofora fl, fh e RS 2 1
karapash yaghi c2 es (fl) e RS 2 1
Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Henna + w shenna lf e RD; WO 2
Lens culinaris Medik. Leguminosae Lentil + w faki sd e SK 8 1
Lepidium sativum L. Cruciferae Garden cress + w kardamon ap, sd e, o HA; RS 3; SP 3
Lilium candidum L. Liliaceae White lilly + p krinos o asprosa , krinosa rt e, o IL; MS; SC; SK 2,9 5
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae Common flax + w linarosporon sd e FB; MA; PA 4; SK 10; 8
WO
Liquidambar orientalis Mill. Hamamelidaceae Oriental sweet gum − x bouhour yaghi b,c2 Slv (rs) e SK 1,7,8; WO 3
Liquidambar styraciflua L. Hamamelidaceae Sweet gum − p ladin tou kapnismatou Sam (rs) e SK 7 1
Malus domestica Borkh., and Rosaceae Apple + p milia, glykomila (pl.) fr, lf, tw e EY 10; RS 2,3 3
spp.
Malva sylvestris L., and spp. Malvaceae Common mallow + w moloha fh, lf e, o AS; CU; EM; FB; GI 1; 14
IS; PA 3; RS 1,2,4; SK
2,10; WO
Mandragora officinarum L. Solanaceae Mandrake + w kalanthroparin lf, rt e RS 2; SK 5; WO 3
Matthiola incana R. Br. Cruciferae Brompton stock + w aspri violletta rt e PA 2 1
(lefkoı̈on)a
Medicago sativa L., and spp. Leguminosae Alfalfa + p trifyllin ap r EY 3,7 1
Melilotus indicus (L.) All. Leguminosae Indian sweet clover (+) w nyhaki fh o GI 8 1
Melissa officinalis L. Labiatae Lemon balm + w melissovotano ap, lf e CU, WO 1
Mentha aquatica L. Labiatae Water mint + w vasilikodiosmosa ap, lf e EA 6; PY 2
Mentha longifolia Huds. subsp. Labiatae Horse mint (+) e potamogeitona ap, lf e HA; MB; RS 2 3
cyprica (Heinr. Braun) Harley
Mentha pulegium L. Labiatae Pennyroyal + w glyfonig ap, fh, lf e, o BB; GI 5,8; HA; RS 2,3; 8
TP 2,4; VD 3
Mentha spicata L. Labiatae Spearmint (+) w diosmin, dkiosmis, ap, lf e, o CV; EA 1; EY 7; GI 3,8; 16
idyosmos HA; HG; JD; LP; MB;
PR; RS 2; SK 1; UT 3;
VD 1
Mentha x piperita L. Labiatae Peppermint + p printzolosh ap, lf e HA 1

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

Mercurialis annua L. Euphorbiaceae Mercury + w skarolahanon ap e RD 1
Morus alba L. Moraceae White Mulberry + p sykaminia, vavatsinia lf, tw e BU; RS 2; TP 4 3
Morus nigra L. Moraceae Black mulberry + p sykaminia, vavatsinia, bk, fr, lf, tw e, o BU; CM 1; LX; RS 1,2 5
sykamouron mavron
Myristica fragrans Houtt. Myristicaceae Nutmeg − x moskhokaridon fr e, o, f, s AS; CL; GI 3,4,8; HR; 12
IN; LB; PR; TR
Myrtus communis L. Myrtaceae Myrtle + w mersini lf, sd, ts e CM 2; RS 2; SK 10; TP 6
2,4
Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae Oleander + w arodafna lf, rt e, o PS; RS 2; SK 8 3
Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae Tobacco − p nikotiani, kapnos lf e, o AS; CU; PA 2; RD; RS 2; 6
SK 4,8; WO
Nigella damascena L., and Ranunculaceae Love-in-a-mist (+) w mavrokokkon, sd e, o AL; CL; EA 6; EY 3; FV; 13
(melanthion) GI 4,5; HE; RS
Nigella sativa L. Black cumin + W 2,3; SK 4,8; TP 4; TR;
VD 3
Ocimum basilicum L. Labiatae Basil + p vasilijia, vasilikia, ap, lf, rt e, o EY 2; IS; PA 1; PS 5
vasilikos
Olea europea L. Oleaceae Cultivated olive + w elaia bk, fr, lf, tw e EA 4; RS 2; SK 8; TP 4; 6
WO
ladin ol (fr) e, o CM 4; CU; DR; HS; HR; 16
PS; RD; RS 3; SK 9,10;
SP; TP 2; WO
pissa elaias rs e LE; SK 2,8 3
Olea europea L.i Oleaceae Wild olive + w agrielaia bk, fr, lf, rw e, o SK 1,3,8; TP 4; WO 7
ladin agrioelaias ol (fr) e CM 2; HA; SK 8 3
Onopordum bracteatum Boiss. Compositae Cotton thistle − w asproangathosa rt e TP 4 1
et Heldr.
Origanum dubium Boiss. Labiatae Oregano (+) w rigani fh, lf e RS 2; TP 2 3
riganoladon es (fh) e, s PR
Origanum majorana L. var. Labiatae Marjoram + w manchourana ap, lf e, o DR; EY 9,10; RS 2; UT 4
majorana 3; VD 1
Origanum majorana L. var. Labiatae Cyprus marjoram + e sapsishia ap, lf e RS 2 1
tenuifolium Weston
Panicum miliaceum L. Graminae Millet + p kehrin sd e PA 1 1

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Appendix A (Continued )
Scientific name Family Common name Dioscorides Distribution Name according to Part used Application Indication Citation
Iatrosophikon
Papaver rhoeas L., et al spp. Papaveraceae Poppy + w argemonib ap, cp, fl e CU 2
Papaver somniferum L. subsp. Papaveraceae Opium poppy + w argemoni, haskashinc1 ap, cp, fl e CU 2
setigerum
DC. Corb.j afhioninc1 , afkioninc1 Opm (mj) e, o AL; BA; GI 3,4,7; HA; 13
HP; HR; PA 4; RS 2,3;
SK 3,6,8; TP 4
Paronychia argentea Lam. Caryophyllaceae Silver nailroot (+) w kalangkaththina ap, rt e SK 5; WO 3
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Umbelliferae Parsley + w makidonisin ap o UT 2 1
A.W. Hill
Phalaris brachystachys Link, Graminae Canarygrass + w skanniola sd o PS 1
and spp.
Phaseolus vulgaris L., and spp. Leguminosae Kidney bean + p fasoulin sd e MB 1

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

Phoenix dactylifera L. Palmae Date Palm + w foinijia (pl.) fr o GI 9 1
Phytolacca pruinosa Fenzl. Phytolacaceae Ink cap − w kirmizinc1 ap, fr, rt o BA; CL; GI 4; TR 3
Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr.e Myrtaceae Jamaica pepper − x yenibahar c2 fr o PA 1
Pimpinella anisum L. Umbelliferae Anise + w glykanissos sd e, o AL, AS, CL; CV; GI 4; 19
LB, LP; PA 4; PR; RS
2,3; SK 10; TP 4; TR; VD
2,3
ladin tou glykanissou ol (sd) e, o RS 3 2
Pimpinella saxifraga L. Umbelliferae Lesser burnet + x pinpinellad2 rt o PR 1
Pinus brutia Ten. Pinaceae Calabrian pine (+) w pefkos, dadin bk, rw, sp e HG; HS; RS 2,3; TP 4; 5
WO
pissa tou rs e BU; CU; EY 8; HS; PA 4; 16
pefkou/retsinin RD; SK 1,2,9; TP 2; WO
Pinus halepensis Mill.k Pinaceae Aleppo pine + p pefkos, dadin bk, rw, sp e HG; HS; RS 2,3; TP 4; 5
WO
Pinus nigra Arnold subsp. Pinaceae Black pine (+) w pefkos, dadin bk, rw, sp e HG; HS; RS 2,3; TP 4; 5
pallasiana WO
(Lamb.) Holmboe pissa tou pefkou/retsinin rs e BU; CU; EY 8; HS; PA 4; 16
RD; SK 1,2,9; TP 2; WO
Piper cubeba L. Piperaceae Tailed pepper − x kkepapienc1 fr o GI 7; HP; HR 1
Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae Pepper + x piperin fr e, o RS 3,4; TP 4 3
Pistacia atlantica Desf.l Anacardiaceae Terebinth tree + w trimithkia lf e RS 2 1
mastihin Mst (rs) o BB; TP 1 1
Pistacia lentiscus L.m Anacardiaceae Lentisk + w shinnos lf, rb e, o GI 3; RS 2; TR 4
mastihin Mst (rs) e, o, f AL; BA; BB; CL; CU; EA 34
5; EY 2,10; GI 2,3,4,7;
HA; HP; HR; HS; IN; PA
2; PR; RD; RS 2,3,5,6;
SC; SK 2,9; TP 1,3,4; WO
Pistacia terebinthus L.n Anacardiaceae Terebinth + w trimithkia lf e RS 2 1
trimintina Tpc (rs) e, o, f BU; CU; GI 3; HS; MB; 15
PA 3; RP; SK 5,9; UT 3;
VD 1; WO
Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae Ribwort (+) w pentanevron lf, sd e, o CU; EY 9; GI 3; PY; RS 7
2,3; WO
Platanus orientalis L. Platanaceae Oriental plane + w platanos fr, lf e BU; RS 2; TP 4 3
Polygonum aviculare L. Polygonaceae Knotweed + w poligonatos ap e, o GI 3; HG; RS 2 3
Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae Purslane + w antrakla, glystiridha ap e, o CV; HG; SK 1; WO 5
Prunus armeniaca L. Rosaceae Apricot + p khrysomilia lf, sd, tw e RS 2; SK 10 2
khrysomiloladhon ol (sd) e, o RS 1; SK 2,10 4
Prunus avium (L.) L. Rosaceae Cherry + w kerashia rs o RS 3 2
Prunus domestica L. Rosaceae Plum + p damaskinia lf, tw e RS 2 3
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb Rosaceae Almond + w athasha fr, lf, tw e, o CV; RS 2 2
var. dulcis athasoladon ol (sd) e, o CM 4; EA 3; EM; EY 3; 13
GI 9; PA 5; RD; RS 3;
SK 1,8,9; WO
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb Rosaceae Bitter almond + w athasha pikri fr, lf, tw e, o HA; RS 2 3
var. amara (DC.) Buchheim pikramygdalelaion ol (sd) e EA 1,3; UT 3 2

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

pissa tis athashias rs e SK 7 1
pikris
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch var. Rosaceae Peach + p rodakinia lf, sd, tw e, o GI 8; RS 2 2
persica
Punica granatum L. Punicaceae Pomegranate + w rodgia, rodin fl, fr, sd, sh e, o EA 1; EY 5,6,7; GI 3,8; 16
RS 1; SK 9; ST; TP 2,4;
WO
Pyrus communis L. Rosaceae Common pear + p appis lf, tw e RS 2 1
Quercus ilex L. Fagaceae Evergreen oak + p valanidia as e RD 3
Quercus infectoria Oliv. subsp. Fagaceae Aleppo oak (+) w drys as, bk, fl, sh, tw e, o HG; RD; RS 2 3
veneris (A. Kern.) Meikle
Ranunculus ficaria L. Ranunculaceae Lesser celandine + w korakohortonb lf o RS 1 1
Raphanus sativus L. Cruciferae Radish + w repanin rt, sd e, o CV; UT 2,3; EA 5 6
Rhamnus alaternus L. Rhamnaceae Evergreen buckthorn (+) w khrysoxylon as e CM 5 1
Rheum spp. Polygonaceae Rhubarb (+) (p) raventin rt o AL; BA; CL; EA 5; EM; 16
EY 2,10; GI 2,4,8; HA;
LX; RS 2,3,5,6; SC; SK
8; TR; VD 1,3
Rhus coriaria L. Anacardiaceae Tanner’s sumach + w roudin, soumakin fr, lf, sd e, o HG; RS 2 4
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Castor oil plant + w kourtounia bk, lf e RS 2 1
Rosa damascena Mill. Rosaceae Damask rose + p triantafyllia, fl, lf, pt, tw e, o CL; EY 9; GI 3,7; HG; 12
rodhofylla LX; PR; RS 2; SK 1; TP
2,3; WO
rodostamman ds (pt) e, o, s BU; CM 4; EY 10; FF; GI 11
8; HA; PR; SK 2
triantafylloladon es (pt) e, f HA; IN; SK 9,10; WO 9
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Labiatae Rosemary + w lasmarind1 lf, tw e, o EY 10; RS 2; SK 1; ST; 11
TP 4; UT 3; VD 1; WO
Rubus sanctus Schreb. Rosaceae Bramble (+) w vatos fr, lf, rt, ts, tw e, o EY 3,7; GI 7; HG; HR; 9
RS 2; SK 9; TP 4; UT 2
Rumex cristatus DC. and spp. Polygonaceae Greek dock (+) w agriolapathos, rt, sd e, o GI 3; TP 4 2
lapathos, xyniatos
Ruscus aculeatus L. Liliaceae Butcher’s broom + w pernarin lf, rb, ts e, o GI 7; HR; RS 2 2

399
 400
Appendix A (Continued )

Scientific name Family Common name Dioscorides Distribution Name according to Part used Application Indication Citation
Iatrosophikon

Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae Fringed rue (+) w piganos lf, rt, sd, ts e, o DR; EY 9; GI 1,3; IS; 35
HA; HM; MT 1,2; PA 1;
PO; PR; PS; RS 2,3; SB;
SK 6,7,10; TP 4
Saccharum officinarum L.o Graminae Sugar cane − (p) zaharin Sgr (sa) e, o, f EY 3,7,9; GI 8; FV; IN; 16
RS 1,3,4
Salix alba L. Salicaceae White willow + w adgia bk, lf, tw e, o RD; RS 2; TP2 5
Salvia fruticosa Mill., and Labiatae Three-lobed sage (+) w faskomilia, lf, ts e, o FV; GI 9; MA; MS; PR; 9
khahomilia RS 2,3; SU; WO
Salvia willeana (Holmboe) Troodos sage (+) E
Hedge

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

Sambucus nigra L. Caprifoliaceae Common elder + w akti, koufoxylia fl, lf, rt, sd e, o CL; DR; FV; HG; LP; 11
RD; RS 2,3; SK 3,10; TN
rodostamma tis aktis ds (fl) o TN 1
Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) Rosaceae Prickly burnet + w mazin fr e SK 2 1
Spach
Sesamum indicum L. Pedaliaceae Sesame + w sisamin sd o LB 1
samoladon ol (sd) o GI 8 1
Sideritis curvidens Stapf, and Labiatae Ironwort (+) w mpetonika fh o HM 1
spp.
Sinapis alba L. Cruciferae White mustard + w lapsana, sinappin sd e, o HG; MB; PS; SK 2 4
Sinapis arvensis L. Cruciferae Charlock (+) w lapsana sd e SK 2 1
Smilax aspera L. Liliaceae Rough bindweed + w zapparinac1 fr, rt, ts e, o RS 1; VD 3 2
Smilax medica Schltdl., and Liliaceae Sarsaparilla − x zapparinac1 rt e, o RS 1; VD 3 2
spp.e
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Compositae Spiny Sow thistle (+) w galatounaa ap, rt o UT 3; VD 1 1
Sonchus olearceus L. Compositae Sow thistle + w tzohhos, tzongkhos ap, rt e, o EY 7; GI 1,6; RD; RS 2; 7
SK 3
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Graminae Aleppo grass + w kalamangkra ap, rt e RS 2 1
Styrax benzoin Dryand. Styracaceae Benzoin − x pissa tou xylala Bnz (rs) e, o BB; EY 10; GI 4; RD; RS 10
2,3; SK 1,9; WO
Styrax officinalis L. Styracaceae Storax + w sterakia lf, tw e RS 2 1
Symphytum officinale L. Boraginaceae Common comfrey + p stekoulin lf, rt e SK 5 1
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. Myrtaceae Clove − x mouskokarfin fl e, o, s AL; BA; DR; GI 3,4; HA; 19
et L.M.Perry HP; MS; PA 4; PR; RS
1,2,3,4; TP 4
Tamarindus indica L. Leguminosae Tamarind − x temir hinti c2 fr e EY 9; SK 9; WO 2
Tamarix tetragyna Ehrenb., and Tamaricaceae Desert tamarisk (+) w merika tw e, o RS 2; SP 2
spp.
Tanacetum balsamita L. Compositae Alecoste − w varsana (pl.) fh, lf e RS 2 1
Taraxacum cyprium H. Lindb., Compositae Cyprus dandelion (+) w pikrallida ap, rt o AL; CV; GI 4; RS 2,3 2
and spp.
Teucrium micropodioides Rouy. Labiatae Germander (+) e miteres fs e RS 2 1
Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffm. Labiatae Conehead thyme (+) w throumpin ap e RS 2 1
Link.
Tragopogon sinuatus Avé-Lall. Compositae Goat’s beard + w kalakatsouna ap, rt o UT 3; VD 1 1
Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae Small caltrops + w trivolia (pl.) fr e, o RS 2; UT 3; VD 1 1
Trifolium arvense L., and spp. Leguminosae Field clover + w trifyllin ap e EY 3,7 1
Triticum aestivum L. Graminae Wheat + p sitarin sd e CM 4,5; EY 3; HS; SK 7
10; WO
Urginea maritima Baker f Liliaceae Sea squill + w skyllokrommida, bl e, o AL; BL; EA 1; EY 2; GI 6
skilla 1,2,4,5,6; HA; MT 1,2;
RD; RS 3,4; SB; SK 5;
SP; TP 1; UT 1,3,4; VD 1
Urtica pilulifera L. Urticaceae Roman nettle + w skniththa, tsiknitha ap, rt e PA 2; RS 2; TP 3,4 4
megali
Urtica urens L., and spp. Urticaceae Stinging nettle + w skniththa ap, rt e RS 2; TP 3,4 3
Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. Leguminosae Bitter vetch + w rovin sd e HG 1
Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek, Leguminosae Mung bean − p fasoulin sd e MB 1

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

and spp.
Viola odorata L. Violaceae Sweet violet + w dkioletta, vkioletta lf o AS 1
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae Vine + w kliman, stafilia (pl.), as, fr, lf, tw e, o, s CM 1; FB; FV; HA; MT 23
stafidkia (pl.) 3; PA 4; PR; RD; RS 1,3;
SK 1,2,9,10; WO
Zea mays L. Graminae Corn − p kalampohin, sg o GI 3 1
sitaropoulla
Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae Ginger + x zizimbrin rt e, o BA; CL; GI 4,7,8; HP; 13
HR; PA 4; RS 1,3; TP 2,4;
TR
a The identification of the drug name was carried out by only one scientific, popular technical or official reference (cf. Section 2.2 (iv)).
b The identification of the drug name was carried out only by etymological and/or popular literature references (cf. Section 2.2 (i–iii)).
c1 Name given in a local form not related to the Greek standard but directly derived from Turkish or Arabic, respectively.
c2 Name given in Turkish.
d1 Name given in a local form not related to the Greek standard but directly derived from a Romance language.
d2 Foreign name related to a Romance language.
e Exotic taxon originating from the New World.
f The indications SK 6,9 under Asphodelus aestivus and EA 1 under Urginea maritima could not clearly be assigned to the one or to the other species.
g The name was identified primarily by the information given in the record and by Myrianthopoulos (1925). According to recent references “glyphoni” also refers to Calamintha incana (Arnold-Apostolides, 1985;

Zanettou-Panteli, 1998, 2000).

h The name was identified primarily by the information given in the record and by Myrianthopoulos (1925). According to recent references “printzolos” only refers to Mentha pulegium (Arnold-Apostolides, 1985;

Zanettou-Panteli, 1998, 2000).

i It cannot be ascertained whether populations of “wild” Olives on the island belong to O. europaea L. var. oleaster (Hoffmsgg. et Link) DC., or whether they are all descended from cultivated trees (Meikle,

1977/1985).
j Imported qualities of opium (afhionin, afkionin) presumably were obtained from Papaver somniferum L. subsp. somniferum.
k Resin (pissa tou pefkou/retsinin) can also be obtained from this planted species. However, indigenous Pinus brutia and Pinus nigra seem to be the original source (Tsintides et al., 2002).
l This species yields a special kind of mastic (mastihin) from the Pafos district known as “pissa pafitiki”, which is used for dental care (Myrianthopoulos, 1925; Meikle, 1977/1985; Arnold-Apostolides, 1985).
m Even though mastic (mastihin) can be obtained from local trees of this species (Meikle, 1977/1985), it remains unclear if the used qualities were of local origin or if they were imported from abroad.
n This species is the officinal source for Cyprus turpentine (trimintina) (Blaschek et al., 1998). Local references, however, refer to Pistacia atlantica as the original source (Viney, 1994; Zanettou-Panteli, 2000).

Cyprus turpentine (trimintina) from Pistacia terebinthus or more likely Pistacia atlantica subsequently was superseded by the chemically distinct, far cheaper substance obtained from Pinus spp. (Viney, 1994).
o Sugar (zaharin) must have been obtained from Saccharum officinarum, being the only source for sugar available at the time the Iatrosophikon was written down. Only in the second half of the 19th century the

cultivation of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris var. altissima Döll) as a source for sugar began to spread from Germany (Oltmann, 1984).

401
 402
Explanation to the table columns and abbreviations:

Scientific name: Only the most important taxon according to relevant literature on local herbal medicine (Arnold-Apostolides, 1985; Zanettou-Panteli, 1998, 2000) or, for
exotic drugs, according to major pharmacognostic references (Hänsel et al., 1992–1994; Blaschek et al., 1998; Wichtl, 2002) was included. In case of a local taxon, the
possibility of further applicable taxa within the same genus is indicated by the extension “and spp.” (e.g., Cucurbita pepo L. and spp.).
Dioscorides +: The species is identical to a species mentioned by Dioscorides; (+): The species is different, but the genus is identical; −: There is no relationship to any
plant mentioned in this reference.
Distribution: w: wild growing (indigenous, adventive, escape from cultivation); e: endemic; p: only found planted (agriculture, forestry, gardening); (p): planted earlier; x:
exotic.

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

Name according to “Iatrosophikon”: The drug names are transliterated without changing their basic form. Plant part names in contrast to plant names are printed in italics.
In cases in which the standard Greek name was explicitly mentioned, it is added in brackets. All the names are usually in nominative singular; plural forms (pl.) are
indicated separately
Part used: The part used is indicated as specified in the prescriptions (e.g., bk). If this was not specified, the part usually used is added in italics (e.g., bk) according to
relevant literature (Arnold-Apostolides, 1985; Hänsel et al., 1992–1994; Blaschek et al., 1998; Zanettou-Panteli, 2000; Wichtl, 2002).

ap Aerial part es Essential oil ol Oil sa Sap so Soot of dried leaf sap
as Ash of wood fl Flower, inflorescence pt Petal sd Seed sp Current year sprout
bk Bark fh Flowering herb/shoot rb Root bark sg Stigma st Stamen and style
bl Bulb fr Fruit rs Resin, gum, balm sh Fruit shell tb Tuber
cp Capsule lf Leaf rt Root, rhizome sk Fruit skin ts Tip of shoot
ds Distillate mj Milky juice rw Resinous wood sl Dried leaf sap tw Twig
If the part used was referred to by a commercial name, it is indicated separately (e.g., Olb). The identity of the material is added in italics and in brackets after the name
(e.g., Olb (rs)).
Alo Aloes Bnz Benzoin Ldn Ladanum Opm Opium Stl Levant storax
Als Soot of aloes Cmp Camphor Mst Mastic Scm Scammony Tpc Cyprus turpentine
Arp Asphodel root powder Glb Galbanum Myr Myrrh Sgr Cane sugar Tpv Venice turpentine
Blm Balm of Mecca Gma Gum Arabic Olb Olibanum Sta American storax

Mode of application: e: external (topical applications, baths); f: fume (by inhaling, air-conditioning or exposing the concerned part of the body); n: not for use in man; o:
oral; s: scent (by inhaling or air-conditioning).
Indications: Indications for which only the one plant or plant part, respectively, rather than a mixture of (herbal) drugs was used, are highlighted in bold letters.

AL Internal ailments (not specified) EY Eye problems HA Headache, migraine 3: Pain in the chest 7: Ringworm
AS Asthma 1: Clearing of the white of the eye HG Haemorrhage (internal) 4: Pleurisy and pneumonia 8: Scabies
BA Belly-ache (not specified) 2: Impaired vision HM Health maintenance 5: Diffuse pain in body and limbs 9: Skin tumour, skin ulcer
BB Bad breath 3: Irritated, itching eye HP Heart pain PO Antidote in case of poisoning 10: Swelling
BL Bile flow regulation 4: Night blindness HR Haemorrhoids PR Prophylactic in cholera, plague SP Spleen disorders
BU Burns 5: Pain in the eye HS Haemostatic (in external wounds) PS Internal parasites (leeches, worms) ST Strong thirst
CL Cleansing (cholagogue, laxativ) 6: Prophylactic for eye diseases IA Inducing abortion PY Paralysis SU Supporting treatment in pleurisy
CM Cosmetic 7: Reddened eye IL Inducing labour RD Rheumatic conditions and pneumonia
1: Hair-tinting lotion 8: Suppurative lachrymal gland IN Incense RP Repellent against arachnids,insects, TN Tonic
2: Hair loss 9: Swollen and inflamed eye IS Insect/scorpion sting, spider bite snakes TP Tooth problems
3: Promote growth of hair 10: Watering eye JD Jaundice RS Respiratory tract diseases 1: Dental health maintenance
4: Skin care FB Aching, swollen breasts in females LB Laboured breathing 1: Angina, sore throat 2: Inflamed and bleeding gums
5: Split hair FF Fever accompanied with fainting LE Leprosy 2: Catarrh and common cold 3: Loose teeth
and coated tongue 3: Cough 4: Toothache
CO Colouring LP Promote lactation 4:Hoarseness, loss of voice TR Tremor
CU Cuts FG Feverish gastroenteritis LS Stop lactation 5: Improvement of sense of smell UT Urinary-tract disorders
CV Convalescence after poisonings FV Febrile conditions (not specified) 6: Tonsillitis 1: Bladder or kidney stones
orvenomous animal bites/stings
DR Dropsy LX Laxative 2: Blood in urine
EA Eear diseases GI Gastro-intestinal tract disorders MA Malaria fever (external treatment) 3: Dysuria

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

1: Earache 1: Colics and spasms MB Mammal bite SB Snake bite 4: Kidney pain
2: Ear cleaning 2: Constipation MS Absent or delayed menstruation SC Scrofula (lymph node disease)
3: Impaired hearing 3: Dysenteric/unspecific diarrhoea MT Mental disorders SK Skin diseases
4: Suppurative ear 4: Dyspepsia, gastric tonic 1: Epilepsy 1: Abscess, acne, aphthae, furuncle VD Venereal diseases
5: Tinnitus 5: Gastric ulcer 2: Franticness, hysteria 2: Eczema 1: Gonorrhoea
6: Worms in the ear 6: Heartburn 3: Hypochondria and melancholia 3: Facial erysipelas 2: Swollen testicles
7: Intestinal bleedings, bloody stool PA Pain (external treatment) 4: Herpes 3: Syphilis
8: Nausea, vomiting 1: Belly-ache 5: Irritated, itching skin WO Wounds
EM Emetic 9: Tenesmus 2: Pain in kidney or spleen 6: Paronychia
Citations: The total number of prescriptions in which a drug was cited is indicated.

403
Appendix B

404
The botanical materia medica of the Iatrosophikon—other plant derived drugs
Common name Name according to Iatrosoph. Applic. Indication Citat. Source of the drug Distrib.
Agaric (White) agarikon aspron o EA 5; EY 2,10; HA; LX; RS 3 Polyporus officinalis Fries, and other related fungi x
Amber khehriparon, kehriparoladon o EA 5; EY 2,10; HA; LB; RS 2,5,6; SC 2 Fossilised resin of undefined taxa -
Candied Sugar kandion e EY 5 2 Saccharum officinarum L. (p)
Carob Molasse teratsomelon e RD; VD 1 2 Ceratonia siliqua L. w
Commandaria (Cyprus kommandaria e, o CV; GI 8; PA 2; RS 3 4 Vitis vinifera L. w
Sweet Wine)
Flower Water anthoneron f IN 1 Citrus spp. p
Prunus spp. p, w
Grape Molasse petmezinc1 e, o LE; RD; RS 3; SK 7,8; WO 5 Vitis vinifera L. w
Gum Resin komidin n CO 2 Various tree species, mainly:
Prunus avium (L.) L. w
Prunus domestica L. p
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb w

A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406

Mannap manna o CL; EA 5; EY 2,10; GI 4; HA; MS; PS; 4 Fraxinus ornus L.* , or other sources yielding x
RS 2,5,6; SC; TR different kinds of manna
Oak Galls kikkidia (pl.) e, o CO; EY 9; GI 3,6,7; HG; HR; RS 4; SK 15 Quercus alnifolia Poech** e
1; TP 2,4; WO
Quercus coccifera L. subsp. calliprinos w
(Webb.) Holmboe**
Quercus infectoria Oliv. subsp. veneris w
(A. Kern.) Meikle
Soot asvain e EY 1,9; SK 1,2 4 Soot of burnt resin, gum resin, dried sap or other –
material of various taxa
Spiced Candied Sugarq humma sheker c2 o FF 1 Mixture of:
“Fever Sugar” Saccharum officinarum L., (p)
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume, x
Myristica fragrans Houtt., and x
tartar (cf.) –
Spirit of Wine oinopnevma e EA 5 1 Vitis vinifera L. w
Spirits of turpentine neft yaghi c2 e PA 5; SK 1 2 Pinus spp. p, w
Raki (spirit) raki e, o AL; CU; GI 1,8; PA 5; RD; 9 Vitis vinifera L., and w
SK 10; WO Pimpinella anisum L. w
Rum (spirit) romi e RD 1 Saccharum officinarum L. (p)
Tar, Pitch katranin c1 e, o RD; SK 1 2 Cedrus libani A. Rich subsp. brevifolia (Hook.f.) e
Meikle
Pinus spp. p, w
Tartar kremorion, kremotartaron e, o AL; CL; CO; RS 2,3; WO 5 Vitis vinifera L. w
Theriac thiriaki e, o AL; CV; GI 4; MB; PR; RS 2,3 7 Multi-ingredient preparation –
Vinegar xydin e, o GI 1; LS; HR; JD; PR; PS; RD; RS; 10 Vitis vinifera L. w
WO
Wine (red, white) krasin e, o CV; EA 2; EY 5,9; FB; IS; PS; RP; SK 12 Vitis vinifera L. w
5,9,10; WO

Superscripts: For the legend of the superscripts “a-o” refer to Appendix A.

p Various botanical as well as insect sources are reported for manna (Bastin, 1895; Lev and Amar, 2002); officinal manna listed in different Pharmacopoeias refers to the sugary exudation of the manna ash Fraxinus

ornus L. (Oleaceae).
q The composition could be found only in the references quoted under 2.2.i and ii.
* Plant not mentioned in Table 1 belonging to the Oleaceae family.
** Plant not mentioned in Table 1 belonging to the Fagaceae family.

For the abbreviations and the explanations to the table columns (Name acc. to “Iatrosophikon”, Mode of Application, Indications, Citations, Distribution) refer to Appendix A.
 A. Lardos / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 104 (2006) 387–406
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