DC GENERATOR

The Direct Current Generator

Most common electrical appliances (e.g., electric light-bulbs, and electric
heating elements) work fine on AC electrical power. However, there are some
situations in which DC power is preferable. For instance, small electric motors
(e.g., those which power food mixers and vacuum cleaners) work very well on
AC electricity, but very large electric motors (e.g., those which power subway
trains) generally work much better on DC electricity. Let us investigate how
DC electricity can be generated.

Figure 41: A split-ring commutator.

A simple DC generator consists of the same basic elements as a simple AC

generator: i.e., a multi-turn coil rotating uniformly in a magnetic field. The
main difference between a DC generator and an AC generator lies in the
manner in which the rotating coil is connected to the external circuit containing
the load. In an AC generator, both ends of the coil are connected to separate
slip-rings which co-rotate with the coil, and are connected to the external

circuit via wire brushes. In this manner, the emf seen by the external
circuit is always the same as the emf generated around the rotating coil. In a
DC generator, the two ends of the coil are attached to different halves of a
single split-ring which co-rotates with the coil. The split-ring is connected to
the external circuit by means of metal brushes--see Fig. 41. This combination
of a rotating split-ring and stationary metal brushes is called a commutator. The
purpose of the commutator is to ensure that the emf seen by the external
circuit is equal to the emf generated around the rotating coil for half the
rotation period, but is equal to minus this emf for the other half (since the
connection between the external circuit and the rotating coil is reversed by the
commutator every half-period of rotation). The positions of the metal brushes
can be adjusted such that the connection between the rotating coil and the
external circuit reverses whenever the emf generated around the coil goes
through zero. In this special case, the emf seen in the external circuit is simply

(218)

Figure 42 shows plotted as a function of time, according to the above

formula. The variation of the emf with time is very similar to that of an AC
generator, except that whenever the AC generator would produce a negative
emf the commutator in the DC generator reverses the polarity of the coil with
respect to the external circuit, so that the negative half of the AC signal is
reversed and made positive. The result is a bumpy direct emf which rises and
falls but never changes direction. This type of pulsating emf can be smoothed
out by using more than one coil rotating about the same axis, or by other
electrical techniques, to give a good imitation of the direct current delivered by
a battery. The alternator in a car (i.e., the DC generator which recharges the
battery) is a common example of a DC generator of the type discussed above.
Of course, in an alternator, the external torque needed to rotate the coil is
provided by the engine of the car.
 Figure 42: Emf generated in a steadily rotating DC generator.

HOW DC GENERATOR WORKS: The "DC" in DC generator is short for direct current.
For a generator to be classified as a direct current generator, it must meet two criteria.
Firstly, the current provided by the generator has to be conducted by a loop of specialized
wire on the inside of the generator that constantly rotates. Secondly, the electrical current
generated by the loop of wire must move in only one direction as opposed to two. These
criteria are met and managed by a piece of equipment called the commutator.

the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.

Commutator Segments
 Inside a DC generator, the commutator is split into two segments. Both of these
segments are insulated so no electricity is actually transmitted directly from one
part of the commutator to the other. The loop of wire that rotates is connected to
both ends of the commutator at each end. There are also two brushes made of
carbon connected to the commutator. These carbon brushes each have a very
specific purpose--one brush is responsible for pushing the electrical current out of
the generator to whatever devices are being powered, and the other brush pulls
electrical current into the generator.

Carbon Brushes
  All of the components on the inside of a DC generator are synced up to operate at
very specific time intervals. Once the electrical current gets going inside of the
generator, the segment of the commutator that holds all the electricity that will be
going outside of the current is always touching the carbon brush that pushes the
charge outside of the the unit. The electricity is essentially "swept" from the
commutator to the electrical devices connected to the generator by the brush.

Large DC generators will have many commutators inside them as opposed to the
just one that small versions will have. Because of this, these large generators also
have many different segments of wire loops and are essentially performing the
same job as a small generator multiple times simultaneously. This ultimately can
provide much more electricity for much longer periods of time.

GENERAL TYPES OF DC GENERATOR

1. SERIES GENERATOR: its field winding is connected in series with the armature
. It is used for constant current application like in series street lighting.
2. SHUNT GENERATOR:
A. SELF-EXCITED SHUNT GENERATOR: its field winding is connected
across the armature. It is used foe constant voltage application like in
electric welding.
B. SEPARATELY-EXCITED SHUNT GENERATOR: its field winding, also
called shunt field winding is connected to an outside source.. a battery or
another dc generator. It is used for laboratory experiment purposes, where
the voltage is likely to be varied.
3. COMPOUND GENERATOR… it has the series field and shunt field winding.
Also connected either short or long shunt.
a. DIFFERENTIAL COMPOUND GENERATOR: the series field
is opposing the shunt field. It is used in electric welding.
b. CUMULATIVE COMPOUND GENERATOR: the series field is
aiding the shunt field. It is used to supply power and lighting
loads.
A. UNDER COMPOUNDED CUMULATIVE: the full load voltage is less
than the no load voltage. It is used when the load is near the generator.
B. FLAT-COMPOUNDED CUMULATIVE: the full load voltage is equal to
the no load voltage. It is used if the load is at a medium distance from the
generator.
C. OVER COMPOUNDED CUMULATIVE: the full load voltage is greater
than the no load voltage.. the load is far from the generator..

PRIME MOVERS FOR DC GENERATOR

I—for large dc generator
 a. internal combustion engine
b. steam turbine
c. hydraulic

II: for small dc generator

a. synchronous motor
b. squirrel cage induction motor
c. internal combustion system engines

EFFICIENCY RATINGS AND APPLICATIONS OF DYNAMO

Power received by a dynamo---called input power

In a generator - mechanical power
In a motor - electrical power

Power delivered by a dynamo called output power

Efficiency---is the ratio of the power delivered and the power received by any rotating
machine.
POWER LOSSES
CLASSIFICATION OF POWER LOSSES
A. COPPER LOSSES
TWO GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF POWER LOSS IN ELECTRIC MACHINE
1. Power loss caused by rotation of armature of rotational losses or mechanical
losses( ROTATION LOSS/STRAY POWER LOSS)
2. those results in current flow in various path of the armature
( electrical loss)
a. ARMATURE COPPER LOSSES--- VARIABLE LOSS
= Ia2Ra , Ia2RSE , Ia2Rc , Ia2 Rb……
Where: a loss due to the square of the current
Load about 50% to 40% of full load losses

b. FIELD COPPER LOSSES—IN CASE OF THE SHUNT GENERATOR,

THIS LOSS IS PRACTICALLY CONSTANT
= If2Rf or VfRf --- 20% to 30% of F.L. losses

c. Loss due to brush contact---usually included in the armature copper loss.

=VbcIa or Ia2Rbc

B. IRON OR CORE LOSS OR MAGNETIC LOSS

---DUE to rotation of iron core of the armature in the magnetic field, there are some
losses taking place continuosly in the core.

IRON LOSSES CONSIST OF

1. Hysteresis loss
 2. Eddy current loss

HYSTERESIS LOSS –due to the reversal of magnetization of the arm. core, every
portion of rotating core passes under north to south poles alternately, thereby attaining S
and N polarity respectively..

The core goes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal after passing under one
pair of poles.

Ŋ = Pout x 100% ; Ŋ = Pout x 100%

P in Pout + T.L

Pin = Pout + Total losses , Ŋ = Pout + T.L – T.L x 100%

Pout + T.L
Ŋ = ( 1 - T.L. ) x 100 %
Pin

F = PN ; P x N (rad/sec) x 1 min / 60 sec

120 2
Where: F = freq. of magnetic reversal
P = no. of poles
N = speed

FOR NORMAL FLUX DENSITY. ( up to 1.5 wb/m2 )

Wb = Ŋ Bmax1.6 f V ==watts

Where: Bmax = max. flux density ; wb/ m2

F = frequency ; hz
Ŋ = steinmetz hysteresis efficiency
V = volume, m3

VALUE EFFICIENCY (Ŋ) FOR

Load dynamo sheet steel = 502 J/m3 ; silicon (for transformer)= 191 J/m3

(common) * Hard cast steel = 7040 J/m2 ; cast steel = 750-3000 J/m3
Cast iron = 2,700- 4000 J/m2
 
Other equation of hysteresis loss using english unit *
Ph = kh fB16 W
Where: kh = a constant, depending upon the core material and the unit used
F = frequency . cps
B = max. flux density in the iron core, lines/in2
W = weight of the core , lbs

FOR USUAL GRADE OF IRON

KH = 6.2 X 10-10
ALSO:
Wh α f ; since f α N
Wh α N

EDDY CURRENT LOSS---a loss set up by large current in the body of the core due to
small resistance known as eddy current.
As the armature rotates, it also cuts magnetic flux, hence, emf is induced in the
body of the core.

This is given by the equation n:

We = K Bmax2 f2 t2 V2 watts
Where:
t = thickness of the core , V= volume of the core
Also,
We α f2 , f α N
We α N2

V = ∏ r2 h …. Volume , V = w x l x t

For surface area:

A = 2∏rh + 2∏r2

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3. MECHANICAL LOSSES….10% to 20% of F.L losses

c. Friction loss at bearing and commutator
d. Air friction or windage loss of rotating armature.
TOTAL LOSS:
A. COPPER LOSS (CU) --- 1. armature copper loss
2. Shunt copper loss
3. Series copper loss
B. IRON LOSSES ------------- 1. hysteresis loss
2. eddy current loss
C. MECHANICAL LOSSES— 1. windage
2. friction

4. STRAY LOSSES OR STRAY POWER LOSSES-

----affected by flux distortion and commutation
--- 1 % of output for machines 150 kw or 200 hp and over.

ELECTRICAL LOSSES: …occur when there is current flowing through various copper
circuits.
1. through the armature ( Ia2Ra )
2. through the brush drops ( IaRb)
3. through the field
a. shunt field ( Ish2Rsh or VshIsh )
b. series field (Ia2Rs or IL2Rs)
c. interpole field ( Is2 RI )
d. compensating winding ( Ia2Rc )
PROBLEM:
A long shunt compound wound generator gives 240 volt at full load output
of 100 amp. The resistance of various windings of the machine are armature( including
brush control) 0.1 ohm, RsE = 0.02 ohm, RInterpole = 0.025 ohm, Rf ( including regulating
resistance) = 100 ohms. The Iron loss of full load resistance is 1000 watts ; W anf F
losses totaling 500 Watts.. Cal the efficiency of the machine.

PROBLEM: A long shunt dynamo running at 1000 rpm supplies 20 kw at a terminal

voltage of 220 volt. The resistance of armature, shunt field, and series field are 0.04, 110,
and 0.05 ohm respectively. Overall efficiency at the above load is 85%. Calculate
a. copper loss
b. iron and friction loss
Solution:

PROBLEM:
a 10 KW, 250 v, DC, 6 POLE SHUNT GENERATOR RUNS at 1000 rpm when
delivering full-load. The armature has 534 lap-connected conductors. Full-load Cu loss is
0.64 kw. The total brush drop is 1 volt. Determine the flux per pole. Neglect shunt
current.Also determine the efficiency of the machine.

PROBLEM: A shunt generator delivers 195 amp at terminal p.d. of 250 v. The armature
Resistance and shunt field resistance are 0.02 ohm and 50 ohm respectively. The iron and
friction losses equal 950 watts. Find
a. EMF generated b. Cu losses c. output of the prime motor d. commercial ,
mechanical and electrical efficiencies