Training report

On

REAL NAMKEEN
LAXMI SNACKS PVT LTD

Submitted by:

Macwan Amee Jitendra Macwan Avanee Jitendra

Reg No :- 04-2996-2016 Reg No :- 04-2997-2016
M.Tech(FPT) M.Tech(FPT)

Submitted to:

College of Food Processing Technology and Bio-Energy

Anand Agricultural University, Anand – 388 110
2017
 Index
Sr. No. Title Page No.

Schedule
Certificate

1 History 1

2 Company profile 2

3 Company till Today 3

4 Mission, Vision and Values 4

5 Product Ranges 5

6 Capacity 8

7 Layout 9

8 Manufacturing Process 9

8.1 Bites 9

8.2 Farali 12

8.3 Crackers 13

9 Quality Control Lab 15

10 Project Work 35
 Acknowledgement
Thank you, GOD for this beautiful life and for all your blessings.

Thank you parents for the support and blessings.

We would like to thank first of all, The Founder and Managing Director of the Real
are, “Mr. Bharat Meghani and Mr. Harish Rathod” for envisioning this plant and helping it
becomes the seat of learning for Food technocrats that it is today, and also giving us such a
prestigious opportunity to undergo in plant training in this organization.

We are thankful to Mr. Mayank Panchal (HR), Mr. Margit Patel(HR & Admin),
Mr. Chirag Raval (Assistant – HR) without their guidelines and help we were not able to
complete our in plant training.

Thank you teachers who gave us the basics and kindled curiosity in me on various
aspects of a Food Plant.

Thank you, Dr D.C.Joshi , Dean and Principal of College of Food Processing

Technology & Bio Energy, Anand Agricultural University for giving me an opportunity to
undergo training in this reputed company.

(Training Duration 1st Jun to 31st July 2017)

Laxmi Snacks Pvt Ltd

As the ethnic categories is growing, cash-rich companies made a beeline for share of
the salty snacks market. More than 500 snacks items are sold in India spanning various tastes,
forms, textures, aromas, bases, sizes shapes and fillings. Some 300 type of savories sell here
and overall snack product market conclusive of sweetmeats is estimated at Rs.25000 crores.

The branded salty snacks market (size: 1200crores) is 40% of the total market (Size:
300 crores), is bustling nevertheless. The branded segment is increasing at the rate of 25%
per annum whereas the entire market is increasing at the rate of 7%. In the past 2-3 years the
unbranded sector has witnessed a decline of 5% per annum. Indians seem to be snacking on
ethnic foods with a vengeance.

This is good news for the corporate sector given that the past few years have seen a
perceptible shift forwards the branded sector at the cost of the unbranded segment.

1. History and development of the unit

Two young entrepreneurs Mr. Bharat Meghani and Mr. Harish Rathod has started a
business in 1989 with name “Laxmi Food Products” at Anand under “Real” brand with a
intension to provide people of Kheda District a quality Namkeen and Wafers. Both originally
held from hotel background.

Mr. Bharat Meghani is a member of family, owing Laxmi Restaurant at Anand and Mr.
Harish Rathod is a member of family, owing Krishna Restaurant at Anand since 1955.

They have started marketing of their products at Highway and surrounding villages.
Within short span of time bakery products also has been added. Better quality and improved
distribution has evolved “Real” as a Brand in Kheda District.

After decade of successful business new polyester packing has been introduced in 1998
and started development of marketing & distribution network on and around National
Highway No. 8.

In 2001 Laxmi Food products has been formulated in Laxmi Snacks Pvt. Ltd. A new
semi-automatic friar has been introduced in production for better quality. Automated 3 layer
Laminated pouch with photographic print has been introduced in year 2004 to provide better
look and finish to the products along with nitrogen flushed packing to provide more life and
quality to product. Fully automatic wafer plant has been introduced in 2008.Extruded food
product has been introduced in 2009.Better quality, professional management and powerful
distribution network has evolved “Real” as a leading brand in Gujarat.
Form of organization includes two types units :
1. Namkeen food products
2. Bakery food product

There are two plants of Laxmi Snacks Pvt. Ltd. Company. One Plant is of Namkeen food
products in the Nadiad. Second plant is of Bakery food products in Anand.

▪ Size of the Industry – Laxmi Snacks Pvt.Ltd. is Small Scale Industry (Fastest Growing
company)
▪ Geographic Distribution – All over Gujarat this Namkeen and Bakery Items are
transported through container.
▪ Output per annum – the branded segment is increasing at the rate of 25% per annum
whereas the entire market is increasing at the rate of 7%. In the past 2- years the
unbranded sector has witnessed a decline of 5% per annum. Indians seem to be snacking
in ethnic foods with a vengeance.

2 Company profile:

Name of the company: LAXMI SNACKS PVT. LTD.

Head office: LAXMI SNACKS PVT. LTD.
Tundel Village, Highway No.8,
Near Pij Road,
Nadiad-387320
Ta. & Dist- Nadiad
Gujarat, India
Trade mark: REAL
Tag line (punch line): Khao REAL khilao REAL
Year of establishment: 1989
Nature of products: Food items (Snacks)
Directors: Bharat G. Meghani
Harish R. Rathod

3 Company till Today:

The company was founded in 1989 with name “Laxmi Food Products” at Anand
under the “REAL” brand name with an intension to provide people of kheda district a quality
namkeen, wafers and bakery products with ultimate taste and relishing freshness. After
phenomenal growth in a decade, in 2001, Laxmi Food Products, had been formulated in
Laxmi Snacks Pvt. Ltd.
 Since its establishment, the company has experienced a rapid growth, thus becoming
one of the leading snacks producers in Gujarat. To meet the requirements, a fully automatic
plant was setup at Nadiad in 2008.

Laxmi Snacks Pvt. Ltd. has quickly built up a reputation for manufacturing quality
snacks at a competitive price. Its innovation and daring approach to product development as
well as to marketing communication constitutes a solid ground for sustainable development.
Today, the products of the company received wide reorganization throughout the state and it
nourishes the company’s ambitions to expand its success across a large number of
neighboring states with a wide range of products.

“REAL” has curved a niche of its own in the region namkeen market as they maintain
the original flavour of traditional Indian snacks with primary focus on quality, hygiene and
affordability. The products are available at thousands of retail counters across Gujarat and
services by a distribution network of more than 200 distributors. The company has ambitious
plans to capture market in other states.

4 Mission, Vision and Values

4.1 Mission
Laxmi Snacks Pvt. Ltd. is committed to create and market best quality products with
an exceptional attention to detail in order to provide the consumers with a pleasant and
affordable emotion. Laxmi Snacks Pvt. Ltd. creates values by means of best management
practices, empowered work force and safeguard social responsibility.

4.2 Vission
Laxmi Snacks Pvt. Ltd. aims at sustainable growth, attaining leadership position in
food industry through performance excellence keeping customers‟ satisfaction to the core of
all their operation. Thanks to the product concept, the superior quality of the product as well
as the strength and potential of the brands, they declare their ambitions for a powerful
national presence beyond the borders of Gujarat and also explore exports opportunities
abroad.

4.3 Contribution of the unit to the industry

The contribution of the unit to the industry overall the Namkeen products 90%
turnover and for bakery items 10% contribute to the industry. All most overall Gujarat “Real”
Namkeen and bakery items are available and also outside the Gujarat. They also exported the
products but through third party not directly in different cities sales agents are also on duty
for 8 to 9 hours are appointed. Thus, the “LAXMI SNACKS PVT.LTD.” Is a Small Scale
Industry but fastest growing company their total turnover year by year growing and this is
very reputed company.

4.5 Infrastructure
 The existing plant is the largest in capacity and with the state of the facility. In year
2004 Real namkeen took pride to introduce the biggest fully automated potato processing
machinery plant in India which can process 4500kg potato and make 1200kg of chips per
hour. The namkeen and other product line has separate departments and it is been produced in
a same quality conscious processing system. Chips and Namkeens made bacteria free and
stringent hygienic standard environment. That is the big advantage of this big “real” plant.

5 Product Ranges

Sr Products Quantit Price (Rs.) Image

No. y (gm)
1 Bites Aaloo-sev 30 5
75 10

Bikaneri 30 5
sev 75 10

Ratlami- 40 5
sev 85 10

Khata- 40 5
mitha 85 10

Indori 30 5
mix 75 10

Nadiyadi 35 5
Mix 85 10
 Mug dal 35 5
masala 75 10

Chana 40 5
dal 90 10

Shing 35 5
bhujiya 85 10

Sev 40 5
mamra 100 10
2 Farali Banana 30 5
wafer 60 10

Farali 30 5
Wafers 60 10

Farali 38 5
chewada 85 10
tikha

Farali 35 5
chewada 85 10
mitha

3 Krackers Krackers 30 5
masala 70 10
hit
 Krackers 30 5
green
chilly

4 Krunch Potato 20 5
chips 60 10
Salted

Potato 20 5
chips 60 10
tomato

Potato 20 5
chips 60 10
masala

6 Capacity
Phase 2 (Waffer Plant): 1.3 Ton Per Hour
Phase 1 (Namkeen Plant): 1 Ton Per Hour
Bakery Plant : 500 Puff Per day
100 Cakes Per day
7 Layout
8 Manufacturing Process

8.1 Real Bites

8.1.1 Raw Materials for Various Sev (Aaloo-sev, Bikaneri sev, Ratlami-sev)

Potato powder for Aaloo Sev, Chana powder for Ratlami, Peanut for Sing Bhujiya,
Gram flour, Starch, Mint powder, Edible oil, Iodized salt, Spices & condiment,Flavor.

8.1.2 Process Flowchart for Various Sev (Aaloo-sev, Bikaneri sev, Ratlami-sev)

Take the potato powder or Channa Flour or Peanut, Gram Flour

Mix properly (Apx. Ratio 1:2)

Add mint powder, salt, spices & condiment

Mix it properly

Add water up to for making dough

Pass it form mesh for the shape (8 sieve Extruder)

Frying in edible oil ( Temp. 208-210o C)

Cool it at room temperature (37O C)

Pack in pouch by packing film (35g, 80g, 500g)

Cartooning

8.1.3 Raw Materials for Chavana (Nadiadi Mix, Khata-mitha, Indori Mix)

Corn meal (60 %), Rice meal (6.7%), Edible vegetable oil (Palm Oil), Spice &
condiment, Red chilli powder, Sugar, salt & citric acid, Flavoring

8.1.4 Process Flowchart for Chavana (Nadiadi Mix, Khata-mitha, Indori Mix)

Take the corn meal (60%) & rice meal (6.7%)

Mix it properly

Add salt & citric acid

Add water up to require for dough making

Pass form the extruder

 Frying in edible oil (Temp. 201-210o C)

Cool it at room temperature (37O C)

Pass from shaker though belt conveyor

Sprinkle of oil, spice &flavoring

Pack it in pouch through packing film

Cartooning

8.1.5 Equipment

8.1.5.1 Extruder (Farsan Making machine)

• Extruder machine is useful for extruding gram flour paste (besan) into small droplets.
• It is useful for extruding sev, ganthia etc. The machine is fitted over frying pan. The
extruded product lands into the frying pan and then fried.
• The extruder machine is also used for crushing boiled potato for preparing fried potato
chips (Aloo bhujia). The shapes of the products can be altered by using sieves of different
sizes and shapes.

8.1.5.2 Features of Extruder

• 360 degree rotated

• Saving in energy.
• Technical & Service support.
• Easy cleaning.
• High return on investment
• Sanitary design & no Maintenance
 Fig 1. Frasan Making Machine (Extruder)

8.1.5.3 Operation:

Prepare the desired amount of dough either with help of flour kneading or mixing
machine or manually. This dough is passed through extruder and long ropes of sev come out
from the extruder with fitted die which are directly placed in the frying Pan for Frying. After
the frying the namkeen is being placed in the oil extractor for the removal of exceeds amount
of oil.

Standard accessories of Automatic Namkeen machine (Farsan Making machine)

• Eight numbers die from Galvanized Sheets.

8.1.6 Circular fryer with inbuilt heat exchanger

Economode Introduces a new revolution in frying technology for Sev, Chips , Dals, Vatana
and other products require high heat requirement, It is a new circular fryer with a
combination of Direct & Indirect heating gives you a more than 55% saving in Fuel and
double the production capacity.

Products Production Capacity Fuel Consumption

Potato Chips 50-55 Kg/Hr 11-12 Ltr/Hr
 Moong Dal 90-95 Kg/Hr 11-12 Ltr/Hr
Channa Dal 100-110 Kg/Hr 11-12 Ltr/Hr
Banana chips 50– 55 Kg/Hr 11–12 Ltr/Hr
Sev Gathiya Papdi and 150-175 Kg/hr 7-10 ltr /hr
other
besan(Gramflour)based
products

8.1.6.1 Features of Fryer

• Latest Oil Heating Technology with Inbuilt Heat Exchanger
• Bucket Type Continuous Oil Filtration System
• Reduces 60% Manpower in frying
• Complete Material of Construction is SS 304 Grade
• Oil Holding Capacity: 110-140 Liters
• Zero Maintenance Batch Fryer
• Power Consumption 3.25 HP
• Spill Free design Reduce oil Wastage.
• Heat Free working Environment
• More than 55 % Fuel Saving as compared to Traditional System
• Payback period is 3-4 months.

Fig 2. Circular Fryer

8.2 Farali

Potato Species: Solanum tuberosum 'Laura, Solanum tuberosum 'Kerr's Pink'

8.2.1 Raw Material: Oil, Potato, Salt, Chili powder, Masala, Black pepper

8.2.2 Process Flowchart for Wafers (Potato, Banana, Potato Strips)

Fresh potatoes (Moisture Content 75% to 77%)

 Wash with water (Tape Water)

Peeling (remove outer skin)

Sorting (manually)

Slicing (0.4 to 0.5 mm thickness)

Blanching (95o C in hot water)

Pass from the shaker through belt conveyor

Sorting (sort out burnt, discolored, broken chips by Color Sorter)

Sprinkle of oil, spice, coloring & Flavoring

Lab testing

Packing

Cartooning (5 or 7 ply Kraft paper)

8.2.3 Equipment
(1)Potato peeler machine: It is used for peeling the potato with the help of special emery
lining and continuous flow of water in drum, which help out in draining the skin of potato.

(2)Potato cutting machine: It is used for slicing the potato with the help of cutting plate
provided with the machine. There are different types of plates, named sally plate and raffle
plate, which is used for cutting potato in different shapes. All the plates have adjustable
blades.

(3)Potato drying machine: After the washing of sliced potato into water it is dried in the dryer
machine, which removes approx. 30% to 40% of water.

(4)Potato frying machine: It is run with diesel or kerosene oil and air supplied from motor
blower, heavy duty burner insulated with ceramic blanket, which is fixed in S.S. fabricated in
the body.

(5)Wet grinder: It is fully designed in stainless steel with the tray having sufficient food
storing capacity. It enables you to serve your order quickly and fresh, while maintaining the
taste and nutrients. It is light weight and can be shifted easily anywhere. Over the years, their
range of kitchen and hotel equipment has become synonymous to quality in the national and
international markets. Their manufacturing plant is well equipped to manufacture our
products, while keeping the international quality standards of the product.

8.3 Crackers (Crackers masala hit, Crackers green chili)

8.3.1 Raw Material: Oil, Amchur, Black salt, Chili powder, Citric acid, Cumin, Sugar, Masti
masala and other masala, Tomato ketchup, Seasoning rice grit, Corn grit, Gram grit.

8.3.2 Process Flowchart for Crackers (Crackers masala hit, Crackers green chili)

Take the 36 % rice meal, 14% corn grit & 6% gram meal

Add salt & citric acid

Mix properly

Add water up to requirement for dough making

Dough passes from the extruder

Pass from shaker though belt conveyor

Sprinkle of oil, spice & flavoring in round drum

Pack it in pouch through packing film

Cartooning

9 Quality Control Lab

In the Quality control lab, Raw material analysis, In process checks, finished product
analysis, packaging tests, water analysis, air quality checking are done. Quality control also
monitors the overall hygiene of the plant. It also confirms the legal specification of the
products manufactured.

9.1 Equipments in Laboratory

• Weighing balance
• Micro balance
• Lovibond Tintometer – Strength of color
• pH meter
• Moisture balance
• Soxhlet’s Fat Determination apparatus
• Planetary mixer
• Centrifuge
• Microscope – For Sugar and Cocoa Size Determination
• Electric heater
• Water bath
• Electronic Digital Micrometer
• Deep freezer

9.2 Activities of QA Lab

• Finished product checking and releasing including updating of records timely.
• Plant or surrounding hygiene audit and recording of CCP and CP.
• Validation and verification of plan process and documents.
• Monitoring and recording of CIP, fumigation and sanitization activities of plant.
• Shelf life study and reservation of lab samples up to its expiry date.
• In process and finished product sampling and analysis and SAP entry.
• Arranging samples for food scan analysis.
• Calibration of lab balance, reagent preparation.
• Updating proficiency record.
• Audit preparation.
• MIS preparation.
• All raw material and packaging sampling analysis and releasing GR in SAP.
• Gas chromatography operation of fat, oil and other samples.
• Sample preparation or calibration from outside lab as per schedule.
• GC analysis.
• ETP analysis.
• Monthly detailed analysis including added sugar of all products.

9.3 Peroxide value

• The most common cause of fat or oil deterioration is rancidity which is due to oxidation,
thereby affecting its flavour and quality.
• The acceptability of oil largely depends on the extent to which the oxidative deterioration
has occurred.
• It is generally considered that the first product formed by oxidation of an oil or fat is a
hydroperoxide.
• The peroxides further decompose to secondary oxidation products i.e. aldehydes and
ketones which impart off flavour in ghee.
• The usual method of assessment of rancidity in oil is by determination of peroxide value
(PV) which is reported in units of milliequivalents of peroxide oxygen per kg of fat or ml
of 0.002 N sodium thiosulphate per g of sample.
• The most common method for PV determination is based on iodometric titration which
measures the iodine produced from potassium iodide by the peroxides present in a fat or
oil.
• PV is an indicator of products of primary oxidation and thus measures the rancidity or
degree of oxidation but not the stability or shelf- life of a fat. Fresh ghee has a PV equal
to zero. According to its PV, oil is graded as follows:

Peroxide value Grade

Below 1.5 very good
1.6to2.0 good
1.1 to 2.5 fair
1.6 to 3.5 poor
3.6 to 4.0 not acceptable

• However, peroxide value varies considerably at the organoleptic threshold of the rancidity
As per BIS (BIS, 1966), two methods are recommended for the determination of PV of
ghee i.e. iodometric method and oxygen absorption method. Here iodometric method has
been described.

Iodometric method

• Hydroperoxides are the first detectable products of autooxidation and are sufficiently
stable to keep accumulating for some time.
• Hydroperoxides are oxidizing agent and they liberate iodine from KI and the liberated
iodine can be estimated by titrating against standard sodium thiosulphate (Na 2 S 2 O 3 )
using starch as indicator.
• The liberated iodine is directly proportional to PV of the sample.
• Themethod described here is very simple and inexpensive, requiring only conventional
laboratory glassware.
• However, this method is not satisfactory as considerable flavour deterioration occurs at
peroxide value below the limit that can be accurately determined by this method. On
storage of oil at 37°C for two months, no peroxides could be detected.
• At the end of three and four months storage period, the average peroxide value of oil has
been reported to 1.80 and 2.70 respectively.

Reagents

• Acetic acid- Chloroform solution - Mix 3 volumes of acetic acid with 2 volumes of
chloroform.
• Potassium iodide solution, saturated - Dissolve excess KI in freshly boiled water.
Excess solid must remain. Store in dark. Test daily by adding 0.5 ml water to 30 ml CH 3
COOH-CHCl 3 (solution a), then add 2 drops of 1% starch solution. If solution turns blue
requiring more than 1 drop of 0.1 N Nasolution. If solution turns blue requiring more than
 1 drop of 0.1 N Nasolution. If solution turns blue requiring more than 1 drop of 0.1 N Na
2 S 2 O3 to discharge colour, prepare fresh solution.
• Sodium Thiosulphate standard solution - 0.1 N and 0.01 N. For 0.01 N dilute 0.1 N
with freshly boiled and cooled water.

Procedure

• Weigh 5 ± 0.5 g sample in a 250 ml glass stoppered Erlenmeyer flask.

• Add 30 ml of acetic acid - chloroform solution and swirl to dissolve. Add 0.5 ml of
saturated KI solution from mohr pipette, let stand with occasional shaking 1 minute and
add 30 ml water.
• Slowly titrate with 0.1 N sodium thiosulphate solution with vigorous shaking until yellow
is almost gone.
• Add about 0.5 ml of starch solution and continue titration shaking vigorously to release
all iodine from chloroform layer until blue just disappears. If less than 0.5 ml 0.1 N Na 2
S 2 O 3 is used, repeat determination with 0.01 N Na 2 S 2 O 3 Conduct blank
determination (must be less than 0.1 ml 0.1N Na 2 S 2O 3 ).
• Subtract from sample titration.
• Peroxide Value (millieqvt peroxide / kg oil) = S*N*1000/Wt. of sample
• Where
• S = ml NaS 2 O 3( blank corrected) and
• N = Normality of Na 2S 2 O 3
• White butter - Fat, Moisture
• White butter is received from amul dairy and it is checked here for organoleptic taste.
• Emulsifier
• Lecithin – Acid value, Benzene insoluble matter, Moisture
• Acid value – as discussed above
• Moisture – by hot air oven

9.4 Acid Value

• Definition: The acid value is defined as the number of milligrams of potassium

hydroxide required to neutralize the free fatty acids present in one gram of fat. It is a
relative measure of rancidity as free fatty acids are normally formed during
decomposition of oil glycerides. The value is also expressed as per cent of free fatty acids
calculated as oleic acid.

• Principle: The acid value is determined by directly titrating the oil/fat in an alcoholic
medium against standard potassium hydroxide/sodium hydroxide solution.
• Analytical Importance: The value is a measure of the amount of fatty acids which have
been liberated by hydrolysis from the glycerides due to the action of moisture,
temperature and/or lypolytic enzyme lipase.

Apparatus: 250 ml conical flasks.

Reagents
• Ethyl alcohol: - Ninety-five per cent alcohol or rectified spirit neutral to phenolphthalein
indicator.
• Phenolphthalein indicator solution: - Dissolve one gram of phenolphthalein in 100 ml
of ethyl alcohol. When testing rice bran oil based blended oils or oils or fats which give
dark colored soap solution, the observation of the end point of the titration may be
facilitated, by using Alkali blue 6B in place of phenolphthalein.
• Standard aqueous potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide solution 0.1 or 0.5 N.
The solution should be colourless and stored in a brown glass bottle.
• For refined oils, the strength of the alkali should be fixed to 0.1 N.

Procedure:
• Mix the oil or melted fat thoroughly before weighing. The mass of the test sample shall
be taken based on the colour and expected acid value.
• Expected acid value • Mass of test portion • Accuracy of weighing
test portion
• <1 • 20 gm • 0.05gm
• 1 to 4 • 10 gm • 0.02gm
• 4 to 15 • 2.5 gm • 0.01gm
• 15 to 75 • 0.5 gm • 0.001gm
• >75 • 0.1 gm • 0.0002gm
• Weigh accurately appropriate amount of the cooled oil sample in a 250 ml conical flask
and add 50 ml to 100 ml of freshly neutralized hot ethyl alcohol and about one ml of
phenolphthalein indicator solution.
• Boil the mixture for about five minutes and titrate while hot against standard alkali
solution shaking vigorously during the titration. The weight of the oil/fat taken for the
estimation and the strength of the alkali used for titration shall be such that the volume of
alkali required for the titration does not exceed 10 ml.

Calculation:
• Acid value = 56.1V*N/ W
• Where,
• V = Volume in ml of standard potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide used
• N = Normality of the potassium hydroxide solution or Sodium hydroxide solution
• W = Weight in g of the sample
• The acidity is frequently expressed as free fatty acid for which calculation shall be;
• Free fatty acids as oleic acid = 28.2 V*N/W%by weight
• Acid value = Percent fatty acid (as oleic) x 1.99

9.5 Test for Rancidity

Reagent:- Phloroglucin dihydrate: 0.1% in diethyl ether

Procedure
• Take 10g of prepared sample.
• Add 10ml of 0.1% Phloroglucin dihydrate solution.
• Appearance of pink colour indicates presence of rancidity.

9.6 Determination of unsaponifiable matter

• Principle: The unsaponifiable matter is defined as the substances soluble in oil which
after saponification are insoluble in water but soluble in the solvent used for the
determination. It includes lipids of natural origin such as sterols, higher aliphatic alcohols,
pigments, vitamins and hydrocarbons as well as any foreign organic matter nonvolatile at
100°C e.g. (mineral oil) which may be present. Light Petroleum or diethyl ether is used as
a solvent but in most cases results will differ according to the solvent selected and
generally the use of diethyl ether will give a higher result.

Apparatus:
• Flat bottom flask or conical flask with a ground glass joint, 250 ml capacity
• Air condenser 1 meter long to fit the flask
• Separating funnel, 500 ml capacity
• Weighing balance
• The weighing balance should be accurately calibrated to measure 10 mg of sample on a
tare weigh of 100 g.

Reagents:
• Alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution: Dissolve 7 to 8 g of potassium hydroxide in an
equal quantity of distilled water and adds sufficient aldehyde free ethyl alcohol and make
up to 100 ml.
• Ethyl alcohol: Ninety-five per cent
• Phenolphthlein indicator solution: Dissolve one gram of phenolphthalein in 100 ml of
ethyl alcohol.
• Petroleum ether (40-60 ºC): Analytical reagent grade
• Aqueous alcohol: 10 percent of ethyl alcohol in water
• Standard sodium hydroxide solution: Approximately 0.02N
• Acetone: Analytical reagent grade
• Anhydrous sodium sulphate.

Procedure
• Weigh accurately 5 gm of well mixed oil / fat sample into a 250ml conical flask. Add
50ml of alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution.
• Boil the content under reflux air condenser for one hour or until the saponification is
complete (complete saponification gives a homogeneous and transparent medium). Take
care to avoid loss of ethyl alcohol during the saponification.
• Wash the condenser with about 10 ml of ethyl alcohol. Transfer the saponified mixture
while still warm to a separating funnel, wash the saponification flask first with some ethyl
alcohol and then with cold water, using a total of 50 ml of water to rinse the flask. Cool to
20 to 25ºC.
• Add to the flask 50 ml of petroleum ether, shake vigorously, and allow the layers to
separate.
• Transfer the lower soap layer into another separating funnel and repeat the ether
extraction for another 3 times using 50 ml portions of petroleum ether.
• Some oils high in unsaponifiable matter, e.g., marine oils, may require more than three
extractions to completely remove unsaponifiable matter.
• Wash the combined ether extract three times with 25 ml portions of aqueous alcohol
followed by washing with 25 ml portions of distilled water to ensure ether extract is free
of alkali (washing are no longer alkaline to phenolphthalein).
• Transfer ether solution to 250 ml beaker, rinse separator with ether, adds rinsing to main
solution.
• Evaporate to about 5ml and transfer quantitatively using several portions of ether to 50ml
Erlenmeyer flask previously dried and weighed.
• Evaporate ether. When all ether has been removed add 2-3 ml acetone and while heating
on steam or water bath completely remove solvent under a gentle air.
• To remove last traces of ether, dry at 100°C for 30 minutes till constant weight is
obtained Dissolve residue in 50 ml of warm ethanol which has been neutralized to a
phenolphthalein end point. Titrate with 0.02N NaOH.

Calculation:
• Weight in g of the free fatty acids in the extract as oleic acid = 0.282 VN
• Where,
• V = Volume in ml of standard sodium hydroxide solution
• N = Normality of standard sodium hydroxide solution
• Unsaponifiable matter = 100 (A-B)/W
• Where,
• A = Weight in g of the residue
• B = Weight in g of the free fatty acids in the extract
• W = Weight in g of the sample
9.7 Determination of Banzene Insoluble Matter
• Soften a portion of the matter by warning it is a temperature not exceeding 60 deg.C. and
then mix it thoroughly weight 5 gm of a previously well mixed sample into a 250ml wide
mouth Erlenmeyer flask and add 100ml of benzene and shake until the lecithin is
dissolved.
• Filter the solution through a previously weighed whatman filter paper 42 wash the filter
paper with two successive 25ml, portions of benzene.
• Dry the filter paper at 105deg.C for an hour cool to room temperature and weigh

Calculation: From the gain in weight of the filter paper, calculate the percent of the benzene
insoluble matter in the sample.

9.8 Effluent Treatment Analysis

9.8.1 Determination of BOD

Reagents:

• Manganese sulphate solutins.: Take Mnso4 . 4H2o 480g or mnso4. 2H2o 400g or Mnso4
.H2o 364g and make up the volume to 1000ml .
• Alkali –iodide –Azide Reagent: KOH 700 g +KI 150g .make up to volm. 1000ml .Now
add 10g.sodium azide (NaN3) dissolved in 40 ml of distilled Water
• Starch indicator: prepare paste or solutions. Of 2.0g L Rgrade soluble starch and 0.2 g
salicilic acid as preservative indistilled water .pour this solutions in 100ml boiling water
,allow to boil for few minutes and cool.
• Stock sodium thiosulphate0.10 N Solutions: Dissolve 24.82g sod. Thiosulphate In boiled
distilled water and dilute to 1000ml. preserve by adding 5ml chloroform per liter.
• Standard Solution thiosulphate 0.025 sons: Dilute 250 ml of stock soln.(0.10N) to 1000ml
with freshly boiled and cooled distilled water. Preserve by adding 5ml of chloroform per
liter.
• Take 3ml of ETP water sample +297 ml distilled water in 300 ml BOD bottle keep the
sample at 20 degg. Centi temp.
• After 5 days shake well and take out 100 ml water from the bottle.
• Rest 200 ml water sample +2ml alkaly iodine solution +2ml Mnso4(yellow color) +2ml
H2so4 (turbidity dissolve) + 1ml starch indicator (blue color).
• Titrate it with N/40 Na2s2o2 solns. End point colorless.
• Calculation for BOD in ppm = Reading X Normality X300

9.8.2 Determination of COD (chemical oxygen demand)

Reagents:
• Standard potassium dichromate N/25:-Dissolve 12.259 g K2Cr2O7 dried at 103 c for 24
hour in distilled water to 1000ml.
• Sulfuric acid reagent:-Add 10g of Ag2so4 to 1000ml conc.H2so4 and keep overnight
dissolution.
• Standard Ferrous Ammonium sulphate 0.10N:- Dissolve 39gm Fe(NH4)2.6H20 in about
400ml distilled water.Add 20ml of conc. H2So4 and dilute to 1000ml (to standardization
of ferrous ammoniumsulfate, prepared as above , use 10ml std. K2Cr2O7, acidify by
adding 10ml sulphuric acid and titrate with Ferr.Amm. Sulphate to be standardized using
ferrion indicator.Calculate normality.
• Ferrion indicator: Dissolve 1.485g.1.10-phenanthroline mono hydrate and 695mg
Feso4.7H2O and dilute to 100ml with distilled water.
• Mercuric sulphate crystals.
• Procedure:
• In a flask take 10ml N/4 K2Cr2o7 + 18ml distilled water + 2ml ETP water + 30ml conc.
H2so4 + 0.2g mercuric sulphate catalyst.
• Digest for 2 hours allow cooling and adding 0.5ml Ferrion indicator.
• Titrate with N/10 ferrious ammoniumsulphate soln. Note the end point to read.
• Run by taking the same qty of reagent without sample follow the procedure for blank
• Calculation for COD =(blank reading – Sample reading)x 0.10 x4000 In ppm
• Determination of pH
• Take about 100ml, of ETP water sample and put in pH meter and note down the reading.

9.8.3 Determination of FAT contents.

Procedure

• Take 100 ml of ETP water sample in separating funnel and add 25ml of 40-60degg.c
Potassium ether , mix well and allow to separate two layer clearly.
• Take out the ether layer in per weighed fat flask. Repeat extraction with two more wash
of ether and collect the separated ether layer in the fat flask.
• Evaporate the ether the dryness and dry it in air oven the ether gets remove. Calculate the
different in weight.
• Calculation for fat content in ppm =diff. in weight X 10000 ppm

9.8.4 Determination of total solids

• Weight empty dish and take 100ml of water collected from ETP water outlet. Evaporate
to dryness on hot plate .after evaporation put in the dish hoy air oven for 3 hours .Cool in
decicator and weight the dish .calculate the difference in weight.
• Calculation of TOTALS SOLIDS in ppm = Diff. In weight x 10,000 = ppm
• Determination of total dissolve solids
• Take 100ml of ETP water and filter in it dried and weighed empty dish .Evaporate to
dryness on hot plate and after evaporation put dish in hot air oven for 3 hours and then
cool in decicator and weight. Calculate the diffn. In weight.
• Calculation for dissolve solids in ppm = diffn. In weight x 10,000 ppm TDS
• Determination of Suspended solids :
• Suspended solids in ppm = T.S - TDS.
• Boiler Water Analysis

9.8.5 Determination of CHLORIDE Content in water

• Take 10 ml water in flask add0.5ml of potassium chromate indicator and titrate with 0.10
N silver nitrate
• Calculation for chloride contents In ppm = reading x 335 ppm
• Determination of total hardness
• N/50 EDTA Solution
• Ammonia buffer solution
• Hardness indicator tablets or alternatively it can be prepared by mixing 0.5gm Erichrome
Black T with 4.5 gm hydroxalmine hydrochloride in 100 ml absolute alcohol.
• Procedure
• Take 100 ml of water sample in conical flask
• Add 2 drops of buffer solution and 2 drops of Erichrome Black T indicator
• Titrate with N/50 EDTA
• End point is red to violet
• Total Hardness as CaCO3 = Reading*10 ppm

ETP Water Standard

1 pH 6.5-8.5
2 Chlorine ppm.Max 600
3 Suspended solids ppm.Max 100
4 Total dissolved solids ppm,Max 2100
5 COD ppm,Max 100
6 BOD ppm,Max 30
7 Oil and grease content ppm,Max 10

Boiler water standard

1 pH 7.0-8.0
2 Hardness ppm,Max 30
3 Chloride content ppm,Max 100
4 Total dissolved solids 1000
ppm,Max
9.9 Microbiology sampling plan for water, food contact surface swab, Rinse
test, Aerial count and worker hand swab
Sample Location frequency Parameters specification
water Borewell water Once in 15 TPC/ml Max 50
day Coliform/100 ml Abscent
Once in year IS 10500 As per IS
10500
Ro water RO plant Daily(chlori OT,ph,hardness,chlorid Internal
ne once e,TDC and chloride chlorine-
in15days) abscent
2
Food Wafer and Namkeen Once in 15 TPC/cm Max 100
contact processing day Coli form/cm2
swab
Aerial Wafer and Namkeen Once in 15 Abscent
count processing day Yeast & mould &SPC Max 20
Workers Wafer and Namkeen Once in 15 TPC/cm2 Max 100
Hand processing day Coliform/cm2 absent
swabs
9.10 Air Sampling By Exposure Method
Exposure time: 15 min

Procedure:-

• Pour plates with plate count agar for total bacterial count , potato dextrose agar for yeast
and mold and Violet Red Bile Agar for coliforms , Allow the media to set and harden
• Remove the tops from the plates and place the plates in the place necessary to put and
exposed for 15 minutes and immediately replace the top on the plates.
• Than after 15 min cover the lid and for Coliforms apply 5 ml second layer of VRBA
media and then cover the lid on the top of petri dish and then for total bacterial count and
coliforms incubate the plates at inverting condition at 370C for 24 hours in incubator, and
for the yeast and mold put it in inverting condition at 250C for 3 to 5 days.
• Now for the checking the sterility of area the hygiene instrument is used.
• Here during CIP of plant the Rinse test is being done for checking that the CIP is
done properly or not

9.10.1 Rinse test:-

When CIP is running the rinse water sample is taken from plant and it is checked for the total
bacterial count and also the ringer solution used and then the sterility of the machines and
plants should be checked.
9.11 Assessing Sterility:

9.11.1 Swab method

• Materials: Swab tube, Cotton wool, 30 cm long SS wire, Phosphate Buffer/ Saline (0.9%
Sodium Chloride) and distilled water.

• Swab Preparation: On metal wire formed into a loop at one end and a straight length of
300 mm, notched at the other end, wind non-absorbent cotton on the notched end of metal
wire over a length of about 50 mm. Place the swab in 35 ml Phosphate Buffer solution in
a swab tube, plug with cotton and sterilize (autoclave at 15 lbs. for 20 min.).

• Swab Sampling: Press the sterilized swab with rolling motion against the side of glass
tube removing excess liquid and take out of the tube.
• Rub the swab with pressure back and forth over the area to be examined so that all part
of the surface are treated twice and for the plain surface 900 cm squire area covered for
swabbing.
• To facilitate swabbing over required areas a thin guider (15×10 cm) may be used for
guidance after scrubbing the required area return the swab to the solution in the tubes.
Allow the swab to be immersed in the liquid for 5 minutes and mix by swirling the swab
vigorously in the solution 5 or 6 times. Remove the swab by pressing against the side of
the test tubes.

• Swab Testing: Mix the solution thoroughly by rotating the tube between the palms of the
hands. Using 9 ml dilution blank prepare 1/10 or first dilution of the sample and proceed
as per standard plate count in duplicate plate and add 10 to 15 ml plate count agar
medium and incubate at 37° C for 48 hours

Assessing of air quality:

Type Air Count/ m3/min

Total Bacterial Count < 200

Yeast & Mold Count <100

Coliform Count max 1

9.12 Yeast & Mold Count

• Definition of yeast: - a microscopic unicellular fungus consisting of single oval cells that
reproduce by budding or fission, and capable of converting sugar into alcohol and carbon
dioxide including forms such as candida that can cause disease known as yeast.
• Definition of mold: - The mold is a multicellular, filamentous spore producing fungi and
cottony or fuzzy appearance.
• Materials and Equipment: - Choose the materials and equipment as per discussed
above.
• Preparation of media: - According to manufacturer’s instructions.

• The following media and reagents are commercially available and are to be prepared and
sterilized according to the manufacturer's instructions.
• These agars are suitable for yeast and mould count in food products:
• Chloramphenicol Yeast extract Glucose Agar (CYGA)
• Potato dextrose agar
• 20% sucrose (diluent additive for osmophiles)
• Malt extract agar containing 50% (w/w) sucrose
• Generally potato dextrose agar is used, and we have to set the pH of agar around
• 10% tartaric acid for set the pH of media in the range of 3.5 via help adding 10% strile
tartaric acid, lactic acid and citric acid and set the pH and checked the pH via help of pH
strip.
• Procedure :- Same as above just different in pH of media.
• Handling of sample units:- as per above
• Preparation of dilution:- as per above
• Plating:- as per above
• Incubation: - Incubate plates undisturbed in an upright position at 22 to 25°C for 3-5 days
in BOD incubator. Incubate plates in the dark. Normally, count colonies on plates after 5
days. Examine on the third day and if mould colonies are numerous, count them and then
count again on the fifth day, if possible.
• Observations:- White/grey/yellow/black colony formed

9.13 Total Bacterial Count (Total viable Count)

Definition of bacteria:-

• a member of a large group of unicellular microorganisms prokaryotic and various

arrangement of cell which have cell walls but lack organelles and an organized nucleus,
including some which can cause disease called bacteria.
• Materials & Equipment Required: Choose as per requirement from above as
discussed.

Procedure:
• Handling of Sample Units
• Keep the sample unit refrigerated (0-5°C). Sample units of frozen products shall be kept
frozen.
• Analyze sample units as soon as possible after receipt in the laboratory.
Preparation of Media

• Nutrient Agar
• Plate Count Agar
• Preparation of media is done according to manufacturer’s directions

Preparation of Dilutions

• Take 11ml or 11 gm of well mixed sample and dissolve it in 99 ml phosphate buffer

solution(maintain 1:9 ratio)
• Transfer 1 ml of well mixed sample to 9 ml diluents (phosphate buffer solution).
• Mix well and transfer 1 ml of this suspension to second tube to make second dilution.
• Similarly make third and fourth dilution as per requirement.
• Arrange the Petri plates for each dilution to be tested, mark them with sample no.
• Usually 1:100 and 1:1000 dilutions used in case of products and other raw materials.

Plating

• Transfer 1 ml in each plate from respective dilution of sample being tested.

• Melt the plate count agar, cool it about 45°C and pour 10 ml of this medium into the Petri
dishes. Mix the agar by rotating the plate.
• Allow the agar to set, invert and incubate the plates at 37°C for 48 hours.

Incubation

• Incubate plates in the inverted position for 48 h ± 4 h. Incubate plates at 37°C for 48
hours.

Counting Colonies

• After the incubation period withdraw the plates from incubator and count the bacterial
colonies formed (including pin points and translucent colonies) under magnification and
controlled illumination with the help of colony counter.
• Pinpoints should not be confused with sediments and if these colonies are crowded
sample should be repeated with next dilution for separated or there is development of
water film between the agar and bottom ofdish or film of water at the edge/on the surface
of the agar.Report such plates as spreaders.
• When the plates are contaminated or are otherwise unsatisfactory records report the
plates as laboratory accident.
• Report the result.
• At the end of 48 hours remove the plate from the incubator and count the colonies
• For counting of colonies in cfu/gm or cfu/ ml the formula is as follows:
• N =∑ c / (n1+0.1n2)d
• Where,
• n= the number of counts
• n1= the number of plates counted in the first dilution
• n2= the number of plates counted in the second dilution
• d= the dilution from which the first counts were obtained
• Round the results obtained with above formula to two significant results.

Reporting
• From the count of the colonies and from the product specifications the microbiologist
prepare the report of acceptance or rejection of the product.

Expressions of result:- Total bacterial count = colonies/gm

9.14 Packaging Material Tests:

The basic objective of the testing are
• To assess fitness for the purpose of application
• To develop new application
• To evaluate a efficiency of the given material and test advantage
• To have quality control check.

Sr. Packaging Expected result

No material & its &
characteristics Test Procedure Interpretation

Card board Weigh the entire package in

box (CBX) box form without cutting any
Weight part of it on a sensitive balance
5 ply for ASP
(12 x 1 Kg 650 g

1 boxes) Dimensions Measure the inner dimensions

of the folded box (Form of a
cube box) with an accurate cm l x b x h : 340
scale mm x 300 mm x
190 mm
 Measured in Mullen’s test.
This is done for the top ply
Bursting (outer most ply). A piece of It should be
strength the card board sample is cut around 12 Kg/
from the box and placed in the cm2
test region of the machine and Moisture content
clamped tightly. The piston (max 9%) of
then moves up from bottom of CBX decreases
the machine by applying its Bursting
pressure on the centre of the strength.
sample. The dent is formed in
the sample, until it breaks
where the meter shows the
Paper grade is
analogue reading of Bursting
proportionate to
strength in psi or Kg / cm2.
its Bursting
The machine works on
strength.
hydraulic pressure.

Card board Features – Outer The card board random sample Correct details
box (CBX) of the CBX is chosen and viewed for its regarding title of
outer printability. Eg : the manufacturer,
5 ply for ASP colour authenticity – Blue weight of
(12 x 1 Kg should be Oxford blue grade. product,
boxes) stackability etc.
 Card board Grammage A large piece 20 x 20 cm The resulting weight
box (CBX) of the test material is cut is multiplied by 100 to
from the CBX and then give GSM (Gram
5 ply for ASP put in hot boiling water Square Metre) value.
(12 x 1 Kg for 10 min so that starch This gives the weight /
boxes) based adhesive melts and m of each layer of ply.
the ply layers separate. Top ply – 180 g / m2.
The individual layers are The GSM values for
then picked up without different layers: ~185,
tearing any of them, 110, 124, 110, and
washed and wiped 123.
carefully and allowed to
dry at room temperature
for 10 min. This is then
oven dried for 30 min.
The layers are then
pressed on hot plates for
straightening them. Then
using standard square, 10
cm x 10 cm square is cut
from each layer and
weighed individually.
This will give weight /
100 cm2.

Features of the A random sample is This is for authenticity

display on the picked up and all printed
3 Composite package features such as Principal
polymer Display Panel,
Manufacturer Detail,
Product Details, Printing
Ink, Nutritional facts,
Address of Company etc.
of the product and all
the features should be
as per product and
company profiles or
details.
 No and type of A sample (10x10 cm) is There should be 3
laminates cut from the continuous laminates – LDPE
package roll and then (inner most) /
dipped in chloroform Metallised PET/ PET
solution in a closed test
tube for 30 min. This
will cause the separation
of the laminates. The
laminates are then
washed and the type and
no of laminates are
determined.

9.14.1 Other tests are:-

Material Used For Product Tests Carried

Corrugated box Crackers Dimensions
Bites Moisture content
Wafers Ash content
Bursting strength
Compression strength
Tin containers Crackers Thickness
Bites Dimensions
Wafers Lacquering
Leak test
LDPE film Used Oil Width, thickness
Colour fastness
Colour adhesion
Leak test
Drop test (from 1.2 m height)
Refill packs Wafers, Crackers Dimensions
Grammage
Moisture
Ink shade
Liner thickness
Pouch laminated rolls Wafers, Crackers Dimensions
Thickness
Color & printing
LDPE/HDPE/HDPE co- Oil Thickness
extruded film Color & printing
 Drop test
Leak test
BOPP self adhesive Card boxes Width
tapes Thickness
Color adhesion
Adhesion

9.15 Raw Material Test

9.15.1 Palm oil

It shall conform to the following standards, namely:-
• Butyro-refractometer reading at 50 oC 35.5 - 44.0
• Refractive Index at 50 oC 1.4491-1.4552
• Melting point (capillary slip method) Not more than 37 oC.
• Iodine value (Wij's method) 45-56
• Saponification value 195-205.
• Unsaponifiable matter Not more than 1.2 per cent
• Acid value Not more than 10.0 percent
• Flash Point (PenskyMarten closed method) - Not less than 250° C.
• Test for argemone oil shall be negative.

9.15.2 Besan
Besan shall conform to the following standards:-
• Total ash Not more than 5.0%.
• Ash insoluble in dilute Not more than 0.5% hydrochloric acid

9.15.3 Cornflour
It shall contain no added colour, flavours or other chemicals. It shall be free from dirt, insects,
larvae and impurities or other extraneous matter. It shall conform to the following standards:-
• Moisture Not more than 12.5% Total ash Not more than 0.5% on dry basis.
• Ash insoluble in Not more than 0.1 per cent on dilute HCl dry basis
• Alcoholic acidity Shall be equivalent to not more (with 90 per cent than 2.0 ml. N. NaOH
per 100 g. of dried alcohol) starch.

9.15.4 Sugar
1. Plantation White Sugar” (commonly known as sugar) means the crystallised product
obtained from sugarcane or sugar beet. It shall be free from dirt, filth, iron filings, and added
colouring matter. Extraneous matter shall not exceed 0.1 per cent by weight. It shall also
conform to the following standards, namely :-
• Moisture (when heated at 105 degree ± 1 degree C for 3 hours) Not more than 0.5 per
cent by weight.
• Sucrose Not less than 98 per cent by weight.
2. “Refined Sugar” means the white crystallised sugar obtained by refining of plantation
white sugar. It shall be free from dirt, filth, iron filings and added colouring matter.
Extraneous matter shall not exceed 0.1 per cent by weight. It shall also conform to the
following standards, namely:-
• Moisture (when heated at 1050 ± 10 C for 3 hours) Not more than 0.5 per cent by weight.
• Sucrose Not less than 99.5 per cent by weight.

3. “Bura Sugar” means the fine grain size product made out of any kind of sugar. It shall be
free from dirt, filth, iron filing and added coloring matter. Extraneous matter shall not exceed
0.1 per cent by weight. It shall also conform to the following standards, namely:-
• Sucrose Not less than 90.0 per cent by weight.
• Ash insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid Not more than 0.7 per cent by weight.

4. Cube Sugar means the sugar in the form of cube or cuboid blocks manufactured from
refined crystallised sugar. It shall be white in colour, free from dirt and other extraneous
contamination. It shall conform to the following standards:-
• Sucrose Not less than 99.7 per cent by weight.
• Moisture Not more than 0.25 per cent by weight.
• Total ash Not more than 0.03 per cent by weight.

5. Icing Sugar means the sugar manufactured by pulverizing refined sugar or vacuum pan
(plantation white) sugar with or without edible starch. Edible starch, if added, shall be
uniformly extended in the sugar. It shall be in form of white powder, free from dust, or any
other extraneous matter. It shall conform to the following standards:-
• Total starch and sucrose Not less than 99.0 per cent (moisture free) by weight.
• Moisture Not more than 0.80 per cent by weight.
• Starch Not more than 4.0 per cent by weight on dry basis.
10 Project Work

10.1 Title: Outline of Effluent treatment plant

Pollution control is a pressing problem for existing processing plants and is a major consideration
when comparing locations for new processing plants. Reduction of processing losses must be
considered during the manufacture of the product to obtain the greatest economic returns and to
ensure the lowest amount of polluting effluents. Processing plants with low product losses will have a
low amount of waste.

The most common pollution problem is associated with organic wastes, which undergo decomposition
in water. The decomposition occurs when bacterial and other biological forms use the compounds as a
food source. Oxygen is required for biological decomposition to take place without causing nuisance
conditions in a stream. The oxygen for this process is taken from the stream. Only 9-10 mg/liter of
oxygen will dissolve in water. Many forms of aquatic life require 4-5 mg/liter of oxygen to survive.
When all of the oxygen is used from a stream it becomes unattractive; fish die, odorous gasses evolve,
and decomposing solids float on the surface. As a consequence of this type of pollution, recreation is
destroyed, and many other beneficial uses are impaired or destroyed.

10.1.1 Components of Potato-Processing Waste

10.1.1.1 Dirt: Dirt or silt adhering to the surface of the potato is removed either in an initial washing
step or in the normal peeling waste stream. It contributes to the suspended, fixed solids and normally
is treated separately from the other process water. For example, this water can be settled in a shallow
pond or clarifier. The water from these systems contains soluble and suspended solids and must be
treated for discharge. In-plant treatment and recycle of wash water has been practiced. Treatment
units available include screens, clarifiers and high-pressure liquid cyclone units. Some wash water is
usually bled from these recycle systems and must be treated prior to discharge.

10.1.1.2 Raw Pieces: Raw pieces that are not suitable for processing range in size from whole
potatoes to small fragments. Since these materials are normally firm, they present little problem in
removal by screening or settling. These are commonly used for cattle feed.

10.1.1.3 Raw Pulp: Raw potato that has been finely subdivided is usually designated as raw pulp.
Sources of this include abrasion peeler discharge, cutting waste, and pulp. Equipment handling raw
potatoes will contribute finely divided raw potato solids when the equipment is cleaned. Because of
the large amount of water normally in contact with the pulp, much of the soluble solids are leached
out. The raw pulp may be removed from the waste stream by fine screening or settling. Raw starch
settles from such streams so rapidly that it sometimes causes plugging of lines and cleaning problems.
Pulp is commonly used for cattle feed.

10.1.1.4 Cooked Pulp: The softening action of heat during peeling or processing steps weakens the
intercellular bonds of the potato tuber and results in separation of large quantities of potato cells and
agglomerate of cells during washing and handling steps. These rapidly disperse in the wastewater.
Many such agglomerates are removed in screening, but the greatest portion passes through the normal
20-mesh screen opening. These solids settle rapidly in a properly designed clarifier and represent a
major portion of the settleable solids removed in primary treatment of potato-processing waste
streams. Separated solidsare used for cattle feed.

10.1.1.5 Dissolved Solids: Constituents of the potato that are readily water? Soluble appear as
dissolved solids in the final waste stream. These include solubilized starch, proteins, amino acids, and
sugars. This organic portion of the waste stream can be removed only by secondary treatment, namely
some form of biological oxidation or land disposal.
Treatment In Plant Pre treatment Primary Secondary Advanced
treatment treatment treatment
Category

Unit Conservation Screening Sedimentation Trickling filter Chemical

and use of R.O. treatment
Processes water Settling Pond Activated sludge
Carbon
Stabilization pond Treatment

anaerobic Filtrate Filtration

Anaerobic contact Ion Exchange

Anaerobic Pond Reverse

Osmosis
Aerated Pond
Air Striping

Unit
Sequence

Fig No10.1.2.1: Generalized Diagram for potato waste disposable

10.1.2 Different Process involves in Potato Processing waste :
The conventional waste treatment process is usually considered to occur in three phases: primary
treatment, secondary treatment, and advanced waste treatment (AWT). Primary treatment involves the
removal of suspended and settleable solids by screening, flotation, and sedimentation. Secondary
treatment involves the biological decomposition of the organic matter, largely dissolved, that remains
in the flow stream after treatment by primary treatment processes. Biological treatment can be
accomplished by mechanical processes or by land disposal. The primary treatment process is
frequently sufficient to safeguard public health and to prevent development of nuisance conditions in
instances where large volumes of dilution water are available in receiving streams. Where the flow in
the receiving stream is low or where pollution loads are high, secondary treatment must generally be
provided.

Advanced waste treatment involves removal of pollutants that are not removed by conventional
secondary treatment. Advanced treatment can include removal of nutrients, suspended solids, and
organic and inorganic materials. In mechanical secondary treatment processes, the organic material
remaining in the effluent from primary treatment processes receives further treatment by passing the
flow through units in which biological oxidation of this organic matter takes place. Biological
oxidation is a result of biological organisms using the organic matter as a food source. The flow from
the biological units is then passed through sedimentation units so that the biological solids formed in
the oxidation unit may be removed prior to the final discharge of the treated effluent to a stream.
When irrigation is used as the secondary treatment system, bacteria in the top soil stabilize the organic
compounds. In addition, the soil may accomplish removal of some ions by adsorption or ion
exchange. Ion exchange in some soils may cause system failure. In all cases, careful consideration
must be given first to the steps that might be taken within the plant to reduce the waste load.

Table No 10.1.2.1:Different parameter with their possible values

Potato peeling method

Parameters Abrasion

Flow (gal/ton, raw potato) 600

BOD 20 lb/ton (4000 ppm)

COD

Total solids

Volatile solids

Suspended solids 90 lb/ton ,(18,000 ppm)

pH 5.8
 Fig No 10.1.2.3 : Water stream in Potato chips plant

Table no 10.1.2.2: Composition Percentage of Potato Waste Solids

Component Amount (%)

Total organic nitrogen as N 1.002

Carbon as C 42.200

Total phosphorus as P 0.038

Total sulfur as S 0.082

Volatile solid 95.2

10.1.3 Processing steps in Effluent Treatment Plant:

10.1.3.1 Pretreatment (Screening)

Typically, the screen is the first device encountered by wastewater entering the treatment
plant. Screening is often used to remove large pieces of waste so that the water can be reused
within the processing plant. Three types of screens are commonly used: stationary gravity
screens, rotary screens, and vibratory screens. These units are similar to screens used in
dewatering products during processing. Coarse solids are normally removed in a fine screen
with a mesh size of 1 mm. The simplest type of stationary screen consists of a number of bars
eventually spaced across the wastewater channel (bar rack). Another type of rotary screen is
the disc screen, which is a perforated plate of wire mesh disc set at right angles to the waste
stream. The retained solids are removed at the top of the disc by brushes or water jets.
Vibratory screens may have reciprocating orbital or rocking motion, or a combination of
both. The wastewater is fed into the horizontal surface of the screen, and the water passing
through the retained solids is bounced across the screen to a discharge point.
The waste screen should be carefully located and elevated. Plant wastewaters can be collected
in a sump pit below the floor level of the plant, from which they are pumped to the screen.
The screen is elevated so that the solid wastes may fall by gravity into a suitable hopper.
Then, the water flows down into the primary treatment equipment or to the sewer. With
suitable elevations, the screen can be located below the level of the plant drains. After
screening, the solid waste is conveyed up to the waste hopper and the water pumped into the
clarifier, or other disposal system.

10.1.3.2 Primary Treatment

10.1.3.2.1 Sedimentation: Sedimentation is employed for the removal of suspended solids

from wastewater. After screening, wastewater still carries light organic suspended solids,
some of which can be removed from the wastewater by gravity in sedimentation tanks called
clarifiers.

These tanks/clarifiers can be round or rectangular, are usually about 3.5 m deep, and hold the
wastewater for periods of 2 to 3 hours. The required geometry, inlet conditions, and outlet
conditions for successful operation of such units are already known. The mass of settled
solids is called raw sludge, which is removed from the clarifiers by mechanical scrapers and
pumps. Floating materials such as oil and grease rise to the surface of the clarifier, where they
are collected by a surface skimming system and removed from the tank for further
processing.

Fig No 10.1.3.2.1 : Schematic view of the Primary treatment

In the primary treatment of potato wastes, the clarifier is typically designed for an overflow
rate of 800–1000 gal/(ft2/day) (33–41 m3/m2/day) and a depth of 10–12 ft (3–3.6 m). Most of
the settle able solids are removed from the effluent in the clarifier.
 Fig No 10.1.3.2.2: Circular primary clarifier

The COD removal in this primary treatment is generally between 40 – 70%

To reduce the volume of the settled waste, which contains 4 – 6% solids, vacuum filters or
centrifuges are used. Withdrawal of the underflow from the bottom of the clarifier is
accomplished by pumping. The resulting solids from caustic peeling have a high pH. The
optimum pH level for best vacuum filtration of solids differs from plant to plant. However,
when the underflow withdrawal is adjusted to hold the solids in the clarifier for several hours,
biological decomposition begins and the pH of the solids falls greatly. At a pH of between 5
and 7, these solids will dewater on a vacuum filter without the addition of coagulating
chemicals. As for the solids resulting from steam or abrasive peeling operations, these will
also undergo biological degradation in a few hours. With a longer duration, however,
dewatering of solids becomes more difficult.

10.1.3.2.2 Equalization

Equalization is aimed at minimizing or controlling fluctuations in wastewater characteristics

for the purpose of providing optimum conditions for subsequent treatment processes. The
size and type of the equalization basin/tank used varies with the quantity of waste and the
variability of the wastewater stream. In the case of potato processing wastewater, the
mechanically pretreated or preclarified wastewater flows into a balancing tank (buffer tank).
Equalization serves two purposes: physical homogenization (flow, temperature) and chemical
homogenization (pH, nutrients, organic matter, toxicant dilution). For proper homogenization
and insurance of adequate equalization of the tank content, mixing is usually provided, such
as turbine mixing, mechanical aeration, and diffused air aeration. The most common method
is to use submerged mixers.

10.1.3.2.3 Neutralization

Industrial wastewaters that contain acidic or alkaline materials should be subjected to

neutralization prior to biological treatment or prior to discharge to receiving wastes. For
biological treatment, a pH in the biological system should be maintained between 6.5 and 8.5
to ensure optimum biological activity. The biological process itself provides neutralization
and a buffer capacity as a result of the production of CO2, which reacts with caustic and
acidic materials. Therefore, the degree of the required preneutralization depends on the ratio
of BOD removed and the causticity or acidity present in the waste.

As for potato processing wastewater in general, the water from the balancing tank (buffer
tank) is pumped into a conditioning tank where the pH and temperature of the wastewater are
controlled or corrected. Continuous monitoring of the pH of the influent is required by dosing
a caustic or acidic reagent, according to the nature of resulting wastewater. The required
caustic or acidic reagent for dosing in the neutralization process is strongly related to the
different peeling methods used in the potato processing plant, since peeling of potatoes forms
the major portion of the organic load in potato processing waste. Three different peeling
methods are used extensively today: abrasion peeling, steam peeling, and lye peeling.
Between lye and steam peeling wastes, the biggest difference is the pH of the two wastes.
While steam peeling wastes are usually almost neutral (pH values vary between 5.3 and 7.1),
lye peeling wastes have pH values from 11 to 12 and higher.

10.1.3.3 Secondary Treatment

Secondary treatment is the biological degradation of soluble organic compounds from input
levels of 50 – 1000 mg/L BOD or more to effluent levels typically under 15 – 20 mg/L. In all
cases, the secondary treatment units must provide an environment suitable for the growth of
biological organisms that carry out waste treatment. This is usually done aerobically, in an
open aerated tank or lagoon. Also, wastewaters may be pretreated anaerobically, in a pond or
a closed tank. After biotreatment, the microorganisms and other carried-over solids are
allowed to settle. A fraction of this sludge is recycled in certain processes. However, the
excess sludge, along with the sedimented solids, must be disposed of after treatment.

10.1.3.4 Irrigation Land Treatment:

Land treatment of food-processing wastewater resulting from meat, poultry, dairy, brewery,
and winery processes has proved successful mainly through spray irrigation, applied as
various types and methods in many areas. By 1979, there were an estimated 1200 private
industrial land-treatment systems. Potato processing wastewater can be utilized as irrigation
water to increase the crop yield, because they are not polluted biologically. Irrigation systems
include ones in which loading rates are about 2 – 4 in./week (5 – 10 cm/week).

Factors such as the crops grown, soil type, groundwater, and weather determine the required
land area for irrigation. Some potato processors choose land disposal systems (spray or flood
irrigation) because other treatment systems, while they give a higher efficiency rate, are
exposed to operational problems.
Loamy, well-drained soil is most suitable for irrigation systems. However, soil types from
clays to sands are acceptable. A minimum depth to groundwater of 5 ft (1.5 m) is preferred to
prevent saturation of the root zone. If a 5 ft depth is not available due to higher groundwater,
underdrained systems can be applied without problems. As for potential odors issued from
spray irrigation, they can be controlled by maintaining the wastewater in a fresh condition in
order not to become anaerobic.

Water-tolerant grasses have proved to be the most common and successful crops for
irrigation disposal, due to their role in maintaining porosity in the upper soil layers. The
popular cover crop is reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), which develops extensive
roots that are tolerant to adverse conditions. In addition, water-tolerant perennial grasses have
been widely used because they are able to absorb large quantities of nitrogen, require little
maintenance, and maintain high soil filtration rates.

Irrigation systems normally consist of an in-plant collection system, screens, low-head pump
station, pressure line, pumping reservoir, high-head irrigation pumps, distribution piping,
spray nozzles, and irrigation land. It is preferable in this respect to preclarify the potato
processing wastewater by using a primary settling tank with a minimum 1.5 hours detention
time to decrease the suspended solids content, in order to prevent closing of spray nozzles
and soil. If the effluent has excess acid or alkali, it should be neutralized prior to discharging
to land so that cover crops may be protected. Groundwater contamination from irrigation can
be a serious problem and must be addressed during the predesign phase of a project, with the
consideration that continuous monitoring of groundwater is necessary at all times in the
irrigated area.

10.1.3.5 Stabilization Ponds and Aerated Lagoons:

A wastewater pond, sometimes called a stabilization pond, oxidation pond, or sewage lagoon,
consists of a large, shallow earthen basin in which wastewater is retained long enough for
natural processes of treatment to occur. Oxygen necessary for biological action is obtained
mainly from photosynthetic algae, although some is provided by diffusion from the air.
Depending on the degree of treatment desired, waste stabilization ponds may be designed to
operate in various ways, including series and parallel operations. In some cases such as
industrial wastewater treatment, they are referred to as tertiary ponds (polishing or maturation
ponds), in order to remove residual pollutants and algae prior to effluent discharges.The
majority of ponds and lagoons serving municipalities and industries are of the facultative
type, where the wastewater is discharged to large ponds. Usually the ponds vary from 3 to 6
ft (0.9 to 1.8 m) deep, for a period of 3 weeks and longer.

Extensive treatment loading rates for stabilization ponds were recommended in the range 5.6
– 6.7 kg BOD/1000 m3/day. High-strength wastewaters require long detention times,
increasing heat loss, and decreasing efficiency in cold climates. Additionally, highly colored
wastewaters cannot be treated effectively by facultative ponds, where oxygen generation is
supplied mainly by photosynthesis, which depends on light penetration. Therefore, it is
necessary to use aerated lagoons in which the required oxygen is supplied by diffused or
mechanical aeration units. The biological life in such lagoons contains a limited number of
algae and is similar to that found in an activated sludge system. In addition, aerated lagoons
prevent the completion of anaerobic conditions with their attendant odor problems.
 Fig No 10.1.3.5.1: General treatment scheme for potato processing effluent

10.1.3.6 Advanced Treatment:

10.1.3.6.1 Chemical Coagulation:

Phosphorus is a nutrient of microscopic and macroscopic plants, and thus can contribute to the
eutrophication of surface waters. Phosphorus may be removed biologically or chemically. In some
cases, chemicals may be added to biological reactors instead of being used in separate processes while
in others, biologically concentrated phosphorus may be chemically precipitated. Chemical phosphorus
removal involves precipitation with lime, iron salts, or alum. Lime should be considered for this
purpose if ammonia removal is also required for pH adjustment. For low effluent phosphorus
concentrations, effluent filtration may be required due to the high phosphorus content of the effluent
suspended solids.
10.1.3.6.2 Microstraining:
Microstrainers consist of motor-driven drums that rotate about a horizontal axis in a basin,
which collects the filtrate. The drum surface is covered by a fine screen with openings
ranging from 23 – 60 mm. It has been reported that effluent suspended solids and BOD from
microstrainers following an activated sludge plant have a ranges of 6 – 8 mg/L and 3.5 – 5
mg/L, respectively.

The head loss of the drum is less than 12 – 18 in (30 – 46 cm) of water. Peripheral drum
speeds vary up to 100 ft/min (30.5 m/min) with typical hydraulic loadings of 0.06 – 0.44
m/min (1.5 – 10 gal/ft2-min) on the submerged area; the backwash flow is normally constant
and ranges up to 5% of the product water. Periodic cleaning of the drum is required for slime
control.

10.1.3.6.3 Granular Media Filtration:

Granular filtration employing mixed media or moving bed filters plays an important role in
improving the secondary effluent quality, where most of the BOD is found in bacterial solids.
Therefore, removal of the suspended solids greatly improves the effluent quality. Granular
filtration is generally preferred to microstraining, which is associated with greater operational
problems and lower solids removal efficiencies.

10.1.3.7 Cattle Feed:

Filter cakes and dry potato peels are used as an excellent carbohydrate source in cattle feed.
Using potato wastes instead of corn in cattle feed does not affect the metabolic state or milk
status of the cattle. Typically, potato wastes are fed in a dry, dewatered form. The use of wet
potato wastes in cattle feed has been investigated to reduce drying expenditures. Wet potato
processing wastes can be introduced into cattle feed up at to 20% without negative results.

The issue of dry vs. wet application of potato processing wastes was also explored. Again,
dry potato wastes are expensive due to the drying processes used to stabilize the wastes. Wet
wastes must be used quickly and within a close proximity to the potato processing wastes site
due to microbial and enzymatic spoilage of the waste.

Carbohydrate-rich potato wastes can also be converted to protein for additional nutrients for
animal feed. Research indicates that starchy substances such as potato wastes can
beconverted to “microbial biomass protein” by digestion with a amylolytic, acidophilic, ther-
mophilic fungus. The fungus hydrolyzes starch, under specific high-temperature/low-pH con-
ditions. Utilizing nitrogen in the potato wastes, the fungus produces protein which is filtered,
and has been shown to be nutritionally effective in animal feeding trials if supplemented with
methionine. Limitations of this process include the short time that wastes are viable for this
treatment. Wastes can become toxic to fungus during storage. Potato and corn single-cell
protein was also used in place of soybean meal as a source of supplemental protein in cattle
feed. Results indicate the substitution can be made, if in conjunction with soybean meal
protein for growing steers .
10.2 Project: Extraction of Pectin from potato peel.
10.2.1 Introduction:
As addition to traditional raw plant materials for pectin production - apple and citric mush,
there is a possibility to use potato pulp, that is a byproduct of starch production and contains
approximately 2-5,5 % of pectin in dry weight (DW).
A natural polysaccharide called pectin is a unique biopolymer, being the main constructing
material of the plant cell wall. It is acknowledged that natural diet supplements containing
pectin make a complex influence on the human body: prevent radioactive metals from
absorption in the digestion tract and provoke their disposition; they have antioxidant
characteristics, help the human body to dispose of xenobiotics (particularly pesticides),
normalize the cholesterol level, increase resistance to allergies, improve metabolism. The
curing properties of pectin substances can be explained by their content and structure. Pectin
is widely used today in food industry and medicine.
Main part of plant raw materials processed by food industry becomes waste: beet pulp, apple
and citric mush. However, these secondary raw materials can be used for the production of
pectin substances. Citric mush is the main source of pectin for abroad. In india there is a lot
of raw potato pulp left from the production of Potato chips or starch. This by-product can be
recycled to get pectin or dietary fibers and because of this the investigation of the ways of
potato pectin extraction is of high importance.

The objective of the work was the reduce the Effluent treatment cost, reduce the waste,
utilization of bye product.

Materials and methods: Material research – potato pulp. Through the statistical processing
of the experimental data of optimum parameters of hydrolysis-extraction of potato pectin.
The structure of the resulting potato pectin studied by means of infrared spectroscopy.

10.2.2 Materials and methods:

Modern industrial technology of pectin is based on the acid-thermal hydrolysis of the raw
materials. The mineral and organic acids, alkali and enzymatic agent are used as hydrolyzing
reagent. The catalytic effect of the Hydrogen ions on the molecules of pectin substances
depends on the temperature and рН of the environment.
The existing technologies of pectin imply the combination of the processes of hydrolysis and
extraction in one technological operation. Most technologies employ ethanol for pectin
extraction.
In our project we used potato pulp, rinsed by water in order to wash the starch out. In the
series of investigation we used potato pulp processed by bacterial α-amylase (for bound
starch hydrolysis) and bacterial protease (for reducing the level of proteins that are the
components of ballast compounds). The potato pulp water content was measured by applying
the weight method. The dry weight (DW) concentration in the pectin extract was measured
by the refractometric method and pH was calculated by potentiometric measurements.
Infrared spectra (IR-spectra) were implied in the investigation process of pectin that was
extracted from the potato pulp. The IR-spectra were measured in the band of 700-3600 сm-1
by FT-IR Nikolet spectrophotometer of Nexusproduction.
There were determined the technological parameters for the process of raw potato materials,
i. e. рН, temperature and hydromodulus of the process. The hydrolysis was conducted with
periodic stirring in the thermal bath, equipped by the glass thermometer.
The potato pulp was mixed with heated acid solution at a proper for hydrolysis temperature.
The acid concentration as hydrolytic factor was calculated depending on the indicated
hydrolysis mixture pH and the hydromodulus level. The hydrolysis hydromodulus (q) is
calculated from the correlation between the weight of the acid solution and the weight of
potato raw material.

Fig No 10.2.2.1 : Flowchart of Pectin Extraction from Potato Peel

In our experiment we made it equal to 2. 100 grams of the raw material with known water
content were hydrolyzed with the acid of determined concentration. The duration of the
hydrolysis process was calculated from the moment when the hydrolyzed mixture reached
required temperature. After the hydrolysis the liquid phase was separated, the extract was
neutralized to the 4-5 level of рН by the ammonium hydroxide solution, cooled to the
temperature of 20˚С and there was conducted a coagulation of pectin substances in the extract
by the ethanol.
Then we observed the stable hydrocolloid precipitation that floated on the surface of the
liquid. The received pectin was dried by the air and grinded after additional ethanol rinse.
The amount of end product (%) was calculated in relation to the dry weight.

10.3 Conclusions

The potato pulp was investigated as a potential raw material for pectin extraction. The
extracted potato pectin contains a considerate quantity of starch granules which are extracted
and precipitated along with pectin substances.
There have been determined optimal conditions for the process of pectin extraction from the
potato pulp: 1,45 % concentration acid to the hydrolysis weight, 70 minutes of hydrolysis at
the temperature of 72 °С. Infrared spectra of potato pectin confirm that it contains functional
(carboxyl, hydroxyl and ester bounded) groups in the molecule of this polysaccharide. The
samples of pectin (got after processing the raw material with enzymatic agent) have a higher
number of carboxyl and carbonyl groups, manifesting a partial hydrolysis of starch and
protein and possibility of extracting pure pectin.