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Figure 1 – Force application key-point Figure 2 – Force system acting during the takeoff run
In Figure 1, the distances presented are: In Figure 2, the forces depicted are:
YCAT – vertical distance from the aerodynamic center of the L – wing-fuselage lift;
horizontal stabilizer with respect to the ground;
D – aircraft total drag;
YCAW – vertical distance from the aerodynamic center of the
wing with respect to the ground; LT – horizontal stabilizer lift;
YR – vertical distance from the landing gear center position Am – friction force on the main landing gear;
with respect to the ground;
Fn – normal force on the nose landing gear;
Xn – horizontal distance from the nose landing gear center
position with respect to the datum;
Fm – normal force on the main landing gear;
XCG - horizontal distance from the estimated gravity center
Ma – aerodynamic moment of the wing-fuselage system.
position with respect to the datum;
The forces and moments applied on the geometric key- TAKEOFF DISTANCE CALCULATION
points must be also defined. Figure 2 shows the forces and
moments that need to be considered on the takeoff analysis. The process of the takeoff run is divided into discrete
time steps in order to evaluate the takeoff distance. The
2
acting force system must be evaluated at each time step. [− T .(YT − YR ) + Ma − L( Xm − X CAW ) + D(YCAW − YR ) + LT ( X CAT − Xn) + W .( X CG − Xn)] (4)
Nm =
The takeoff instant is defined when both normal forces on ( Xm − Xn)
the nose and main landing gears are equal to zero.
The vertical force equilibrium leads to Equation 5.
The simulation is divided into two phases. In the first
phase, the aircraft is running with both nose and main Nn = W − L + LT − Nm (5)
landing gears in contact with the runway. In the second
phase, the aircraft is considered to be rotating to takeoff, •
still running only with the main landing gear in contact with It is then possible to calculate the aircraft speed x
the runway. The takeoff distance calculation scheme is after a period ∆t of time using the forces evaluated. The
presented in Figure 3. linear speed after each time step i is evaluated using
Equation 6.
• • ••
x i = x i −1 + x .∆t (6)
• •
x− x 0
xi = ••
(7)
2. x
PHASE 1 – AIRCRAFT IS RUNNING WITH BOTH PHASE 2 – AIRCRAFT IS RUNNING WITH ONLY THE
NOSE AND MAIN LANDING GEARS IN CONTACT MAIN LANDING GEAR IN CONTACT WITH THE
WITH THE RUNWAY RUNWAY AND ROTATING TO TAKEOFF
In this phase of the takeoff run, the aircraft is running In this phase, the nose landing gear is assumed not to
with both nose and main landing gears in contact with the be in contact with the runway, with the aircraft rotating to
runway. Therefore, Equation 1 describes the horizontal takeoff. The force system in this case is shown on Figure 4.
resultant force acting on the system, where m is the mass of .
the aircraft and &
x&is the linear acceleration.
∑ F = m.&
x& (1)
− T + D + An + Am
&
x&= (2)
m Figure 4 – Force system acting during the takeoff rotation
Equation 3 shows the equilibrium of the in-plane The linear acceleration is now evaluated using the
••
moments, where IS is the aircraft in-plane inertia and θ is relation expressed on Equation 8, and the angular
the angular acceleration. The explicit form for the normal acceleration can be calculated using Equation 9.
force on the main landing gear is shown in Equation 4.
− T . cosθ + D + Am (8)
&
x&=
•• m
∑M S = I S .θ = 0 (3)
3
••
θ= ∑M S (9) Drag – The wing drag force can be divided into two
IS components [1], one related to the induced drag and other
related to the parasite drag. Equation 14 describes this
division, where CD0W is the parasite drag coefficient and
The normal force on the main landing gear is reduced CDIW is the induced drag coefficient.
to the expression presented on Equation 10
C DW = C D 0W + C DIW (14)
Nm = −T . sin θ + W − L + LT (10)
n
ST = ∑ xi (11)
i =1
wing planform;
The parasite drag coefficients are determined through
airfoil used; the values for the bi-dimensional wing airfoils, generally
found in the literature [2][3]. The evaluation of each CiD0
attack angle. should consider the Reynolds number variation with the
airspeed.
With these input data it is possible to evaluate the lift
coefficient (CL) distribution along the wingspan, divided The wing induced drag coefficient (CDiW) is given by
into n discrete sections. The global CL is calculated by the Equation 16, where A is the wing aspect ratio and δ is a
Equation 12, where CLiE is the CL of the i station, and Si correction factor depending on the three-dimensional wing
denotes the area of the station i. geometry [1][2].
n
∑ CL
2
i
.S i C
E
C DiW = LW .δ (16)
CL = i =1
n
(12) π .A
∑ .S
i =1
i
The contribution of the horizontal stabilizer to the drag
follows the same approach applied to the wing.
Equation 13 shows how the lift force (L) can be
calculated, where SW is the wing total area, ρ is the air The drag of the other components (fuselage, landing
density, and V is the airspeed. gear, propeller, etc.) can be determined using methods from
the literature [1][4][5].
1
L = .ρ .V 2 .S W .C L (13) Friction Forces – Friction forces acting on the wheels of the
2 nose and main landing gears can be calculated using
4
Equations 17 and 18, respectively. In these equations µ is Table 1 – Specifications of the aircraft UFMG-Open
the dynamic friction coefficient, which can be either
Empty Weight 58.86 N (6 kgf)
experimentally evaluated or obtained from the literature [6].
Wing Aerodynamic Profile Eppler 423
Fn = µ .Nn (17) Horizontal Stabilizer Span 0.92 m
Horizontal Stabilizer Area 0.212 m²
3
Aceleration [m/s²]
Wing 1
2 Wing 2
Wing 3
Wing 4
1 Wing 5
Wing 6
Wing 7
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance [m]
5
16 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
14
Wing 1 The authors would like to thank the sponsor
12
Wing 2
Speed [m/s]
27
26 [3] – Weise, A.; “Stuttgarter Profilkatalog I”; Institut fur
25 aerodynamic und gasdynamik der technischen hochschule
24
23 Stuttgart; Stuttgart; 1972.
22
21
20 [4] – Hoerner, S.F.; “Fluid-Dynamic Drag”; Published by
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the autor; Brick Town; 1965.
Wing Configuration
Wing Incidence - 6º Wing Incidence - 8º Wing Incidence - 10º [5] – Carmichael, B.H.; “Personal Aircraft Drag
Reduction”; Published by the autor; San Clemente; 2000.
Figure 9 – MTOW for the wing configurations studied
[6] – Pazmany, L.; “Landing Gears Design for Light
Aircraft”; Pazmany Aircraft Corporation; San Diego; 1986.
Through the procedure presented it was possible to
pick the best configuration among the seven studied for the
aircraft UFMG-Open, considering the MTOW and the
wing-fuselage incidence angles as optimization parameters.
This can be easily done with the computer code in which
the presented method was implemented. It is important to
point out the flexibility of the method concerning the
number of different takeoff parameters that can be
evaluated.