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Cortney August 25, 2014 Science & Technology + density currents, Easy Science, geology,
igneous, pyroclastic flows, volcanoes
Volcanic rocks are extrusive igneous rocks. There are two main groups: rocks that form from
the solidification of lava flows (extrusive), and rocks that form from the compaction of solid
volcanic fragments (pyroclastic). This post will cover the basics in easy-to-grasp bullet-point
style that facilitates comparison between volcanic rocks. For information on eruption types,
click here.
Extrusive Rocks
Basalts, andesites, and rhyolites form when lava solidifies at the earth's surface. Since at 20
°C the surface of the earth is basically freezing if you're a lava that prefers to stay at 750-
1250 °C, extrusive rocks cool very rapidly. As a result, the minerals don't have time to form
large crystals, which they would if they sat at depth and cooled slowly.
Rhyolite
A'a flow dynamics. Pahoehoe converts into a'a as viscosity and the rate of shear (rate of
deformation as the lava slides over the ground) increase. A'a advances in a tractor-tread-like
fashion, with the top moving faster than the bottom, so the top rolls over at the front of the
flow.
Textures:
Glassy: smooth, glassy; indicates very rapid cooling; typical example is obsidian
Aphanitic: fine; individual grains not visible to the naked eye; indicates rapid
cooling; examples are rhyolite and basalt
Phaneritic: individual grains visible visible to the naked eye; indicates slow cooling
Pegmatitic: coarse; very large grains, often over 2 cm; indicates very slow cooling
Porphyritic: contains crystals of varying sizes; formed via two-stage cooling
whereby large crystals form slowly at depth and fine crystals form quickly at the
surface
Vesicular: porous, filled with cavities; develops when gas bubbles exsolve as magma
rises to lower pressures (at higher pressures, the bubbles are kept in solution), and the
lava then solidifies around these bubbles
o Pumice: vesicular rock of felsic composition
o Scoria: vesicular rock of mafic composition; compared to pumice, typically
darker in color and denser, with thicker walls and larger vesicles
Poikilitic: larger crystals contain small pieces of other minerals within them; typically
indicates long cooling periods, allowing time for materials to diffuse into the center of
the crystal
Pyroclastic Rocks
Ash: <2 mm
Lapilli: 2-64 mm
Bombs (round) & Blocks (angular): >64 mm
Emplacement
Fall: ash eventually settles after being carried high above the volcano in a vertical
plume
Pyroclastic Flow: fast, concentrated (>10% solid) density current of steaming
pyroclastic material; travels fastest near bottom
Pyroclastic Surge: extremely fast (hurricane speed), dilute (<1% solid) density
current of steaming pyroclastic material; concentrated density current of volcanic
debris; travels fastest at top; very dangerous
Rocks
Tuff and ignimbrite. Image credit: www.sandatlas.org
Ignimbrite deposits show vertical and lateral variation. Ash tends to be found at the top, as
well as far away from the eruption. In the flow unit cross-section (upper left), white particles
are pumice; black particles are lithics, and dots are ash. Layer 1 forms as heavy lithic
fragments fall out at the front of the flow. Layer 2a, which shows reverse grading (larger
materials on top), results from the surge kicking up material from the ground. Layer 2B, the
largest layer, displays normal grading (LCZ) as heavier lithic particles settled out, followed
by reverse grading as light pumice "floats" to the top. Lapilli pipes form when gas escapes,
blowing out the fine gas and leaving behind just lapilli. Layer 3 develops when ash settles
from secondary- or co-ignimbrite clouds (see cloud shown in upper right figure).
Epiclastic Rocks
Lahar. Image credit: USGS