:

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J. ]IAIT
 CHAPTER

Two-Body
Orbital lWechanics 2-1 tN1

I
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lhc Spacc Shdttle A!lantis, crrrJing a geocentric lracking and relav satellil€
(II)RS), during first-\tirge a\renr and shortlr- alter lilt-oft. (Courtcs! of NASA.)
R 2

cdy
nrrs 2.1 INTRODUCTION

Celestiul mechanics is defined in one dictionaryr as "the branch of mechanics con-

cerned with thc motion of natural or man-made celestial bodies under the influence
of gravity. " From this definition we see that the terms ceLestiaL mechanics and orbital
mechanics are synonymous and interchangeable. However, orbital mechanics is
often used to describe the trajecto es and orbits of human-made vehicles (space-
craft) only.
Celestial (orbital) mechanics is essentially an application of Sir Isaac Newton's
(1642-1721) law of universal gravitation and of his three laws of motion. It is
interesting to note that pior to Newton, Johannes Kepler (1571 1630) used his own
obseryations and data from earlicr astronomers. such as Tycho Brahe (154G1601),
to develop the three Keplerian laws of planetary motion. which can be stated as
follows:

1. The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the Sun at one focus.
2. The line joining a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal arcas in equal intervals
uf time
-g'tJ 1i*d -'---
3. The square of thc'pe-iiitl6fi planei is prop.,rtionrl to the cube of the major
axis of its elliptical orbit.

In the course of developing the two-body equations of motion, we shall demonstrate

and verify the validity of these laws of Kcpler.
In this chapter we develop the vector equation of motion for two bodies subject
only to their mutual gravitational attractions and thcn simplify it for the case where
one body is much smaller than the other (the central force field problen). Then the
scalar equations and constants of motion will be obtained by vector operations and
it will be shown that the trajectory of the smaller body with respect to the larger body
can bc represented by the polar equation of a conic. Consequently. all of the

I
The Warld Book Dictionat\,. Field Enterprises. Chicago. 1971
 Two-Body Orbital Mecha nics Chap.

well-known properties and characteristics of conic sections can be applied to the

trajectory of the smaller body.

2-2 THE TWO-BODY PROBLEM

Although every body (mass) in the universe is attracted to and has an attraction for
every other body, it is, fortunately, possible to treat most trajectories of interest as
the solution of the much simpler two-body probiem. The central problem in two-
body mechanics is the determination of the motion of two point masses (with
specified initial positions and velocities) that are subject only to their own mutual
gravitational forces. Typically, one mass is considerably smaller than the other and
it is its trajectory (orbit) that is of interest. Deviations from the two-body solution
may arise because the two bodies arc not truly point masses or because of the action
of other forces, such as drag or the attractior ol other bodies. These effects are often
sufficiently small as to be treated as corrections to (or perturbations of) the two-body
solution or even to be ignored completely.
Before developing the solution to the two-body problem, it is necessarl ro
introduce Ner/.,ton's ktw of universaL gravitation, which in essence states that /ryo
bctdies will exert a forte on each other thqt acts along the line joining the bodtes and
that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. Remember that a "law" is an empirical
relationship that is based on obseNations only and cannot be proved.
Let us now consider two homogeneous spheres of any relative size, z, and m2,
that can be treated as point masses, that are subject only to their mutual gravitational
forces, and that are located in an inertial reference system as shown in Fig. 2-2-1,
where R1 and R, are the inefiial position vectors of the two masses and r is the vector
joining the two masses. The gravitational force acting on each body can be written
in vector tbrm as

r: Gulmt,, (2-2-t)

where G is the anlversal gruvitational constant a:ndl,is a unit vector of r and positive
in the direction of m:.
Newton's second law for a point mass can be writtcn as F : rna, where a is the
acceleration of.the mass with respect to inefiial spacc. Applying Newton's sccond
law to m1, a is R1 and Eq. (2-2-1) can be written, keeping the direction of the force
in mind. as
(lm.
z,R- =#1, m. (2-2-2)

Ifwe cancel the mr on both sides of the equation, we obtain an expression for R1,
namely,

n,-93r. (2-2-3)
; Chap. 2
sec. 2-2 The Two-Body Problem

plicd to the

ttraction for
)f interest as
)lem in two-
rasses (with
o\!n mutual
le othcr and
rdj/ solution zl
cf the action
cts are oflen fiSv''e 2'2-l A,r ,nertrr.L rcfin,rre tc.r,'?.vrai-e ,ty s fer.)1

he two-body
In a similar manller. we obtain a similar exprcssion for Ii1.
necessar! to
tcs that 1wo ri. : G'-'
r, (2-2-4)
e bodies and
Droporti0ul From Fig. 2-2 I rve see tltat r : R. R,, so that i : ii. Ii,. Subtracting Eq.
an empirical (2-2-3) from Eq. (2-2-a) ard using the relationship that 1. : r,/r vields

:.m and m.. G (rttt + nt.)

gravitational r (2-2-s)
n Fig. 2-2-1,
is the vector Equation (2-2-5) is thc vector differential cquation of the rcLative motion of the two
Ln be written bodies. whcre the expression G (rn, + nr. ) is gencrallv refe rred to a s lhe gravitqtional
parameter (of the combined nasses) and is givcn the symbol p.
Let us next look at the relationship of the center of mass (cm) of the system
to the center ol the larger bodv. Referring to Fig. 2-2-2 and applying the dcfinition
and positivc
ol the centcr of nass that Jrdm:0, we see that for our two-bodv system,
trlt rt nu r, : 0. Sincc r. : r - r1, thcn rr : mzrl(.nt1 + rtl). With the assumption
a is the
thalmt>>nt.. r bccomcs verv small and the centcr of the principal attracting (the
',here largcr) body can be taken to bc the cm of the systen and thus serve as the origin
t0n's second
of an inertial rclcrcnce svstem. Fbr examplc, ior the Eafih Sun combination with
r of the force
the ratio of the rrasses = 11332.900, the cm of the svstem is on the order of ,155 km
fron thc cclter of the Sun. whereas thc distance between the Sun and the Earth is
on the order of 150 million kilometers. Furthermorc. since the ansular velocity of
iinc joining the two bodies is cqual to the rangcntiitl componcnt of the velocity of
ssion for ii', each body dividc'd bv irs distance from the cm. Vr .:< V.. For cxarnple. thc orbital
vclocity of thc Sun about thc cm of the systcm is on the ordcr of 0.I m,/s. whereas
that of thc Earth is on thc older of 30.(XX) mi s. lt should bc pointed out rhat alrhough
this central body approxination is valid for manv purposes. there are times whcn
it is not.
10 Two-Body Orbital Mechanics Chap. 2

\2

Vt

Figfie 2'2'2. Two-bodY sYstem.

Consequently. the two-body system can be represented by Fig. 2-2-3, where

the cm of the system is located at the larger point mass and the velocity of the larger
mass with respect to the cm is neglected. Rernember that the larger mass, m b is not
fixed in space; however, it is the motion of the smaller body with respect to the larger
(attracting) body that interests us. It should be pointed out that this central-body
approximation is sufficiently accurate for many purposesJ but not all.
'V,lithm1>> m2, Gmr and is redefined as the gravitational parameter of the
Fr =
larger body. Equation (2-2-1) can now be rewritten as

r =#t (z-z-6)
2.3 THE
where the subscripts have been dropped and z is the mass of the smaller body. The
magnitude of the force in F,q. (2-2-6) is called the weight of the smaller body and I
accelerates the smaller body toward the cm of the attracting body. This acceleration c
is commonly referredto as the acceleration d.ue to gravif, is given the symbol g, and
can be found from the expressions c

o:Y: ^' (2-2-7)

Figor€ 2-2-3. Simplified two-body system.

 Chap.2 Sec.2 3 The Equations and Cor)stants of Mottoil 't1

to bc

(2-2 8)

Sincc p is a coDstant foJ: it giVen rttlactirg h()d\.,g is rot lr (:i)rr!tirnI. lar:r.ing inverscLv
irs thc stlrrrrc ol the tlistance of the s]naller l)o,l\ 1r orn thf r.rrr of tlre attracling bodv-
Itt sunntarl. thtt assttlrtl)tiorts trsccl irr lltc tLcrt:l,.prrt trt of rhese rcstricted
two-bo(l\ equations ale thal:

l. Thc lar{ct br:cll is tt }tttinogetteorts sphcrr': tltal rrrrr ht 1r,,t1f.1 rs a point nrass
wilh its ilttrllctive force concentrated lt jls rrr''r1"r
2. The snrallcr bcrclv is also a point nrrrs.
2-2-3, where 3. The- nrrss ol the' larqcr lrodr is so nnr( h !rr( ater tll^l] thul ol the snruller bocll
of the larger that the cm of thc s\stcllt cln lre lircltted nt tltL. crr ol tlre ltrrqr:r bcrdv. ancl the
ss. rx!. is,?oI attractivc lorcc ol the snraller b0<it cutr be trcglr:rlcri. IlIr sravit,ttional attrac-
to thc largcr licrn of the larger bodv is s()rn,rtirrcs r,rlcrrf(l t1) a. a ccttrtul lrtre lield.
ccntralbody ,1. thc gravilrrtionill attrrcli()n of urrv olher b,rdics r:l'r t',: igqored.
5. There a[c no forccs ott]cr than grilvitirtior lrr-linq rrrr tlr,-'qnallcl trodv (i.e.. no
lmeter ol the lilt. drag. thrLLst. \olar prcssl[e. etc.).

/I-)-r,t
2.3 THE EQUATIONS AND CONSTANTS OF MQTION
er bodv. 'fhe
ler bodv and I-ct us rro\! define an incrtial rcfcrcncc s\s1crn birth (lartesian anci polar
LLsin.s
racceleration coordinates. as shoun in Fig. 2 3- I . rvith thc or igin at thc ctrr of the ]argr:r bodv and
v$bol8, and rvhere the porlliori airgfu, r, is neasureil from the pot;itile.r aris arrcl is positive in the
countcrclock\\'ise direction.
lIsing cilhcr delinition of 11. Iic1. (12 5) can hc $r'ittcn as

u
r *r.r... ll (2 3 1)
L,
Equatior (2-3-l) is the Nt,lrLr.rrir'r tc(t(r' (qtutiotl eJ rrtotiott that describcs lhc
relative motion of thc snlaller bocl\ rvith [espect to the larger. Sinc:c tlrr: rnirss of the
smaller bodl'has disappcirrcd fronr thc ctluafirtl. the m{'tion of thc slraller bocly is
inclependcn t ol its nass: this is for tuitor.rs in tLat thc nrasr, of lhc srnallcr bodv (e. g. .
ri spiicecfirft) cloes not ha\,e tL) l)e kno\\n. lh.] ntass ol thc largcr troclr'tttanifests itself
in the grar'ltational pararnctcr.
By neans of \,cctol operiltioris and rnanipulations Iq. (2:l 1) can t]c t[ans-
fornecl into pcrfcct diihrrcntilrls tlrilt ca]l be integraterl ti) o[)lain constants of
integration tbat are irlso corstarts of the orbital nrotior lncl that sho\ that both
r*o'bod! s\'stcm. crtcrg! and irnltulitr monentunr are conseLvecl.
 12 Two-Body Orbital Mechanics Chap.2

tlrr , Figure 2_3-1. Inertial reference system'

To show that mechanical energy is conserved, we find the dot product of each
term with i so that Eq. (2-3-1) becomes
i.i+rE(i.r)=0 (2-3-2)

since r: r1..

t:ftor,t=n,+r!
Therefore, the term (i r) can be written as

i.r ritt..r,t _ ,,(t, !))

However, (1, l.): 1 and (1, ' r dl,ldt) = 0,sothat(i'r) - rt. Similarly, (i i)=
(Y.V) : yV. with these substitutions, Eq. (2-3-2) is a scalar equation, as was
expected, and can be written as

vvr4=o (2-3-3)

L,E
This scalar equation can be written in expanded form as
H =,:onSfrnt
,!dl ++
r' dl
or vdv --!a,
r'
(z-3-4)

With the variables separated, Eq. (2-3-a) can be integrated to obtain

Y,v: ul (2-3-s)
lz ' )

where ,E, the constant of integration ,is a constant of the orbital motion.We recognize
rt as the total specific mechanical energy (energy per unit mass) since it is the sum
 Chap.2 sec. 2-3 The Equations and Constants of Motion 13

of thc specific kinetic cnergy. yrl2. ard the speciiic potential cnergy. p/r. (Al-
though specific (per unit rnass) properties are conventionally assigned lorver casc
lctters. E is used tO avoicl anv confusion with the eccentricilv. which is often denotecl
clsewhere by e.) Equation (2-3--5). sometimes referred to i\s the vis-viva integral,
shows that the total lncchanical encrgv per unit mass of the smaller bocly is con-
served. which should not surprisc us inasmuch as there are no dissipative mech-
anjsms. such as drag. rvithin thc closed systcm.
A few rvords are in order rvith regard to the sign and referelcc datum for the
specific potential energy ( p/r'). We are accustomed to a datum at thesurfaccofthe
Earth where the potcntial energy is rcro and to a potential energy that incrcases with
altitude. ln this casc. however. thc datun is thc ccnter of the larger (the attracting)
bod1,. and when r is zero. thc potential energy is negatively infinite. As r increascs,
the potential energl' becomes less negativc (rnore positive) and gocs to zero when
r becomes infinite. At this poirt the gravitational artraction g is also zero and the
smallcr body is no longer subject to the attraction of the largcr body. We speak of
this as the escape o[ the smaller body from the artriiction of the larger body. The
duct of each
physical siqnificance of an infinite r will be addressed in a subsequent section.
'lo show that the angular ntomentum is conservecl. let us rcturn to the vector
/l-1-)\ equation of motion. Eq. (2-3-1), and rewrite it as

r:1. (2-3-6)

This time we shall find the producr of each rerm crossed wirlr r: that is,

rxi:+(rxr) (2.3.7)

Butr x r:0.sothat.Eq. (2 3-l)reducestor x i = 0, which can be integrated with

the hclp of hindsight and backward calculations: for examplc.
.rly. (i i) =
tion. as was (2-3-8)
;(rxi):(ixi)+(rxi)
but i x i:0, so that

Io
(2-3-3)
,, t: !.{, xi) U (2-3-e)

Y=r,9.! r^ec1rr
whichmcansthatr x i is another constant ol motion. Since i : Vandr X VisH-
(2-3-4) the specific mgular nontentum of lhe smaller t ndr .lTff7=-u! nd, H is a vector
constant of integration thqt providr\ ruo addtrittttul , o'nsniiTfiotio,n. (H is used
rather than the conventional h to be consistent with the use of E for spccific energy
and to avoid confusion with ft to clesignate altitude.)
Since H - Flil,., both its magnitudc Fl and its direction lg are constant.
(2-3-5)
Furthernore, since H is the cross product of r and V, the plane containing,. and y
is always perpendicularr to H indicatiDg that the nlotion of rhe smaller mass relative
We recognize to the larger mass (the trajectory or orbit) is rcstricted to a plane that is fixed in an
it is the sum inertial reference frame (i.c., two-body trajectories are planar). Remember that an
 14 Two-Body Orbital Mechanics Chap. 2

I_igure 2-3-2. Plane of motion

perpendicular to [L

inertial reference frame cannot accelerate or rotate but can have a constant transla-
tional velocity.
The relationship of H to a trajectory can be seen in Fig. 2 -3-2. The
Local horizon
is the perpendicular to thc position vector r, and S, the e Levation angle,) is measured
from the local horizon to the velocity vector and is positive in a clockwise direction
(above the horizon). The right-hand rule for obtaining the cross product of two
vectors shows that the direction of H is out of thc plane of the trajectory and is fixed
in space. The magnitude of the angular momentum vector is
H : rVsin(90" d,) = rVcosS (2-3-10)
where (90' - d) is the angle between r and V.
At this point in our development. we have a vector equation of motion and two
integral relationships. the vis-viva integral [Eq. (2-3-5)] and Eq. (2-3-10), which
provide two scalar constants of motion (the mechanical energy E and the magnitude
of the angular momentum H) and simple relationships between the time-varying
position and velocity of thc smaller body at any point on the trajectory (orbit), and
we have shown that the direction of H is also constant, thus proving that the
trajectories are planar and fixed with respect to an inertial reference frame.

2-4 THE EQUATTON OF CONIC SECT|ONS

Let us return once more to the vector equation of motion, Eq. (2-3-1), and this time
cross-multiply each term by H to obtain

Hxirf(Hxrt (r (2.4-1)

rThe elevation angle mav also be called the flight path angle'y.
 chap.2 sec. 2-4 The Equation of Conic Sections '15

Uring hrnrlsight to eraluarr the first rernr yields

4
dt
,t, ,, :4! xi+(Hxi)
L1t

But dHldt : 0. so that

Hxi ft,n"0, -rlrHrvr Q-a-2a)

Expanding the second term in Eq. (2-,1-1) u'ith H = r x i yields

I tl. .lo (r ' ilrl : t t,'. - ,r. : *(t;

-..)
rotion But

stanl transla-
-(: ;,) = *(+.) - + e ' .r (2_4_2b)

Now substitutc Eqs. ( 2-4-2a) and (2-4-2b) into Eq. (2-a-t) to obtain a perfect
Localhorizon
r is measured differential.
vise direction
oduot of two #[r'"u,-']l:o (2-1-3)
v and is fixed
Therefore. the brackeled ferm in Eq. (2-4-3) must be another constant of integration
and constant of motion. Let us give it the symbol B (the reason for the minus sign
(2-3-10) will becomc apparent later), where

(Hxv)+|':-" (2-4-4)
rtion and two
-3 l0). which
hc magnitude
Now we shall dot-multiply Eq. Q- -q by r to obtain the scalar equarion
timc-varying
y (rrbit). and r'(Hxv) +[1r.r1 = B.r (2-4-5)
ving that the
: frame. The first term expands as

r.(HxV)= r. (v x H): (rxv) H: H.H: H2

and the second term is simply p.r. We see that Eq. (2-,1-5) is a scalar equation that
can be written as
and this timc
-H' + pr: -Br cosg (2-4-6)

where p is the angle between B and r. Solving Eq. (2-4-6) for the magnitudc of the
(2-4-1) position vector yields
H:lt
' 1+ (A/p) cos p
(2-4-7)
 Two-Body Orbital Mechanics Chap 2
t6
2-5 SO

Figur€ 2-4'l' Relationship of B to the trajectory'

polar coordinates of a conic with

We remember that the general equation' in '
body can be wfltten as
its primary focus at the center of the larger
t) (2-4-8)
' 1 + € cosr.,

rectum,3 is the value of r when the position

angle v is 90" and
where p ,lhe semilatus of the conic ln comparing
€- the eccentricity, determines the type and shape
form with p = LFtp
;.:'i; ;:;;';i;;'i;;-;-;;. ; ;;; ;i;;,;;v are
slows
iden,ica,in
that B, which is constant in both
;i:-= ;;* and if p = u. rquutton (2-4-3)Uottt r and the cross product of H and V
is aligned wittr
-*"f,to1!Jaf.*tion, of the Cartesian
azlr when B lies along ttre maloi axis of the conic (the r-axis Fig' 2-4-1'
in
:;J'dH; ;;;;;fi;';r;';, I and u are identicar' as shown

ItwouldbenicetohaveanexpressionforB,andthus€,intermsoftheother
each side by itself
to Eq (2-4-4) and dotting
constants of the traiectory' Retur-ni'ng
maintains the identity and results in the expressron

a" = rr(v'-'). U Q-4-e)

s :
But from Eq. (2 3:!), V - 4ttr : 2E, so that 82 p2 + LEI( and

. =i=
conclude this section with the observation that
We-u"ov
{l+
the planar trajectory of the
(2-4-10)

can be
,-"u". *ir-r,i"rp"",,o tt" ""nt"r of the attracting (larger) body
,"pr".."t.0LV the polar equation of a conic in the form

t: I{lp (2-4-Lr)
1 +;;o-
where the value of e can be found from Eq'
(2-4-10)'

of the conic section

3
Sometimes p is describ ed as the parumeter
 chap.2 Sec. 2-5 Some Properties of Conic Settions 17

2-5 SOME PROPERTIES OF CONIC SECTIONS

It is significant and vcry useful to find that the scalar exprcssion for r, the distancc
of the smaller bodv from the centcr of the larger body, is in the form of the general
polar equation of a conic scction with the origin at the principal focus. As a
consequencc. all of the known and familiar properties and characteristics of conic
sections (hyperbolas, parabolas. ellipscs. and circles) can be applied directlv to the
planar two-trody traicctory. The polar equation of a conic section is repeated herc
for convenience.

p
(2-5-1)
' I+..,t.,
a conic with
The value o[ e. the eccentrici4,, is an important parameter; it determincs the
shape and type of the conic section and thus the trajectory of the smaller body. If
(2-4-8) € > 1, the trajectory is a hyperbola (an opcn trajectory). If e : 1. the trajector)' is
usually a parabolar (also an open trajector.v). If 0 < e < 1, the rrf,jecror) is an
e r is 90' and ellipsc(aclosedtrajectory,anorbit).Finally,ife:0,thetrajectorvisacircle.which
n comparing may be thought of ils a degenerate ellipse.
ith p -- H2lp' For ballistic missile and planetary satellite trajectories, cllipses and circles are
rstant in both of primarv interest. Therefore. let us look first at the major charactcdstics of an
tofHandV ellipse. as shown in Fig. 2-5-1. where the point P rcpresents the location of thc
he Cartesian smaller body and fi (the principal focus) is the center of the larger (attracting) body.
1 2-4-1.. Referring to Fig. 2-5- 1 , a is the semimajor axrs. b the semiminor axis , and a.
s of the other b, and c are related b! the cxpression a' : b1 ! cr (see Fig. 2-5-2a). Also. c/a : e,
side by itself the ecccnticitv. Points A and B represcnt the apsides of the orbit. point,4, the
closest point to the p mary focus. is the perlap.rls, and point .B, the farthest point
from the primary focus. is the dltoupsis. lf the center of the Earth is located at the
(2-4-e) primary focus, point,4 is usually referred to as the perlgee and point B as the apogee
of the orbit. If. on the othcr hand, the Sun is located at the primary focus. points
A and B are the periheliort aw) aphelion, respectively.
Rcferring this timc to Fig. 2 5-2b, we see thar at thc apsides, r' + r : (a
(2-4-10) c) + (a + c). so rhat

rjectory of the r + r' :2a, a constant (2-s-2)

body can be
Equation (2-5-2) is onc definition of an ellipse; tbr example, an ellipse can be drawn
by taking a piece of string with a lcngth of 2a, fastening the ends at the two fbci,
and then placing the pencil inside the string and drawing.
(2-4-t1) At periapsis (where u : 0), r, denoted by r. is given by
.P
'"- (2-s-3a)
I .
'It is also necessary thal the semimajor axis,.r. be infinite
 18 Two-Body Orbital Mechanics Chap. 2

Semilatus
rectum
I
2b Y

4-- 2c __________t
Secondary
focus

2a
Major axis

Figure 2-5_1. Major charactenstics of an ellipse'

and at apoapsis (where u : rr radians), r, is given by

D
(2-s-3b)

Since /, + /p : 24, substituting the two equations above results in the relationship
that
p=a(I-e2) (z-s-4)

and Eq. (2-5-1) can be written as

s(7 - e'z)
t:l+."na" (2-s-s)

Sincep : Iflp,ande : I t + ZZtlht und using Eq. (2-5-4), we can solve for
the important relationship that

(2-s-6)

This equation shows that the energy, which is constant, is inversely proportional to
the size of the major axis and is directly proportional to the gravitational parameter,
which in turn is directly proportional to the mass of the larger (attracting) body.
When a is positive, E is negative and the trajectodes (orbits) are ellipses or circles;
when a is infinite, E is zero and the trajectory is a parabola; and when a is negative,
-E is positive and the trajectory is a hyperbola.
 chap.2 sec. 2-5 Some Properties of Conic Sections 19

Selnilrtus

1r)

r --; --
Figure2-5-2. Additionalciliptical
IL]) rclationships.

Returning to the polar equations of the apsidcs and substituting the relation-
ship that p = .rr(1 e:) results in
(2-5-3b)
r,,: r,,,": a(l e)
e relationshiP (2-s-7)
r,,: r.,,,.: a(1 +e)
(2-5-4) Finally, it can be shown that
c f, fD
(2-s-8)
0 r4 + fp

(2-5-5)
At the apsides. the elevation angle $ is zero and the magnitude of the angular
momentum 11, which is constant, is simply the product of the distance from the
re can solve for primary focus and the respective velocity at each point. Consequently, the following
relationships exist:
H:rrVn:r"V" (2-s'9a)

.,
v"-
H - r"V" = y-," (2-5-eb)
)roportional to
nal parameter, ,, H 'tI-r, (2-s-9c)
tracting) body.
pses or circlesi Since ro is the minimum value of thc position vector, V, the velocity at periapsis.
n c is negative, is thc highest velocity in the orbit. Correspondingly, %. the velocit) at apoapsis. is
the lowest velocitv in the orbit.
 Two-Body Orbital Mechanics Chap. 2

The position angle v at any point on a trajectory can be found by solving the
polar equation [Eq. (2-5-t)] to obtain the expression

, = *. '[:(,' (2-s-10)
')l
Equation (2-5-10) shows that when the smaller body is at the semilatus rectum where
r = p, | :90'; the semilatus rectum is definecl as the value of r when r, = 90".
Moving on, the hyperbola is the primary trajectory for the escape of a space-
craft from the gravitational attractjon of a larger body, such as a planet or a moon.
or even thc Sun. It is also the trajectory of interest when a spacecraft enters or
reenters a sphere of gravitational attraction.
As is the case with the parabola. the hyperbola is an open trajectory (not an
orbit) with a periapsis only. The geometry of the hyperbola is sketched in Fig 2-5-3
with only the nrajor branch and the primary focus Fl shown Since the trajectory is
not closed, the magnitude ofrcan increase without limit, and as it approaches infinity
the tip of the position vector will approach one of the asymptotes that intersect at
the center O, which is outside the trajectorl'. The semimajor axis a is measured from
O to periapsis and is negative, as are b and c, and e : -cl dlthe distance from O
to F1 : ae.
Since the asymptotes represent the position vectors when r is infinite (+"), the
angle between the major axis and an asymptote is u', as shown in Fig 2-5-3.
Furthermore. since the conic relationships developed for the ellipse (with the excep-
tion ofthose pertaining to the apoapsis) can be applied to the hyperbola, Eq (2-5-10)
can be used to show that
,.:.or'-! (2-5-11)
€ 2.6 TH

The angle between the intersecting asymptotes is Ihe tuning it is the angle
angLe 6;
through which the velocity along the trajectory turns as a body travels from -"r to

Figur€ 2-5-1. (ieonlctrY of the hvpcrbola.

 Chap.2 sec. 2-6 The Phys ca Siqnificance of Two Body Trajectories 21

! solving the *.. A perpcndicular to thc major axis at O bisects the turning angle so that thc acute
anglc betweer the asvmptrltc irnd the rnajor axis. which is equal to (n r-,.) radians,
is also eclual to (rr,12 6/2) radians. Writins this jdentity and taking the cosinc of both
(2--5- 10) sides vielcls
i rr 6\
ectum where eur(;r - r ):cos\;+-J (2-5-12a)
nr:90".
c of a space- Substituting thc identjties for the cosinc of thc surn and difTerence of two angles and
rt Or a moon,
using Eq. (2 5-fl). Eq. (2--s-12a) can be writtcn as
aft entcrs or
cos r]-
16
-e/: -sLn: (2-5,12b)
rtorv (not an
lin Fig. 2-5-3 l'hetworisht-handterrrsofEq.(2-5-12b)cannowbcsolvedtoobtainrncxpression
itrajectory is for thc tLlrning angle as a function of the ccccntricity.
aches infinity
It interscct at
easured from
l=rl
| .l (2--5- 13)

tancc from O
The Tturubolu ttpresents the boundarv bet$ccn the closed trajectory (orbit) of
'rire (1-). the thc cllipsc antl the open trajectory cf the hvperbola. Since thc cccentricity of a
n Fig.2-5-3. parabola is urritl, r,. : 180'ancl thc asvmptotes are parallel to and do not intersect
ith the excep- the najor axis: ihe turning algle is also l80'. indicating that the trajectory doubles
. Eq. (2-s-1i-t) back on itself

2-6 THE PHYSICAI. SIGNIFICANCF OF IWO.BADY TRAJECTORIES

it is the anglc
s from . to The relationship bclween €. the eccentricity, and 1,, the energy, can bcst be seen
frorn lhc c'xpressi.,)o
,' )El f
c:r1l*-
\ pr'-
(2-6-r)

Since Hr is aJrvavs greater tharr zero. thc sign ol l, determites the value of e and thus
the shapc of thc trajectorv. If 6 is negative (a > 0). then e { 1 and thc closed
trajcctorv (an orbit) is either an cllipse or a circle. If -E is zero (a = :r), then e : I
and the open trajectorv is a par abola. Finatly. if E is positivc (a < 0). then e > 1 and
the open traiector\' is a hlfcrbola. Let us look more closelv at these four traiectories:
the ellipse. thc circlc, the parabola. anci thc hypcrbola.

The Elliptical Orbit

lfthe energy E is negati\,c. thc semimajor axis c is positive, the eccentricity € is less
than unity, and lll!. tra jcctor\'-' is an eilipse. Thc cncrgy cquation [Eq. (2-3-f)J viclds
the relationship thal
\'4r,u
:r
(l b-2)
22 Two-Body orbital Mechanics Chap. 2

which shows that the kinetic energy (KE) is always less than the potential energy
(PE) if the total energy is to be negative. Since E is constant. and always less than
zero, the PE will always be less than zero even when the velocity (and KE) goes to
zero. This means that the smaller body cannot escape from the gravitational attrac-
tion of the larger body but will always be drawn to the larger body lf thc radius of
the larger body is greater than the periapsis distance. the ellipse will not bc able to
complete its orbit and will intersect the surface of the larger bodyl this is the case
with a ballistic missile.

The Circu lar Orbit

If E is negative but equal lo :

-w212H2, then e 0 and the ellipse degenerates
into a circle: that is, the smaller body will be in a circular orbit with a constant radius
equal to the semimajor axis (r : a) and with a constant velocity. With 4 : r and
p = -p,l2a, the energy equation becomes
Iz.-E:-f' (2-6-3)
2r2r
which can be solved for the velocity, namely,

tu
,,: \i: "e.
(2-6-4)

In Eq. (2-6-1), the subscipt "cs" denotes a circular satellite (a circular orbit)' and
g, the acceleration due to gravity, is equal to p/rr. Since g varies with r, it is safer
to use the expression (p'/r)tD for V.,
The circular satellite is ol special interest and can be used to illustrate several
salient characteristics that are also applicable to elliptical orbits. First, we see that
the orbital velocity I4. decreases as r increases, going to zero in the limit as r goes
to intinity. The period (P) of a circular satellite, the time to make one complete
revolution about the cm of the attracting body, is easy to calculate because the
velocity is constant and the distance traveled is simply the circumference Therefore,

o ,2rr 2rr
v\ vp/r"
so that

(2-6-s)

Notice that the period increases as r rncreases

A circular satellite that just skims the surface of the Earth (assumes a spherical
Earth with no atmosphere or buildings, etc.) is referred to as an Earth-surface
satellite and is often usecl as a baseline or reference orbit. It has the highest velocity
 Chap.2
sec. 2 6 The Physical 5ignif'cance o' Iwo Body Traje(to'ies 23

possible and the shortest period: lhe period of 84..1 minutes is known as the Schuler
:ntial energy
period and is ol intcrcst in incrtial navigation. Obviouslv, for orbits around another
'ays less than
planet. such as Mars, the Mars-surfarce satellite would be the baseline.
KE) goes to
tional attrac-
the radius ol The Parabolic Traiectory
Lot bc able to
is is the case If the energv E is zero, the semimajor axis a is infinite, the eccentricit\ e is unit1.
and thc trajectorv is a parabola. an opcn trajectory. Again using the energy equa-
tiolr - wc see that

+ +:t) (2-6 6)

degenerates At any valuc ofr. the KE rvill be equal to -PE. Consequently. the smaller body
rnstant radius has just enough KE to follow thc parabolic traiectory to "infinity." where both the
itha:rand velocity and the PE rvill be zero. The velocity at r : - is called lhe residual velocity,
(or sometimes the crcer.r velocity) and rvill bc zcro lor thc parabolic trajectory. By
reaching infinity. the smaller body has. in effect. escaped from the attraction of the
(2 6-3) larger body. The rcsidual velocity is given the symbol V. and is ofien referred to as
V ifinity; for a parabola, /- = 0.
With t : 0 (e : 1). the velocity at a specified r is called the escr.rpe velc.tcity V,,,
lor that r and can be found tiom Eq. (2-6-6) to be
(2-6-4)
:r r"': r/lrz (2-6-7)
lar orblt). and
h r. it is safer We see that the magnitude of the escape velocitv decreases as r increases, as does
y.,, and that /"." is alwals on the order of :107., grcatcr than y.,.
rstrate scveral It should bc rcalizcd a smaller body launched with an escape velocity will not
t, we sce that actually go to infinity. As thc gravitational attraction of the larger bociy decreases,
linit as r goes it will eventually become smaller than that ol another attracting bodv (usually the
onc completc Sun) and the smaller body will phase into an orbit about this second body. For
e because thc example. although the velocity with respect to the center of thc Earth of a spacccraft
ce. Thercfore. on a parabolic cscapc trajcctor)' (from Earth) rvill become zero (again with respect
to the center of the Earth) at infinity. the velocity of the spacecraft with respect to
the Sun (the new attracting body) will bc the orbital velocity of the Earth about the
S un.

The Hyperbolic Trajectory

(2-6-5)
lfEisgreaterthanzero,thesemimajorilxisajsncgativc,thcccccntricit)€isgrcatcr
than unity, and tlle trajectory is a hyperbola, another open trajectory. From the
energy equation. we obtain the relationship that
nes a sphcrical vtp : E >0 (2-6-8)
Earth-stLrJace 2r
Lighcst velocit)
 24 Two-Body Orbital Mechanics Chap. 2

which shows that the KE is always greater than the PE. Furthermore, solving thc
inequality of Eq. (2-6-il) for y shows that the velocity at any point on the trajectory
will be greater than the corresponding escape velocity for a parabolic trajectory.
Consequently, on a hyperbolic trajectory the smaller body will not only escape the
gravitational attraction of the larger body but will also have a finite residual velocity
(/. > 0) when it reaches infinity and is captured by another larger body (again,
usually the Sun). Since y- is greater than zero and is the velocity with respect to the
center of the Earth, the spacecraft will have a larger velocity with respect to the Sun
than does the Earth. Consequently, the spacecraft will leave the Earth's orbit and
proceed on an orbit of its own.
If we let r go to infinit)' in Eq. (2-6-tt). we see that E : V1- D. With 6 known,
the velocity at any other point on the trajectory, such as at r, in Fig. 2-6-1, I can
easily be calculated from the energy equation. Conversely, if lu1 and 11 are known.
the energy and V- can be determined.
It should be pointed out that once the energy is known (no matter how
determined) for any of the trajectodes above, the velocity at any other point on the
trajectory can be found from the useful expression

u=.rfo*E\
I \ rl
(2-6-e)

2.7 THE ELEVATION AN6LE

The elevation angle O, the angle between the local horizon and the velocity vector,
is an importart parameter. For example, if V, r, and S are known at any point in
a trajectory, the trajectory is completely defined. If H is known, along with I/ and
r, then 0 at that point is simply cos-r(11lr\r). There may be occasions, however, when
it would be nice to have an expression for $ in terms of e and r,.
Consider Fig. 2-7- 1, in which the velocity vector / is decomposed into a radial
2-8 SL

.-Yl - U
' l
lttl

Figure 2-6-1. Hyperbolic velocity

relationships.
cs Chap. 2 Sec.2-8 Summary of Relevant Two-Body Equations 2S

r, solving the
he trajectory
ic trajcctory.
L1yescape the
idual velocity
bodl (again.
respect to the
3ct to the Sun
th's orbit and Figure 2-7-1. Velocit)_ veclor and its
I:l

'ith E knorvn.
2-6-t. /1 can component 14 and a tangential component [. whcrc the magnitude of V, =; un6
11 ate known, the magnitude of V, : ir. From Fig. 2-7 1 we see that
v.i
trn$:7:. (2-1-1)
) matter how
r point on the
We now need an expression for l. Since

(2-1-2)
(2-6-e)
':f*.ao*4
and since both p and € arc constants of the motion,

,nei, sin u
'i: (l *e cosv)r
(2-1-3)

Substituting E1s. (2-7 -2) and (2-7-3) into Eq. (2-7-1) and solving for $ yiclds thc
,ocity vector. expression
t any point in € stn u
rg with lr and ,1,:trn'-I 1 € C()\ V
(2-7-4)
orvever. rvhen

d into a radial 2-8 SUMMARY OF RELEVANT TWO-BODY EQUATIONS

At this point, let us summarize, and renumber for convenience, thc principal
equations anil relationships of conic two-bod! trajectories.

(2-rJ-1)
I+€cosv
D: all €-l.H1
'p = (2-8-2)

|.
€: \11+ IELII r, r" (2-rJ-3)
\ p r"+rp
lic !clocit!
--v'p"F
) r )n
(2-8-1)
 26 Two-Body Orbital Mechanics Chap. 2

H: rY cos$ (2-8-5)
.H esinv
cos l==tanr;-- \2-8-6)
rV l+€cosu
2a (2-8-7)

r.",-a(1 +e) (2-8-8)

r^i" - a(1 -e) (2-8-e)

H
u: ', - - '.!- (2-8-10)

v,: -, H r.V (2-8-11)

fp fp

(2-8-12)

'l:(: -')l (2-8-13)

Remember that the specific energy E and the specific angular momentum I{
are both constants of motion.

PROBLEMS

The center of the moon is 0.0026 AU (3.890 x 103 m) from the center of the Earth
and has a relative mass of 0.0123.
(a) Locate the cm of the Earth-Moon system with respect to the center of the Earth.
With respect to the center of the Moon.
(b) Find the ratio of orbital velocities of the Ealth and Moon about the cm of the
system. If the orbital velocity of the Moon is 1012 m/s, what is the approximate
orbital velocity of the Earth about the cm of the Earth Moon system?
2-2. Using Fig. 2-2-l and the resulls ofsection 2-2. show that IL- - 0.

@ t") Sto* that the position angle u can be found from the expression
,="..-,ltln-r)l
l€\r / I

(b) Find r when r :

p (i.e., when the smaller body is at the semilatus rectum).
Using the expression for v from Problem 2-3 when r is infinite:
(a) Write an expression for r-.
(b) Find r- for e : 1, a parabola.
(c) Find v- for e : 3.5, a hyperbola.
(d) Find the turning angle b for parts (b) and (c).
With p : 3.986 x 101o m3/s2, a:7.0 x 106 m, and e : 0.35:
(a) Find E, H, rp, t., Vp, and V.
(b) Find r, I/, and d when u : 110'.
(c) Find v, V, d, and Il when r : 8.813 x 106 m.
 Chap. 2 Problems 27
Chap.2
2-6. (a) Show that the sen]imajor axis of a hyperbola is negative.
(2-8-5) (b) Will ,r. the semilatus rectun. be negative or positive?
2-7. (a) Show that thc semiInajor axis of a parabola is infinite.
(2-8-6) (b) Sho$ that the semilatus rccium ol a parabola is equal to twice the periaPsis
(i.e..p = 21,).
distancc
(2-8-7) (z-fi rnr- hlpcrbolic lrujc\lor\. \ho\ rhilt:
\-/ "
(2-8-8) rat Tlrr .cmllnrior .\i. cdn h( lounJ lrom J p V'.
(b) The velocity at any point on thc trajectory, where the position vector is ,", can be
(2-8-e) cxpressed as

v = \/v1 _ v:,,
(2-8-10)
whcrc l/.,. is the escape velocit! at r.
2-9. 5hou lhiir fnr irn\ r\\o-bL,J\ lrrieclorv
(2-rJ-11)
'--!
/: \iF{
r \r -lluJ
(2-E-12)
1-:10; Shnn rhat the Jiiicrcnuc in rnergy between any two trajectories can be exprcsscd in
lcrrn. nl Ihcrr \emrmJjor u\c.. namcl\.
(2-8-13) /\
E, E, = +("
l\
''lI Lt 112
nomenf llm H
2-11. Show that for a circular satellite, the pcriod can be tbund irom the expressiolr

',,
2nv
v:,
rr of thc Eartll 2-12. Usc simple dilierential calculus to show that the position vector is at a maximum or
ninimum at the apses arld w te expressions for the position vector at thosc points.
)r of thc Eaith. 2-13. Using the polar equation of ir conic section IEq. (2-5-20)1. plot five points, sketch, and
iderrtirr rl e rolln\|ng trajecturirs
thc cm of the (a)P=6ande:l)
re approrimate (b)P=12and€=1
stemJ (c)p:8and€:0.333
(d)P=lSande=2
(")p:10ande=(1.666
L

__
(Z-tf.) ra'ShL,$ tlri,r rh. .necrli. energr f i. (qull lo -H 2d.
v {bJ Sldrling rtrth L : F 2d. show that E is also equal la -vpv"l2.
2-15, (a) Sho$ that the period of a circular satellitc can be erpressed as a function of its
us rectum). orbital vclocity 14,, namely.

P:+ v,

(b) With rr-r:",,t, = 3.9E6 x 10'' m'/s', plot a curve for / and P versus %,
f1:-fOltStr.," an elliptical orbit and the semiminor axis, the position
thirt Jt the rnter:.ection of
.g anple lis cqur tn cor '1 e.;. the elcvation angle S is equal to cos '(sin u), and the
spcciiic angrLlar momentum is equal to (ap")'tr sin r-,.
-
f-tu.\lt in an cllrptrral orbrt, r, r, : (1.5. what is thc cccentricity of the orbit?