ABSTRACT

This report aims to explore the theories and techniques behind procedures of

developing a high precision cost-effective CNC milling machine.This newly designed

machine tool can be widely used in any industry where small parts are made. Various

structures we reexplored and compared during the manufacturing stage while keeping in

mind the limited resources we had at our disposal.

ii
 Introduction

In modern CNC systems, end-to-end component design is highly automated using

Computer-Aided Design(CAD)and Computer-Aided Manufacturing(CAM)programs.The
programs produce a computer file that is interpreted to extract the commands needed to
operated particular machine via a post processor, and then loaded into the CNC machines
for production. Since any particular component mightr equiret heuseo
fanumberofdifferenttools–drills, saws, etc., modern machines often combine multiple tools
into a single "cell". In ot her
installations,anumberofdifferentmachinesareusedwithanexternalcontrollerandhumanor
roboticoperatorsthatmovethecomponentfrommachinetomachine.Ineithercase,theseriesof
stepsneededtoproduceanypartishighlyautomatedandproducesapartthatmatches the original
CAD design as per acceptable tolerances.

Withtheon-goingdevelopmentoftechnology andeconomy,newindustrialrequirements
suchashighprecision,goodquality,high productionratesandlow productioncostsare
increasingly demanded. Most of such requirements, including
dimensionalaccuracy, conformancetotolerancesoffinishedproductsandproduction
ratecanbemetwithbetter machine tools. With the help of CNC technology, machine tools
today are not limited to human capabilitiesbutareabletomakeultra-precisionproductsdown
toNanoscalesinamuchfaster
manner.Thetraditionaldesignphilosophyofmachinetoolsismulti-functionality andhighest
precisionpossible.However,withthedramatic increaseofindustryvarietiesandthegrowing
demand of miniature products, these general purpose machine tools are not efficient, either
in termsofmachiningtimeorcost, inmanufacturingproductswith specialsizesandprecision
requirements.

There are several advantages of using small machines to produce small sized
objects. With a smaller machine size, space is
3 saved. The energy required to operate the
machine is reduced as well. It now requires less material and components to make the
machine, hence
bringingdownthecostgreatly.Theweightofmovingcomponentalsocomesdownsothat
duringoperation,thevibrationandnoise,aswellas pollutiontotheenvironment,aremarkedly
reduced.Asthemachinebecomesdenserandlighter,itbecomesmoreportable.Thelayoutof
themanufacturingplantcanbemoreflexible. Theproductivityandmanufacturingspeedalso
increases due to possible faster operation.

4
Objective:

The idea behind fabrication oflow cost CNC Milling Machine is to full fill the
demand of CNCmachinesfromsmallscaletolargescale
industrieswithoptimizedlowcost.Amajornew
developmentincomputertechnologyistheavailabilityoflow-costopensourcehardware,such as
the Arduino microcontroller. An advantage of open source hardware is that a wide variety
of ready-to-usesoftwareisavailableforthem ontheWeb;thereforetheprototypingand
development times are drastically reduced. Moreover, a wide range of low-cost interfaces
and accessoriessuchas Mach3CNC control software arealsoavailable.
However,forthedevelopmentoflow-cost
modelsofCNCmachines,suchtoolsmaybequiteadequatefrom theviewpointofmachine
control.Inthisproject,thedevelopmentof aprototype3-axisCNCMillingMachine is presented
with the followingspecification.
•Easily operable
•Easy interface
•Flexible
•Low power consumption

Methodology:
This project has been classified into the following modules for successful execution:
• MechanicalDesign
• Electronics and Control Module
• Software Module

How this system works is quite a simple procedure. The machine operator inputs the
G and M code into the GUI (Graphic User Interface) which then sends the G and M code
to the software which interprets the code and sends the signals to the electronic driver.
The driver then runs the motors which are connected to the lead screws that are
5
responsible for the movement of the tool.
Mechanical System
Themechanicalsystem isassembledinsuchawaythatthe3-axismovementisachieved
byusingthelinearbearingsandguiderods.Steppermotorsaremountedtoeachaxiswhich
isthesourceofmotionactedaccordingtothecontrolsignalgeneratedfromtheelectronics
circuit.Eachsteppermotoriscoupledtothescrewrodwhichcarriesnutwiththehelpof coupling
bush. This screw rod and nut arrangement is responsible for converting the rotational
motionofthesteppermotortolinearmotion.Thelinear motionofeachaxis iscarriedaway
smoothlybythelinearbearingandguiderod assemblyconnectedto theeachaxiswhichis
capableofloadcarriers andallowslinearmotionineachaxis.The controlledmotionineachaxis
isachieved directly bycontrolling therotationof the steppermotor.Thespeedof the motionin
each axis can also be controlled by direct control of the speed of the stepper motor by
giving required control signals. Thus the tool path of the spindle fixed to the end effector
is controlled in each axis for smooth carving or cutting action of work piece.

Electrical System
Electronics systemcomprises of:
• Power supply
• Microcontroller board

 Stepper motor driver board

Power Supply
PowersupplyisheartoftheCNCsystem whichconvertstheACvoltagetoDCvoltage
andsuppliesrequiredvoltagestothecorrespondingdevices. Microcontroller
boardoperatesat5v supply whereas the stepper motor board operates at12v.

Stepper Motor Driver Board

Toshiba TB6560, micro-stepping drive designed for smooth and quiet
operation is chosen to drivetheNEMA17steppermotor.Steppermotor
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DriverBoardreceivesthecontrolsignalfrom themicrocontrollerboardtotheterminals
PULSEandDIRwhichgeneratesthecorresponding digital pulse signals for stepper
motorto control the rotation ofthe motor.

Software System
The software tool chain of CNC-basedmanufacturingisrepresented in the fig 1.
The part tobemachinedis designedin computer-aideddesign(CAD)software,
whoseoutputisadrawing in one of many acceptable formats most preferable format is
.stl format. This drawing is then fed tothecomputer-
aidedmanufacturing(CAM)software,whoseoutputisthemachinereadable
codeusedfornumericalcontrolofthemachine.
SinceimplementationoftheGcodeismachine
dependent,itisnecessarytotestoutdifferentchoicesforanopensourceGcodeinterpreterfor
Toshiba TB6560, so that the correct motions are obtained for the machine axes
through the stepper motordriver.

Conclusion:
With the increasing demand for small scale high precision parts in various
industries, the marketforsmallscalemachinetoolshasgrownsubstantially.Using
smallmachinetoolsto fabricatesmallscaleparts can providebothflexibilityandefficiencyin
manufacturing
approachesandreducecapitalcost,whichisbeneficialforsmallbusinessowners.Inthisreport,
asmallscalethreeaxisCNCmillingmachineisdesignedand fabricatedunderverylimited
budget.

Scope for Future work:

It is planned to scale up the prototype CNCmachine in terms of size, use more
powerful motors,strengthentheframeandworktablewith
materialslikealuminumorcastiron,and augment the CNC control software with software for
simulation ahead of actual run. For
7
instructionalpurposesaswellasformorepreciseoperation,itispreferable to build CNC
machines with DC or AC servomotors and encoder feedback using PC-based motion
controllers.

8
 CHAPTER 1
1.1 Market Research

ThedevelopmentofNCmachinetoolshascontinuedforoverfiftyyearsinthe

manufacturingindustry.Currently,the technologyisreasonablymature anddifferent

companies havedevelopedtheiruniquestrengths ondifferentproducts.Europeis the

largestmachine toolmanufacturerin theworld [19].

Figure-:1Mini CNC Engraving Machine (Picture courtesy: China CNC Zone)

The machine shown in Figure-: 1isa typicalCNC engravingmachinemade byaChinese

manufacturingcompanyinChangsha.Itisclaimedtoachievea resolutionof30μmand

repeatabilitybetterthan30μm.Theinterpretationandinterpolationisdoneusinga CNCcontrol

packagesoftwarecalled Mach3.The machine onlycosts500 USD,including everything

required torunthemachineexceptaPC.This typeofmachineis very popular inChina.However,

becauseofitslow stiffnessandcontrollerrobustness,itcanonly machinesoftmaterialsuchas

PVC, woods andsoftaluminum.

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 1.2 General Research Objectives

Thegeneralobjectiveof thisresearchis todevelopaminiCNCmachine prototype

uptoindustriallyacceptableprecisionand repeatabilitywithaverylimited budget (2,000USD).

Thisresearchwill addressalltherequiredproceduresfordevelopinga

commercialproductinamachinetoolcompany,fromtheearly designstageto the

subsequentpackagingandmarketingstage.Various newmethodsandproductsis discussed

andused toeitherreducecost orimprove performance.

Toaccomplishtheseobjectives,thisresearchisdividedintoanumberoftasks.The research

tasks canbesummarizedasfollows:

(1)Machinedesign. The box volume is chosento come upwithanoptimalstructure and sizefor

themachine as its size depends on the box volume i.e. maximum volume of the work

piece that can be incorporated for machining

Figure-:2Relationship between box volume and machine size

(2) Torque Calculations. Torque required to move the tool in the 3 axes according to the
box volume is calculated.

(3)Machinefabrication.Allthe bodypartswill bemachinedandthecomponentswill be

10
purchased throughvarious suppliers.

(4) Assembling the Machine. Machinewill beassembledinside thelab.

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 1.3 Summary

In thischapteranoverview ofthemotivationandprocedureof developinga cost-effectivemini

CNCmachine is given.Thecurrent marketis inlackofan affordablesmall-scale

highprecisionmachine toolsystemthatcan be usedfor small volumeproduction.The

machinedescribedinthisreportwillhelptosolvethisproblem

andservethosewhowanttomakesmallthings butdo notwanttospendmoneyonbig machine.

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 CHAPTER 2
LiteratureReview

The firstnumericalcontrol(NC)millingmachinewasconceived by Mr.JohnT.

Parsonsaround1940s-1950s[14].Parsonsworkedtoattachservomotorstothex and y

axisofamanual operatedmachinetool tocontrolthemwithacomputer thatread

punchcardstogiveitpositioninginstructions.Thereasonfordevisingsuchasystem

wastomachinecomplexshapeslikearcsthatcanbemadeintoairfoilsforairplanes.

Thiswasnotatrivial tasktoattemptwithamanualmillingmachine,sotheNCmilling

machinewas born.

Today’smodernmachineryisCNC(ComputerNumericControl)millingmachines

andlathes.AmicroprocessorineachmachinereadstheG-Codeprogram that the user

createsandperformstheprogrammedoperations.Personalcomputersareused to

designtheparts andarealso used towriteprograms by eithermanualtypingofG-Code

orusingCAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing)software thatoutputsG-Code from the

users inputofcutters andtoolpath.

Inthischapter,someliterature relevant to CNCconceptsand generaldesignand

controlofCNCmachine willbereviewed.The numericalcontrolaspectarethefocusin this

review.

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 2.1 CNC Concepts

AnimportantadvanceinthephilosophyofNCmachinetoolswastheshifttoward

theuseofcomputers insteadof proprietarycontrollerunits inthe NC systemof theearly

1970s. Thisgaverisetothecomputernumericalcontrol(CNC).CNCisaself-contained

NCsystemforasinglemachinetool including adedicatedminicomputercontrolledby

storedinstructionsto performsomeorallofthe basicNCfunctions[1].Ithas become

widelyusedformanufacturing systemsmainlybecauseofitsflexibilityandless investment

required.

ReplacingconventionalNC hardwarewithsoftwareasasmuchpossibleand simplifying

theremaininghardwareis oneoftheobjectives ofCNCsystems.Whilemost

interpretationandinterpolation functionscan bereplaced by proper software,the remaining

hardwaremustcontainatleastservoamplifiers, transducercircuits,and

interfacecomponents,asshownin Figure-:3

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 Figure-:3 Schematic of CNC system

Thesoftwareportion of aCNC systemmustconsistatleastof threemajor programs: a part

program, a service program, and a control program [11]. Thepart program

containsthegeometrydescriptionofthe part beingproducedand the cuttingconditions

suchasspindlespeedand feedrate.ComputerAided Manufacturing(CAM)softwarecan

beusedtogeneratethispartprogram.Theserviceprogramisusedtocheck,edit,and

correctthepartprogram.Itusuallyhasauserinterfacethatallowsthe usertooperate

themachineeasily.Thecontrol programacceptsthe partprogramas inputdataand

producessignalsto drive theaxesofmotion.Itperformsinterpolation, feedratecontrol,

accelerationanddeceleration, andpositioncountersshowingthecurrentaxesposition [11].

Mostclosed-loopCNCsystemsincludebothvelocityandpositioncontrolloops. The

velocityfeedback isusuallyprovidedbyatachometerandthepositionfeedbackis usually

provided byan encoderorresolver.CNCsoftwarecanalsoretrievevelocity

feedbackfromencoderby differentiatingtheinputsignal[11].
15
 ThecomputeroutputinCNCsystemscanbe transmittedeither asasequenceof

referencepulsesorasa binaryword.If thereferencepulsesequenceisgenerated,each

pulsegeneratesamotionof1BLUofaxistravel.Thenumber ofpulsesrepresents

positionandthepulsefrequency representsaxisvelocity.Inanopen-loopsystem,these

pulsesarethecontrolsignalofasteppermotor.Inaclosed-loopsystem,thesepulses canbefed

asareferencesignal[11]

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 2.2Design consideration of CNC machine tools

CNCmachinetoolsmustbebetter designedandconstructed, andmustbemore

accuratethanconventionalmachinetools.Itisnecessarytominimizeallnon-

cuttingmachinetime,byfasttoolchangingmethods,andminimizeidlemotionsbyincreasing

therapidtraversevelocitiestomaketheuseofthemachine toolmoreefficient.

Digitalcontrol techniquesandcomputershave undoubtedlycontributedto better

accuracyandhigher productivity.However,itshould be noted thatitis thecombined

characteristicsoftheelectriccontrolaswellasthemechanicaldesignofthemachine tool itselfthat

determinethe final accuracyand productivityoftheCNCmachine tool system.

Highproductivityandaccuracymight becontradictory[11].Becaushigh

productivityrequireshigher feed,speedanddepthofcut,whichincreases theheatand cutting

forcesinthesystem.Thiswillleadtohigherdeflections, thermaldeformations andvibrationof

themachine,whichresultsinaccuracy deterioration. Therefore,to achieve highoperating

bandwidthwhilemaintaining relatively highaccuracy,the structureofCNCmachinetool must

bemorerigidandstiffthanits conventional counterpart.

Toachievebetterstiffnessandrigidityofstructure,severalfactors shouldbe

consideredinthedesign.Thefirstconcernisthematerial.Conventional machinetools are made

of cast iron. However, the structures of CNC machines are usually all-steel-

welded,constructedtoachievegreaterstrengthandrigidityforagivenweight.

Inaddition,betteraccuracyisobtainedinCNCmachines byusinglow-frictionmoving

parts,avoidinglostmotionsandisolatingthermalsources.Regularslidingguideshavehigherstati

17
cfrictionthanthesliding friction. Theforceusedtoovercomethestatic frictiongrowstoolarge

whentheguidestartstomove. Duetoinertiaoftheslidethe

positiongoesbeyondthecontrolledposition,adding overshootandphaselagtothe

systemresponse,andaffectstheaccuracyand surface finishofthepart.Thiscanbe

avoidedbyusingslidesandleadscrewsinwhichthestaticfrictionislowerthanthe

slidingfriction[11].In our Machine, we are going to useball-bearingleadscrewasshownin

Figure-:4. Detaileddiscussion of selectingthis componentwillbeincluded inchapter 4.

Figure-:4Ball-bearing lead screw

Generallyspeaking,theentiremachinecomponentmustuserigid andstrong

material.Thespindleshouldhavehighstrength,sustaina hightemperatureandbe supported

bylarge bearing.Theclampsystemshouldbe strongenough toholdwork

piecewhenthemachinefacesa moveable partduring themanufacturing process.In

addition,clampingsystemshould beefficiently moved,fastinclamping orunclamping

thework piecewithfastmovement during the process.Thechoosingofcutting toolsis

importantinordertomakesureit willnot breakwhencutting thework piece[11].

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 2.3 Summary

Inconclusion,thischaptermainlysummarizes somekeyconceptsofcomputer

numericalcontrolanddesignconsiderationofCNCmachinetoolsmentionedinliterature.Thesec

onceptsareimplementedinthewhole design processinthis project. Severalcomponents are

chosenbasedonthereasonsdiscussedinsection2.2. Thecontrollerarchitecture usedin the

finalstageexactly followstheconcepts ofCNC software describedinsection2.1. Theliterature

providesclear backgroundknowledge andguidancefor thedevelopment of asmallscaleCNC

machine tool.

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 CHAPTER 3
Structure Design and Analysis
Machinestructure isthe “backbone”of themachine tool.Itintegratesallmachine

componentsintoacompletesystem.Themachinestructureiscrucialtothe performance of

themachinetoolssinceitisdirectlyaffectingthestaticanddynamic stiffness,aswellasthe

dampingresponse ofthemachinetool.Acarefullydesigned

structurecanprovidehighstiffness,resultin higheroperationbandwidthandmore

preciseoperation.Asmall-scalemachinetoolgenerally requiresevenhigherstiffness thanthe

ordinarylarge-scalemachine toolsinceitis usually operatedat higherspeeds.

Thereareseveralotherissuesrelatedtothe machinestructuresuchassymmetry,

connectivityanderrors.In this chapter,somemostcommonstructures usedonmachine

toolswillbecompared andanalyzed.

3.1 Structure Mechanical Design

The two most common machine structuresinthe industryareopen frame

structuresandclosedframestructures.Generally speaking, theclosedframestructure

providesastrong ridgedstructureloop, symmetry, andgoodthermalstability, which provides

better stiffness thantheopen frame structuresgenerally usedforeasy accessto

theworkzone,withthesame order-of-magnitudeinsize.Closedframestructures
20
typicallyareusedin largeprecision machines such asCMMs.The work pieces to

bemachinedor measuredaregenerally

largeandheavy.Thereforeitismucheasiertomovethetoolwithrespecttoafixed work piece.

Thisstructureconsumesmorematerial, henceismoreexpensivetobuild.

Open framemachinetoolstructureisalso calleda CorGstructure. Thisstructureis

verycommonlyseen in smallmachines.Althoughthestructureisasymmetrical,which leadsto

undesirablethermalgradientsandbendingmoments,it’sanidealstructurefor

smallmachines.Theworkpiecesareusuallysmallandlightsothematerialremovalrate

ismuchsmallerthanthosebigworkpiecesmadebythebigmachine,sotheerror causedby

thermaleffectsis notasignificantissue.Acriticalpartofthestructureis

cantilevered,whichleadstoAbbeerrors (magnification of angular error over

distance)[17],butthiscanbecompensated by spring loadingintheoppositedirectionorpre-

compensatingbendingindesign.Thematerialrequiredtoconstructthisstructureisalsolessthanth

ecloseflamestructureand hence muchcheaper tomake.Afterevaluatingthe prosandcons of

bothstructures,the teamdecides touse an openframestructureforthissmallscalemachine.

Therearemany differentvariations onanopenframestructure.Generallytheycan

begroupedinto two categories distinguishedby the tool orientation, i.e.vertical tool

positionandhorizontaltoolposition.

Inthehorizontalconfiguration,theworkpieceisfixedonverticalXYplane,which

requiresthework pieceto belightandcompact.TheAbbeerroronXYplaneis not

significantbecausetheweightofworkpieceisverysmallandcanbeneglected.Spindle

ismountedhorizontallytoensuremaximumstiffness alongZaxis.Thisistheideal structure

21
formicro-manufacturingmachinetools.However,thelengthscaleofthework

piecestobemachinedisdesignedto bebetween10mmand70mm. Theweighteffectof thework

piecewiththislengthscalecannotbeignored,foritcreateschallengetofix the

workpieceontotheverticalXYplane. Duetothiscrucialsituation,themachineis

designedtohave typicalvertical tool positionopenframestructure.

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 Torque Calculations:
THEORETICAL POWER EVALUATION

Cutting Force Distribution

The task at hand is to calculate the value of the torque required for the axes motors. We
start by calculating the value of the cutting forces which are given in the following Figure-
::

Figure-:5 Forces during cutting

 The force exerted on the work piece is labeled (Cutting Force) and is divided into
its components , and .

 The work piece is rigidly mounted on the worktable so there is no relative motion
between them.

23
The values of the cutting forces are calculated using the formula:

F = Ctxw

Where:

F- principal cutting force in Newtons,

C - material constant at a given cutting speed and rake angle,

t- uncut chip thickness in mm,

w- width of cut in mm or length of the cutting edge in engagement

x- constant for material being machined.

x varies with the rake angle

We selected the work piece to be made of Aluminum so the values of the constants were
taken to be the following

C=500

t=0.15

x=0.70

w=20

Hence, Fcx = Ctxw

Fcx = 500x0.150.70x20

Fcx = 2650N

Fcx= Fcy

And Fcz= Fcx tan (β)

Fcz= 2330 x tan (41.34)= 2330N

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The total value of the force opposing the motion of the x-axis & y-axis motors is given by
the following formula:

Where

Wt , the total load of the work piece, bed is taken to be 300N (30KG)

, the value of the coefficient of friction is assumed to be 0.3

Hence,

Total Load (L) = 2650 + (2330 + 2650 + 300) x 0.3

Total Load (L) = 4234 N

Calculating the Torque

The thread we are using is the ACME square thread. The value of the total torque applied
on the square thread by the load is given by the formula [1]

For the ACME square thread used,

= 0.07

Mean diameter, dm, = 9.525 mm

The pitch, l = 2.1 mm

Hence,

= 4.25 Nm
25
 Torque calculations for tool driving motor torque

The parameters used in this section of calculations are defined as follows:

Z = Number of teeth of the tool 5

d = diameter of tool (mm) 10 mm

ae= length of cut (cm) 10 mm

ap = depth of cut (cm) 20 mm

fz = Feed rate / tooth 0.15 mm

K = Specific Cutting Power (watts min/cm3) 17 watts min/cm3

N = Number of revolutions (rev/min) 795 rev/min

Vf = feed rate fz x Z x N

Q = Material Removal Rate

P = Power (watts)

ϣ = Rotational Speed

T = Torque (Nm)

So,

V f = fz x Z x N

Vf = 0.15 x 5 x 795

Vf = 596.25 mm/min

Q=

Q=

Q = 11.925 cm3/min
26
P=

P=

P = 0.203 Kw

Ϣ=

Ϣ=

Ϣ = 83.25 rad/s

T=

T=

T = 2.44 Nm

27
 3.2CAD Design

UsingSolidworks 2014,wedeveloped adetailedCADmodel that weusedforvisualization and

simulation beforewemoved on to manufacturing.

Figure-:6Diametric View of our final CAD model

Figure-:7Front view of our machine’s CAD model

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Figure-:8Side view of our machine’s CAD model

Figure-:9Top view of our machine’s CAD model

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 CHAPTER 4
Machine Fabrication

Inthischapter, the detailedfabricationprocedureofthe prototypeminiCNC

machineisdescribed,startingwiththeselectionofvariousoff-the-shelfcomponents. Thereasons

behindtheselectionofvariouspartswillbediscussed.The unitpriceofall

componentswillbelistedandsummarizedin thecostsummarysection.Details that

requireextraattention will bementioned duringthefabricationdescription.

4.1 Selection of Components

4.1.1 Selection of motors

Selectionofmotorsiscarriedoutfirstbecauseitisdirectly relatedtothedriving

mechanismaswellascontrolmethod. Two differentmotors,steppers &servoswillbe

discussed.Steppermotorandservomotor are rotarymotion motors.Eachof them has

uniquestrengthsandweaknesseswhichmakethemsuitableincertainapplications. For

rotarymotionmotors,aleadscrewisalwaysneededtotransformrotarymotionintolinearmotion.

A stepper motorisanelectromechanical devicewhich

convertselectricalpulsesintodiscretemechanicalmovements. The shaftorspindleofa

steppermotorrotatesindiscretestepincrementswhenelectricalcommand pulsesare
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appliedtoitinthe propersequence.Themotorsrotation hasseveral directrelationships

totheseappliedinputpulses.Thesequenceoftheappliedpulsesisdirectlyrelatedto

thedirectionofmotorshaftsrotation. Thespeedofthemotorshaftsrotationisdirectly

relatedtothe frequency oftheinput pulsesandthelengthofrotationis directlyrelated

tothenumberofinputpulsesapplied.Servo motorinternally containsa feedback sensorto

tellitscurrentpositionwhichallowsprecisecontrolonangularposition.The

industrialservomotorspeedoutputis proportionalto theinputcurrentlevel.Theylook pretty

similartoeachother but thecontrolmethodiscompletelydifferent.

Thebasic differencebetweena traditionalstepperandaservo-basedsystemisthe

typeofmotorandhowitiscontrolled.Stepperstypicallyuse50to100polebrushless

motorswhiletypicalservomotorshaveonly 4to12poles.Steppers don'trequire

encoderssincetheycanaccuratelymovebetweentheirmanypoles,whereasservos

withfewpolesrequireanencodertokeeptrack oftheirposition.Stepperssimplymove

incrementallyusing pulses[openloop]whileservosread the difference betweenthe

motorsencoderandthecommandedposition[closedloop],andadjustthecurrent

requiredtomove.Table-:1 b e l o w summarizessomekeydifferencesbetweenservomotors

andsteppers.

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 Stepper Servo

Price Low High

Control Generallyopenloop Closeloop

Resolution Determinebystep/rev Determinebyencoder

Dynamic behavior Low speed Highspeedallowed

Accuracy Low if usingmicrostepping High

Table-:1Comparison between Stepper and Servo

Steppersarethemostaffordableactuatingsolutionformachinetoolscurrently. Lots

ofcommerciallyavailablesmallCNCmachinesincludingCNCBaronand TORMACH we

mentionedinchapter oneusesteppermotorstodrivetheaxestogetherwith an encodertotell

thecurrentposition. Thecontrolisstillopen-loopwhile theencoderis

usedjustasanevaluationdevicetomakeminor adjustmentsforsmallpositionoffsets.

4.1.2 Selection of linear guides and lead screws

DC steppermotors arechosento be usedasactuatorsfromlastsession. Therefore,we

havetouseleadscrew mechanism totransferrotarymotionintolinearmotion.

Whenselecting theleadscrew,wewantto have thesmallest pitchsize possible to

increaseourresolution. Thecurrentmarkethasvariousmodelsandqualitylevelsto choose from.

C3is themostpreciselevelbutalsothemostexpensive.C7isthecheapest

andmostcommonlyusedlevel.InlevelC7, 0802isthesmallestpitchsizemodel.0802

standsfor8mmdiameterand2mmpitch.Wehave0802,1002,1004,1204,1604,1605 tochoose
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from.Thecheapestoneis1605, butit hasthelargest pitchand diameter.The

machinesizewillalso beaffected by usinglargediameterleadscrews.0802,1002offers

thesmallest pitchsize but the price isalmosttripledcomparedwith the1605model.

Among1004,1204,and1604model,1004is themostexpensivemodel.1204isonly

slightlymoreexpensivethan1604andoffersamuchsmallerdiameter.Therefore,1204

C7modelisselected astheleadscrewofourmachine.Theleadscrewcontainsa

preloadedcirculatingballnutwhicheliminatesbacklashandreducesfriction,asshown inFigure-

: below.

Figure-:10 1204 lead screw with circulating ball nut

Therearealsovarioustypesoflinearslidestochoosefrom.Figure-:12showsthe

threemostcommon typesoflinearslides usedinmachinetools,i.e.cross-rollerguide,

recirculatingballslides,androllingbearingslides.

(a) Cross-rollerguide (b) Recirculating ballslide (c) rolling bearingslide

Figure-:11 Linear sliders

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 Amongthreedifferentslides,rollingbearingslidesarethecheapestchoice.Itis

compactlightweight,andprovidesunlimitedrangeofmotion. However,itis theleast stiffandhas

thelargest frictiononeamongthethree. Recirculating ballslidesaremore expensive,but

havelessfrictionandare stifferthanrolling bearingslides.Cross-roller

guideshavelimitedrangeofmotion,butenjoythehigheststiffness androbustness among three

differentslides,and have thesameleveloffrictionas recirculating ball slides.Sinceweonly

needlimitedrangeof travelinourmachine,and higherstiffness allowsthe machinetooperate

atmuch higherbandwidth, so withinourbudget, cross-rollerguideisthe bestchoice.

4.1.3 Cost summary

Thecosts of everythingrequired tomakeaminiCNCmachineuntilnowarelisted in the

table2

Item Description Price

Material 6061 Aluminum40 kg PKR 64000

Leadscrew *3,Leadscrew fix *3,shaft *2,slider*2,

Mechanical PKR 40000
shaft fix *2,cross roller guide*4,rubberleg*6,shaft
accessories
coupler*3

Electrical Spindlekit,steppermotors *3andamplifier*3,limit

switch*12,motor powersupply PKR 80000
accessories

Total: PKR 184000

Fornow,thetotalcostiswellbelowourbudget.Wehaveapproximately500USD
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budgettopurchaseorbuildthe“brain”ofourminiCNCmachine,whichisthemotion

controller. Thesetupanddesignofmotioncontrollerwillbediscussedindetailin chapter5.

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 4.2 Machine assembling

Aftergathering allmetal parts andaccessoriesrequiredforassembling,the

procedureofmaking themachineislistedbelowstepbystep.
a) Startfrom thebase
b) Installsix rubberleg
c) InstallfourwallsofYaxis
d) Installmain support forZaxis e) InstallZaxischamber
f) AssembleZaxisleadscrew
g) AssembleZaxisleadscrew andslides
h) Fix Zaxisleadscrew andslides
i) InstallZaxismotor
j) BuildXYaxis,start fromtableat the top
k) Installscrewnutconnectorunderneath the table l) Installleadscrew
m)Fix leadscrew
n) Install cross rollerguideofXaxis
o) CompleteXaxisby add frontandbackcover
p) InstallleadscrewbeneathXaxis
q) Fix Xtableon thebase r) Install cross rollerguide
s) InstalltwomotorandcompleteXY table
t) Completemachinewithencoderandlimit switch

Afterthemachineis fabricated,alignmentofXandYaxis,flatnessoftheworking
tablesurface,andverticalnessofZaxisareallcarefullyinspectedby eyeandtools.
Severalissuesoccurred duringtheassembling procedure.First,theXYtableisassembled top-
down.Thisrequiresalotofscrewsecuringprocedureto bedoneupsidedown.The
alignmentisanotherbigissue.Ifthescrewthreadisslightlyoffitsdesiredposition,
thereisnowaytoadjustthealignmentbacktoitsproperposition.These issuescanbe
easilyignoredduringthedesignstage, sothe nextversionof themachinewillinclude
variousadjustingfeatures tocompensatevariousmanufacturingdefects.
36
4.3 Summary
Thischaptergivesacomprehensiveviewofhowthisprototypemachineisfabricated.
Theprocessstartsfromselectingvariouskeyparts,followedbypurchasingdifferentaccessories,r
awmaterials,andmachinerawmetalplates,andendswiththestepby stepassembling procedure.
Thetotal costof this prototypeexcludingthemotion controller is1449USD. If this design
eventuallygoestomass production, volumediscountcan furtherreducethiscapital
costtolessthan500USD permachine. Thetotal timerequired
tofabricateonemachineislessthantwohours.

37
 CHAPTER 5

Electronics, Control and Software Module

5.1 General Overview

Weintendtodesignasmall-
scaleComputerNumericallyControlled(CNC)Millingmachine to establish and validate
ourmethodologies.In thedevelopment process,wewillensurethat
wedocumenteverystepoftheprocess.Ourmaingoalswillbeuser-friendlinessandeaseof
usesothatsmallersetupsandsaveupsignificantly oncapitalcostswhenretrofitting or
buildingtheirownCNCmachinesusingourmethodologies.Themainadvantagesofsuchan
indigenouslyproduced machines are:

Sufficient level of precision and accuracyin machined work parts

Time saving

Reduced laborcost

Elimination of Human error

Portability

Significant capital, operatingand maintenancecost savings

38
 5.2 WorkFlowOverview

Ourproject“DesignandFabricationofComputerNumerically Controlled(CNC)Milling
Machine”involvesmechanical,electricalandsoftwareaspects.Inthissectionwewillrestrict
ourdiscussiontothecomputer-science andelectricalaspectsoftheproject.Somemajor
deliverables havebeen listed below:

Develop asuitablemicrocontroller-based setup tocontrol machine processes.

Assess use ofsensorsand theirfeedback for system regulation and control.

Select and procuresuitable motors for each machineprocess.

Develop or procureamotor driver circuit.

Designand fabricate, orprocure and integrateavoltageregulatingpower supply.

Develop suitable HumanComputerInterface(HCI).

Design interpreter forconverting G &Mcodes into machine language.

Thefactthatthesedeliverablesweresetonabroaderscopewithoutspecifyingrestrictionsis
duetothefactthat weintendedtoleaveroomforadaptingourelectronic architecturedesign
totheavailability ofmaterialanddeviceslocallyandkeepinginmindtherelativecostof
indigenousdesignanddevelopmentand/orfabricationversusprocurementandintegrationof
materials, devicesand code.It is worth re-statingthat our mostmajorguidingobjectiveis to
produceaninexpensiveanduncomplicatedCNCMilling machinethatisabletomachine
softermetalswhile keeping inmindthescalability ofthedesign.Also,thereaderwillnote
thatthedesignprocess weemployedwasiterativeandthuswe conformedtotheDesignfor
Manufacturability(DFM) philosophy.

Inour project,allthe technicalaspects;Mechanical,ElectricalandComputer-Science,are

closely linkedwitheachother,changeinevenoneofthemechanicaldesignparameters
directlyinfluences the electricalcalculations andcomputer programmingand viceversa.
39
 5.3Electronic Hardware ArchitectureOverview

Theschematicbelowhighlightsthelayoutoftheelectroniccomponentsusedinourmachine.
The arrows show the connections between devices.

Figure-:12Schematic showing the complete electronic architecture of our machine

Starting offfromthetop-left,wehavethemicrocomputerthathasthree basicbutessential

I/O devicesconnectedto it,namelythekeyboardandmousefordatainputtothesystemand
theLCD Monitor for displayingand interactingwith the Human-ComputerInterface(HCI).

The microcomputer isconnected toa PrintedCircuitBoard (PCB)thatcontainsthe

microcontrolleraswellasthestepper motor driver circuitsonitforeachof theaxismotors. This
connection is down viathe 25-pin DB-25 Parallel Port.

APowerSupplytakesmainspowerfromthe220-voltAC(RMS)powersourceandconverts
itintoa24-voltDCcurrentforpoweringthePCBaswellastheAxisMotorsbeingcontrolled
through it.

40
 ThePCBreceivesoneinputfromthemicrocomputerasmentionedabove,apowerinputfrom
theDCpowersupply andcontrolsthetwoaxissteppermotorsvia4wireseachinbipolar mode.
ThePCBalso containsarelayswitch thatcontrols thetogglingof thespindle motor.

AnothermainspowersourceisusedtopowertheVariableFrequency Drive(VFD)that
drivesthehigh-poweredSpindleMotor.The RPMofthespindleisvariedindependently through
apotentiometerknob on the VFD.

5.4Software Overviewand Justification

Forkeeping softwaredevelopmentcostslow, wedecidedonusingan off-the-
shelfsoftware for themorerigorousPC-to-microcontroller
backendprocessingwhiledevelopinga customizedandbespoke front-endHuman-
ComputerInterface(HCI)ourselves.Sinceboth ofthesesoftware
packageswouldhavetocommunicatewitheachotherflawlessly,wehave to ensure
compatibility.

Thepackagechosenfor thebackend systemwasArtSoftMach3developedby Newfangled

Figure-:13Screenshot showing Mach 3’s stock interface

The main reasonthiswaschose is because ofitsfree-wareaswellasopen-source nature.

Beingfreewaremeantthatitquiteliterally didn’tcostusatalltousethissoftware.Dueto
41
beingopen-source,wehaveaccesstoits sourcecode, whichweinterpreted and learnedand then
streamlined toadapttoour machine’sfunctionsandhardware.Initsoriginalformthe
codewasapproximately5200linesofcodewrittenintheC++programminglanguage.After
streamliningandremovingirrelevantfunctionspertainingtomilling,EDMmachinesetc.,we
broughtthecodedowntoonly about1800,linesofcodewhichincludedonly ourdesired
commandsetfor millingmachineoperations.Mach3wasalsomodifiedtoworkwithour own
HCI.

42
 CHAPTER 6
Conclusion
Withtheincreasingdemandforsmallscale highprecisionparts in variousindustries,
themarketforsmallscalemachinetools has grownsubstantially.Using smallmachine tools
tofabricatesmallscaleparts canprovide bothflexibilityandefficiencyin
manufacturingapproachesandreducecapitalcost,whichisbeneficialfor smallbusiness
ownersandhobbyists. Inthisreport,asmallscalethreeaxisCNCmillingmachineis
designedandanalyzed underverylimitedbudgetof2,000USD. During thestructure
designstage,variouscommonstructure frames areexploredandanalyzed. Themost
suitablestructure frame,theopenframeverticaltypestructure,ischosen. Critical
componentssuchaslinear guides,motors,andencodersareselectedamongfew
differentoptions.Thebestvaluecomponents areselectedtoaccommodatestiffness
requirementsandbudgetconstraints.Theissues ofassemblingmechanicalcomponents
andemergingelectrical partsintomechanicalstructureareallwellconsidered. A
prototypemachineisassembledinthelaband DeltaTau'sUMACPLCisusedasmotion
controllerofthemachine.Thedetailedstepsof how tosetupandconfiguringthePLCis
describedinchapter5. An attemptto make aservocontrollerparticularlyforthis
machineisalsoconducted. Thecompletedmachineistestedusingthreedifferent techniques,i.e.
surfacetesting,perpendicularity testingandcircular testing. Thepossible errorsourcesare
determined. The prototypemachine has beenusedtocreateseveral
partsalready.Duetoinaccuracyofthemachinebody partsandroughassembling, the machine
failsto achieve the desiredprecisionandrepeatabilitylevel.However,itisstill
sufficienttocreatesmall featuressuchaslettersandgraphswithsizeslessthan1cm.A
newdesigniscreatedafterevaluatingthisprototypewithfeaturesofcalibrationand
easeofassembling. Thiswillcertainlyhelp toachievethedesired characteristics with the
sameamountof budget.

43
 6.1 Futurestudies

Thefuturestudiesheavilyrelyonthedesignofmotioncontroller.Inordertocut
cost,amotioncontrollermustbedesignedandfabricatedby ourselves.Thisrequires
creatingthehardware,makingtheconnection, writingtheservoloopprogram,writing
theinterpolationprogram,andcreating theHMI.Inchapter5,aschematicforhardware
boardhasalreadybeencreated.Theservoloop programhasalso beendoneandtested
successfully.TheTI MSP430microcontrollercannowread pulsesandaccumulate pulses
asreferenceinput.Itcanreadtheencodersignalandgeneratecontrol signalusinga
simplePIcontroller.However,thefunctiontotunePIgaininrealtimeisyettobe
created.ArduinoUNO3 board hasbeen usedto run theGrbl motioncontrolfirmware.
However,thereisstilllackofaHMIforthisfirmwaretoallowmoreuserfriendlyoperation.TheHM
Istillneedsto becreated.The bestpossiblesolutionisusing RaspberryPiasthe“PC”terminalof
thecontrollerandusingatouchscreenasthe
interface.Thisallowsthewholecontrollertobemadewithina fewsquare-inchesbox.
SinceRaspberryPi hasitsownembeddedLinux OS,the usercaneasily transfermachine
codefileintothesystemusingaUSB drive.RaspberryPican thenstreamthe machine
codeintoArduinothroughanotherUSBporteasily.
Anotherthingthat canbedoneinthefutureisoptimizationofthefabrication processfor
massproduction.Thecomponentsofthemachineshouldbe machined using the cheapest
manufacturingprocess possible. The main frameshouldbebetter optimized forcasting.
Machinetestingshouldbeconductedinamoreaccuratemanner
withbetterequipmentandbettermethodology.Thentheactualnumberofprecision
andrepeatability can bedetermined.

44
 REFERENCES
[1] Benhabib, Beno. (2003). Manufacturing: Design, Production, Automation, and Integration. New
York: Marcel Dekker.

[2] Delta Tau Data System, Inc. (2001). Turbo PMAC/PMAC2 software reference manual.

[3] Delta Tau Data System, Inc. (2003). Pmac Tuning Pro Software Reference Manual.

[4] Delta Tau Data System, Inc. (2003). PmacPlot Software User Manual.

[5] Delta Tau Data System, Inc. (2004). Reference Guide for UMAC Products.

[6] Delta Tau Data System, Inc. (2005). Pewin32 Pro2 Software manual.

[7] Delta Tau Data System, Inc. (2008). PMAC/PMAC2 Software reference manual

8. Delta Tau Data System, Inc. (2010). PMAC-NC Pro2 Software Reference.

9. Ferreira, Placid M. (1987). Adaptive accuracy improvement of machine tools. (Ph.D.), Purdue
University, ETD Collection for Purdue University.

10. Knapp, Wolfgang. (1987). The Circular Test for Testing NC-machine Tools: S. Hrovat.

11. Koren, Yoram. (1983). Computer control of manufacturing system.

12. Kornel F. Ehmann, Rechard E. DeVor, Shiv G. Kapoor. (2002). Micro.Meso-scale Mechanical
Manufacturing Opportunities and Challenges. JSME/ASME International Conference on Materials
and Processing.

13. Lewotsky, Kristin. (2007). Choosing the Right Linear Actuator. from
http://www.motioncontrolonline.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3601

14. Machinist.org. The Invention of CNC Machining. from http://machinist.org/uncategorized/the-

invention-of-cnc-machining

15. MatWeb. (2000). Aluminum 2024-T851. from

http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a4902e2fe5994
8d39931e3351cc62758

16. Ogata, Katsuhiko. (2010). Modern Control Engineering: Pearson.

17. Slocum, Alexander H. (1992). Precision machine design: Prentice-Hall.

18. Yoshimi Takeuchi, Kiyoshi Sawada, Toshio Sata. (1995). Computer Aided Urtra-Precision Micro-
Maching of Metallic Materials. IEEE International

19. www.statista.com
 APPENDIX A
Calculating the Torque

The required torque depends upon the type of power screw being used. The ACME thread
are most commonly used however they are very rapidly being replace by ball lead screws
but here a single start ACME thread have been choosen to work out the torque requirement.
As the aim is to calculate the motor power and its required torque at the output of the gear
box, therefore the case considered shall only be when the load acting on the lead screw is
maximum i.e. when the motion or feed is in the direction of cutting. Considering single start
ACME thread screw; the associated dimensions of the lead screw i.e. its pitch, diameter,
thread angles can be obtained from various design handbooks according to their loading
capacity. An exaggerated view of a square thread is shown in the Figure-:-2.39. For the
derivation of the loads on this thread consider a simple square thread and unwound it. The
forces on the thread are as follows:

Figure-: - 2.34 Exaggerated view of a square thread

By resolving the force vectors along the incline the following relation is obtained for square
thread;

, f = functional force

, N= Normal force
As, therefore,

Where,

= Power/ Force

f = Functional force

N = Newton

λ = Lead Angle

L =?

To get the required force for the ACME thread, the only difference is the thread angle. This
thread angle will cause an increase in the normal force and hence only the frictional force
will be increased. For the square thread the forces labeled L and N in the diagram below are
equal but in case of ACME thread L is only a component of N. This is shown in the Figure-:
below.
 Figure-: - 2.40: Force components for square and ACME thread

To obtain the load for the tapered thread the friction increases with the thread angle 2α. 2α
is zero in case of square thread. Thus, the friction parameters will increase as in case of
guide ways, and µ will be divided by cos α to obtain the actual value of . In the case of
ACME thread the thread angle 2α = 290 therefore the required load for the ACME thread
can be calculated as:

In order to obtain a relation for Torque ( ) multiply the required force with the radius of
the lead screw,

, (N-m)
This is the final relation to obtain required torque to drive the load on the power screws. It is
known by the Newton’s laws that action has an equal and opposite reaction. Hence, to drive
the load forward an equivalent force will be applied back into the lead screw. It is shown as
the reactions in the Figure-: below:

Figure-: -2.41: Reaction forces at the collar

Generally a collar is placed at the base of the lead screw to take the reactions. This collar
also exhibits a frictional force which opposes the torque applied. Therefore, the torque
which is required to overcome the friction of the collar has to be added to .Considering
the collar having a mean diameter of , the torque needed to overcome the collar friction
is,

, =?

Hence the total torque required becomes;

𝑑𝑚 𝐿(µ𝜋𝑑𝑚 sec 𝛼 + 𝑙) 𝑑𝑐
𝑇𝑟 = × + 𝐿µ𝑐
2 (𝜋𝑑𝑚 − µ sec 𝛼 𝑙) 2
 APPENDIX B
Stress Analysis
Below are the results of the structural analysis of 3 major components which are
bearing, guide ways and side plates. The results include both the deformation and the Von
Mises stress distribution over the components.

For the bearing both the maximum deformation and stress lies on the inner ring as the
maximum load also applies in the radially outward direction. As for the guide ways the
maximum tensile stress lies at the bottom due to bending stresses, hence the maximum
deformation also lies at the bottom. Whereas the maximum compression stress lies at the
top which is approximately equal in magnitude with the tensile one. The side plates, on the
other hand, has maximum deformation at the bottom where it is attached to the base. The
maximum stress, however, exists at the location where the guide ways passes through it.

Figure-:14 Deformation - Bearing

Figure-:15 Stress distribution - Bearing

 Figure-:16 Deformation - Guide ways

Figure-:17 Stress Distribution - Guide ways

Figure-:18 Deformation - side plates

Figure-:19 Stress distribution - Side plates
 APPENDIX C
Bill Of Material
Sr# Description Quantity

1 Ball Screws 3
2 SS Rods 6
3 Linear Motion Bearings 10
4 Ball Bearings 6
5 Ellen Bolts (M8) 32
6 Ellen Bolts (M6) 28
7 Ellen Bolts (M5) 24
8 Aluminium Rod Cuplings 3
9 Nema 34 Stepper Motor 3
10 Power Supply 1
11 Limit Switches 12
12 3 Axes CNC Toshiba Driver 1
13 MS Rods 12
14 Aluminium Plate 520x520x12 1
15 Aluminium Plates 550x30x80 2
16 Aluminium Plates 200x400x12 2
17 Aluminium Blocks 50x30x25 4
18 Aluminium Strips 540x8x50 2
19 Aluminium Plate 300x130x12 1
20 Aluminium Plates 70x130x12 2
21 Aluminium Plate 150x100x12 1
22 Spindle Mount 1

23 Spindle Motor 1