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HSC Physics Option Topic
From QUANTA to QUARKS

What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. RUTHERFORD & BOHR MODELS OF THE ATOM
2. DE BROGLIE & MATTER WAVES
3. INTO THE NUCLEUS
4. APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS
...all in the context of the history, nature and practice of Physics.
1. RUTHERFORD & BOHR MODELS OF THE ATOM

What Has Gone Before... The Rutherford Model of the Atom
The entire Science of Chemistry and much of In 1911, Ernest Rutherford carried out an
Physics is built on the foundation of Atomic experiment which indicated that the positively
Theory... the concept that all matter is charged part of an atom must be concentrated
composed of atoms. into a tiny “nucleus”, with the electrons orbiting
around it.
Initially conceived as tiny, unbreakable particles Electrons in orbit
of matter, by the beginning of the 20th century it Rutherford’s around central
became apparent that the atom was composed ATOM nucleus
of smaller parts.
In his famous experiment with Atom mostly
+ - cathode rays, J.J.Thomson had empty space
discovered the (negatively charged)
- +
+ electrons in all atoms. Nucleus of positively
-
- charged matter,
+ This meant that there also had to
be a positive part of each atom. possibly made up of
Rutherford’s model of particles
In 1900, Max Plank had proposed the Quantum proposed that:
Theory to explain the details of the “Black Body • At the centre is a tiny, dense nucleus with a
Radiation Curves”. positive electrical charge.
• The negatively charged electrons orbit around
In 1905, Einstein then explained the strange the nucleus.
phenomenon of the Photoelectric Effect by
using Plank’s quantum idea. He proposed that • The distance from nucleus to the electron
light is not just a wave, nor a stream of particles, orbits is very large compared to the size of the
but made up of “wave packets”. particles, so the atom is mostly empty space.
Light is NOT a stream of particles... Since negative charge was carried by particles
(the electrons) Rutherford thought it likely that
the nucleus was made of positive particles.
Light is NOT a wave... These were soon called “protons” and their
existence was confirmed a few years later.
Light is a stream of “wave packets”... “PHOTONS”
The electrons were too light to account for much
of the mass of an atom, so he thought the
Each photon is both a particle AND a wave!
protons must be relatively heavy.
Einstein also proposed his “Theory of Even at this early stage there was speculation
Relativity” in 1905. Classical Physics was being that there might be another massive particle in
turned upside-down by this sequence of new, the nucleus as well, but its discovery had to wait
fundamental discoveries. 20 years.
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Problems with Rutherford’s Atom Practical Work

Even as he proposed his atomic model, Rutherford
knew there was a problem with it. Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
You will have observed the emission spectrum
The existing theory of Electromagnetic Radiation for hydrogen by using a spectrometer to view the
(EMR) contained the concept that if an electrically light from a discharge tube filled with low-
charged particle was accelerating, then it must emit pressure hydrogen gas.
EMR, in the form of light waves.
High Voltage
from induction coil
Since Rutherford’s electrons were imagined to be in
circular orbits around the nucleus, and since circular Spectroscope
motion involves constant (centripital) acceleration, Slit & lens
Prism Optical
Tube filled with Hydrogen gas

then it follows that each electron should be
constantly emitting light. Trouble is... they obviously viewing system
don’t!
Existing accepted theory
required that an orbiting
electron should emit light “Telescope” can be
energy continuously. rotated to view the
Tube glows different “lines” of the
with emitted emission spectrum
Obviously they don’t,
light
or all matter would
constantly glow with light. light
emission You will have seen that the light from a hydrogen
However, atoms DO emit from discharge tube is composed of 4 visible bright
electrons
light if stimulated with energy, such as lines of light.
in a high-v voltage discharge tube.
Each line is one single wavelength of light.
Emission Spectra
You should be familiar with the idea of a
“spectrum” of light. For example, if “white” light The Balmer Series &
is passed through a prism, the different Rhydberg Equation
wavelengths are separated, and the familiar The lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen
rainbow colours appear.
had been discovered some 20 years before
white light is Rutherford’s work, and were known as the
a mixture of
wavelengths
“Balmer Series”.
different Each line was given a name (Hα, Hβ, Hχ & Hδ) and
wavelengths Red the precise wavelength of each had been
spread out to
form a spectrum Orange measured. Other similar series of lines were
(use your known to exist in the invisible infra-red and ultra
imagination... Yellow
violet parts of the EMR spectrum.
we can’t print colours) Green
Blue No-one could explain them, but mathematicians
If the light emitted by atoms of a Violet Balmer and (later) Rhydberg had worked out that
particular element is put through a prism, the the exact wavelengths of the hydrogen spectrum
spectrum shows very narrow bright lines on a lines could be calculated from an empirical
dark background because only certain equation:
wavelengths are given out. The pattern of lines
is characteristic for each element. The Rhydberg Equation
2 2
Element Element Element 1 = RH( 1/nf - 1/ni )
A B C
λ
Each line is λ = wavelength of the spectral line (in metres)
light of one RH = the “Rhydberg constant” = 1.097 x 107
exact wave- Each nf = an integer number. For the Balmer series nf = 2
length. element
ni = an integer number. To calculate the wavelengths
of the 4 lines of the Balmer series, ni takes the
has its own values 3, 4, 5 or 6.
Light is only unique set
emitted at of spectral The fact that the Rhydberg equation worked was strong
certain lines evidence that there was an underlying “law” controlling
precise the hydrogen spectral lines. The fact that a series of
wavelengths integer numbers were involved was a clue that
connected the whole thing to Plank’s Quantum Theory...
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Plank’s Quantum Theory Neils Bohr Puts It All Together

A quick revision of what you learned previously... Bohr used Plank’s Quantum Theory to modify the
Rutherford model of the atom in such a way that:
In 1900, Max Plank proposed a radical new theory
to explain the black body radiation. He found that • the problem of radiation that should be emitted
the only way to explain the exact details coming constantly from accelerating electrons was
from the experiments, was that the energy was overcome.
quantised: emitted or absorbed in “little packets” • the underlying reasons for emission spectra were
explained.
called “quanta” (singular “quantum”).
• the empirical nature of the Rhydberg Equation was
given theoretical backing and mathematical validity.
The existing theories of “classical” Physics • the reasons for the “valency” of different atoms, and
assumed that the amount of energy carried how and why they combine in fixed ratios
(say) by a light wave could have any value, on a became clearer.
continuous scale. Plank’s theory was that the
energy could only take certain values, based on Not bad for an afternoon’s work!
“units” or quanta of energy.
(The last point above is fundamental to Chemistry and
Plank proposed that the amount of energy carried understanding chemical bonding and formulas. It will
not be pursued any further in this topic)
by a “quantum” of light is related to the frequency
of the light, and can be calculated as follows: Bohr’s Postulates
• Electrons revolve only in certain “allowed” orbits.
Bohr theorised that there are a series of orbits, at
E = h.f fixed distances from the nucleus, in which an electron
will not constantly emit radiation as demanded by
E = energy of a quantum, in joules ( J) classical theory.
h = “Plank’s constant”, value 6.63x10-34 (Why was explained later by de Broglie)
f = frequency of the wave, in hertz (Hz) “Allowed” orbit
positions.
You are reminded also, of the wave equation: Electrons cannot orbit
anywhere else.
V = λ.f (or, for light) c = λ.f
Electrons can “jump”
c = velocity of light (in vacuum) = 3.00x10 ms . 8 -1 from one orbit to
λ = wavelength, in metres (m). another, but must
1 absorb energy to jump
f = frequency, in hertz (Hz) higher, or emit energy
2 to drop lower.
3 Quantum numbers of
the orbits.
Example Calculation
a) Use the Rhydberg Equation to find the
wavelength of the Hδ line of the hydrogen
• Electrons gain or lose energy to “jump” between
spectrum, given that nf= 2 and ni = 6.
orbits. To jump up to a higher orbit, an electron must
2 2 gain a certain quantity of energy. If it drops back to
1 = RH( 1/nf - 1/ni ) lower orbit, it must emit that exact same amount of
λ energy.
= 1.097x107( 1/22 - 1/62 )
1/λ = 2.438 x 106 These quantities of energy are “quantised”, so each
∴ λ = 4.10x10-7 m (410 nm nanometres) orbit is really a “quantum energy level” within the
atom.
b) Use the “Wave Equation” to find the
frequency. The amount of energy absorbed or emitted during a
c = λ.f “jump” is defined by Plank’s Equation E = hf, and the
corresponding wavelengths of light are defined by
3.00x108 = 4.10 x10-7x f
the Rhydberg Equation. The integer numbers nf and ni
∴ f = 3.00x108/4.10x10-7 turn out to be the “quantum numbers” of the orbits,
= 7.32x1014Hz. counting outwards from the nucleus.
c) Use Plank’s Equation to calculate the • Electrons in “allowed orbits” have quantised amounts
energy carried by one photon of light in the Hδ of angular momentum too.
spectral line. Bohr figured out that the amount of angular momentum
E = h.f possessed by an electron must always be a multiple of
= 6.63x10-34 x 7.32x1014 h/2π. The significance of this will be dealt with in a later
= 4.85x10-19 J. section.
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Bohr & the Balmer Series Limitations of the

Let’s see how Bohr’s ideas work with regard to the
Balmer Series of hydrogen emission lines.
Rutherford-Bohr Model
Despite the way that Bohr’s Postulates seem to solve
the problem with Rutherford’s brilliant new concept of
Bohr suggested that the Hα emission line was due to
the atom, there were still unexplained difficulties.
an electron dropping from the 3rd orbit down to the
2nd orbit. It must lose a precise quantum of energy,
so it emits a photon of light at a precise frequency Bohr Model worked only for Hydrogen
given by E = hf. Hydrogen is the simplest atom, with only one
electron and one proton.
In the Rhydberg Equation, ni = 3 and nf = 2. The
calculated wavelength (λ) agrees perfectly with the Attempts to apply the model to larger atoms
observed spectral line. Plank’s Quantum Equation failed, because multiple, orbiting electrons
calculates the energy of that photon of light. interact with each other as well as the nucleus,
and the situation becomes too complex to
Bohr argued that this amount of energy must
describe in a simple mathematical way.
represent the difference in energy level from orbit 2
to orbit 3.
Different Intensities of Spectral Lines
The other lines of the Balmer Series represent The different spectral lines showed different
electrons dropping from higher orbits into the 2nd intensities or brightness. This means that some
orbit: orbital “jumps” by electrons always occur more
Hα line. ni = 3 ) Increasing energy often than others. Bohr’s model had no
nf = 2 difference gives
Hβ line. ni = 4 ) explanation as to why.
in each case higher frequency
Hχ line. ni = 5 ) (and shorter wavelength)
Hδ line. ni = 6 ) of spectral light “Hyperfine” Spectral Lines
When the spectral lines were examined more
It all worked! Bohr’s idea gave a theoretical closely, each one was found to be made up of a
explanation for the Rhydberg Equation, which had number of very fine lines close together.
been empirically derived to explain the observed
spectral lines.
view
ed Spectral line
6 agnifi
light photon emitted M
Hδ line. ni = 6 is made up of
5 a number of
Hχ line. ni = 5
4 separate,
Hβ line. ni = 4 finer lines
3
2 Hα line. ni = 3
1
Quantum energy Spectral lines are of
levels or “allowed different brightness
+ orbits” around the
hydrogen atom
Nucleus The Zeeman Effect
When a discharge tube is operated within a magnetic
The Hydrogen Spectrum & field, each spectral line is split up into several
Development of Bohr’s Model separate lines.
Without a knowledge of the emission spectrum of
hydrogen, it seems very unlikely that Bohr could have This, and the presence of the “hyperfine lines”,
come up with his idea. suggested that the energy levels or orbits were
divided into a number of “sub-orbits” of slightly
The fact that the spectrum shows distinct lines, and different energy. Bohr’s model had no explanation for
that integer numbers are involved in the Rhydberg this.
Equation, all pointed to some kind of discrete,
quantised atomic arrangement, rather than the more- Like all scientific models, the Rutherford-Bohr atom
or-less random orbits of Rutherford. Without is a human attempt to explain the observed facts of
knowledge of the hydrogen spectrum, (and Plank’s nature. In its day, this model was the best explanation
Quantum Theory) Bohr could not have made the available, but it was recognised that certain facts
(literally) quantum leap to his idea. remained unexplained.
Like all great scientists, Bohr built on the knowledge This doesn’t make the model wrong... simply
discovered by others. His genius was to put it all incomplete. It was a “work-in-progress”, to be added
together in a new synthesis, that helped establish to and refined by later scientists. This is the way
Rutherford’s new structure of the atom. Science works.
However, there were still some problems... If further evidence had proven it totally wrong (as can
happen) you would not be studying it!
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Summary Worksheet for Section 1 is at the end of the next section

Worksheet 1 Test Questions section 1 Student Name...............................
1. 5.
Sketch a labelled diagram to show the main The Hχ spectral line for hydrogen is due to an
features of Rutherford’s atomic model. electron dropping from the 5th to the 2nd orbit.
Compared to the Hβ line (in Q3):
a) would a photon of the Hχ line carry more, less,
or the same amount of energy? Explain.
2. b) would the Hχ line have a higher, lower, or the

Outline the major problem with Rutherford’s same frequency? Explain.
atomic model, based on the accepted theory of
that time.
c) would the Hχ line have a longer, shorter, or

the same wavelength? Explain.
3.
a) What is the “Balmer Series”?
6.
a) List, in brief form, 3 of “Bohr’s Postulates”.
b) Calculate the wavelength of the Hβ spectral
line for hydrogen, given that ni = 4 and nf = 2.
b) List, in brief form, 4 limitations of the Bohr

c) Use the wave equation, and Plank’s equation model.
to find the amount of energy carried by one
photon of the Hβ line.
d) According to Bohr, what does this amount of 7.

energy represent within a hydrogen atom? It is known that other spectral lines for hydrogen
are present in the infra-red and ultra-violet parts
of the spectrum. One line, for example, is due to
electrons dropping from the 8th to the 1st orbit.
Calculate the wavelength of this spectral line

4. and state if it is infra-red or ultra violet.
Analyse the significance of the hydrogen
spectrum in the development of Bohr’s atomic
model.
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2. DE BROGLIE & MATTER WAVES

de Broglie’s Quantum Proposal Impact of de Broglie’s Hypothesis
Remember that in 1905 Einstein had explained De Broglie’s proposals had almost no impact on
the Photoelectric Effect by suggesting that light the scientific community at first. His
has both wave and particle properties. (For this mathematics were checked and found to be
he was awarded the Nobel Prize) totally correct. His hypothesis was totally
Light is a stream of “wave packets”... “PHOTONS”
consistent with the Quantum Theory, and with
the Bohr model.
Each photon is both a particle AND a wave! The physicists of the day, including Plank,
Einstein, Rutherford and Bohr were all very
Einstein had used Plank’s Quantum Theory to interested by his work, but it was just a neat
explain a phenomenon that “classical” Physics mathematical exercise, without any evidence
was unable to explain. based in experiment or observation.
In 1924, a young graduate student Louis de Usually, scientists observe a phenomenon and
Broglie turned this concept around... then try to explain it by theory. de Broglie was
putting theory first, without any facts to explain!
If light waves can have particle-like
Eventually, (as happens in Science) an
properties, why can’t particles have experiment was done to test the hypothesis.
wave-like properties? Before learning about that, you need to
understand an important wave phenomenon...
Using Quantum Theory and Bohr’s atomic
model, de Broglie developed a mathematical Diffraction
model for an electron in orbit around the Waves can undergo various “wave phenomena”
nucleus acting as a particle with wave such as reflection, refraction and interference.
properties. In fact, it is these things which can identify
waves. For example, it was interference which
De Broglie began from Bohr’s equations which allowed Hertz to prove the existence of invisible
showed that (as a particle) the angular radio waves back in the 1880’s.
momentum of the electron would be a multiple
of h/2π. Diffraction is something that only waves do.
Barrier
From this he was able to show that (when with gaps in it
showing its wave properties) the electron would
have a wavelength related to its mass and
velocity: Parallel wave The part of the
fronts
approach the wave which gets
through a gap
λ= h barrier.
will act like a
mv Most of the
wave energy point source of
will be waves. A semi-
λ = wavelength (metres) of the electron. absorbed or
circular wave
h = Plank’s constant (= 6.63x10-34) -31 reflected.
m = mass of the electron (= 9.11x10 kg) pattern forms
v = velocity of the electron, in ms-1. from each gap.
This is
Diffraction
Example Calculation
Find the wavelength of an electron which is
5 -1
travelling at a velocity of 4.35x10 ms .
Solution
λ= h You can see diffraction occur if you watch water
mv waves enter a harbour or similar.
= 6.63x10-34/(9.11x10-31 x 4.35x105)
= 1.67x10-9 m (1.67 nanometres) At this point you might think “so what?”
The “so what” is what happens AFTER
diffraction occurs...
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Diffraction Forms Davisson & Germer’s Experiment

Interference Patterns Davisson and Germer used a modified cathode ray
tube to test de Broglie’s hypothesis.
Once a set of waves have been diffracted, the 2
(or more) sets of spreading waves now meet A beam of electrons travelling through a vacuum was
each other and wave interference occurs: allowed to strike a crystal of nickel, specially
If the waves are “in phase” (crest matches crest) the prepared so that electrons would reflect from parts of
it. Different parts of the beam could then overlap their
waves add together for double the amplitude
pathways as they travelled into a detection device
+ which could measure the intensity of the beam.
Result?
Constructive
interference An interference pattern was detected! This proved
that electrons have wave properties, and confirmed
the de Broglie hypothesis.
If the waves are “out of phase” (crest matches Why Are the Bohr Orbits Stable?
trough) the waves cancel for zero amplitude A quick review of some important points:
+ =
Rutherford’s atomic model places electrons in orbit,
Destructive but classical theory predicts they should constantly
interference be emitting light because they are accelerating.
However, this isn’t happening, so Bohr proposes that

If light waves are diffracted, then projected onto there are “allowed”, stable orbits where electrons
a screen, or captured on photographic film, an don’t constantly give off light. (They only radiate
when they “jump” orbits)
interference pattern appears... perhaps a line of
light spots (where waves add together What makes these “allowed orbits” stable?
constructively) and dark zones (where waves de Broglie’s particle-wave theory of the electron
are cancelling). The exact appearance of the explains:
pattern depends on the geometry of the “slits”
and the wavelength of the waves. An allowed orbit is where the wavelength of the
electron exactly fits to form a “standing wave”
Light falling on around the nucleus.
Beam of light striking a screen or photo film
barrier with slits in it shows a pattern of
light and dark spots An electron
forms a
“Standing
+ Wave”
around the
nucleus
Light spot
where waves
add together “Standing waves” are a well-known wave
Dark zone
phenomenon in which an exact number of full
where waves wavelengths can “resonate” or reverberate in a
cancel stable way. For example, all musical instruments
involve standing waves of sound energy in a
string or air space.
The “allowed orbits” around an atom are located

Diffracting waves form
at distances from the nucleus which allow the
Interference Patterns
quantum energy of the electron to fit in an exact
Can you guess what’s coming? number of wavelengths to form a standing wave.
de Broglie has proposed an hypothesis that At any other distance, the orbit cannot fit a
electrons may have wave properties. standing wave with an exact number of
wavelengths, so the electron cannot exist there.
What should a good scientist do?
Test the hypothesis by experiment, of course! The electron is a particle, with mass and
momentum. It is also a wave, with a wavelength
How do you test for wave properties? λ = h/mv) and capable of diffraction,
(λ
Test electrons to see if they show interference and standing wave behaviour.
Diffraction & Interference Patterns, of course! Welcome to the world of Quantum Physics!
®
The Contributions of Heisenburg & Pauli

Before you leave the electron orbits and dive into the atomic nucleus,
the syllabus asks you to assess the contributions of 2 other great scientists.
Werner Heisenberg (1901-76) “If you think you understand

was a German physicist who is best Quantum Theory...
remembered for the then you really don’t
“Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle”, understand Quantum Theory!”
for which he was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1932.
Heisenberg developed the mathematical

framework for Quantum Mechanics. He showed
that the dual nature of the “particle-wave” which
describes the electron (and the light photon),
makes it impossible to know everything about Wolfgang Pauli (1900-58)
any particle at any moment. Either you know was born in Austria, but became an American
where it is, or you know how much momentum citizen. He is best remembered for the
it has, but you cannot know both things at once “Pauli Exclusion Principle”, (Nobel Prize 1945)
with any certainty. which states that 2 electrons in the same
atom cannot have exactly the
This “uncertainty” about things at the atomic same quantum state.
scale was described by Heisenberg as
mathematical probabilities. Thus an electron His mathematical analysis established the
orbit becomes a “region of probability” in which idea that the Bohr-de Broglie orbits are just
there is a good chance (but not a certainty) one of several different types of quantum
that the electron exists. properties that electrons can have.
This all sounds very airy-fairy, but its validity This gives rise to the idea of “sub-orbits”
has been spectacularly confirmed by many within an atom (this explains the “hyperfine
experiments and phenomena such as the lines” in emission spectra) and shows why 2
“quantum tunnelling” effect, involved in electrons with almost the same quantum
semiconductor operation and electrical state, but opposite “spin”
superconductivity. will tend to pair up. (Hence “Cooper Pairs”,
and electron pairs in chemical bonding.)
Later in this topic you will see that Pauli

also made an important contribution
to understanding nuclear processes as well.
An Assessment
In the 1920’s, Quantum Theory was being accepted as a “necessary evil” to
satisfactorily describe the structure of an atom, and
account for all the known observations.
However, the explanations being used were a mixture of new “quantum” ideas
overlaid on a framework of “classical” Physics, so it was all rather
artificial or contrived.
It was the theoretical work of Heisenberg & Pauli that built Quantum
Mechanics into a complete, new branch of Physics without the
need for any reference to the “old” Physics.
Therefore, their contributions must be seen as being very important.

Although the details of their work are beyond the scope of this course, they
allowed Physics to become a fully modern study with a complete theoretical
base which can explain atoms, super-conductivity, semi-conductors, nuclear
processes and even the creation of the Universe itself.
®
Worksheet 2 Rutherford-Bohr Model of the Atom

Fill in the blank spaces Student Name..........................................
Rutherford’s model of the atom:
• in the centre is a tiny, dense a)............................. • Electrons can q).............................. from one
• Electrons (discovered by b)................................) orbit to another. When they do so they must
are in c)................................ around the outside. r)............................ or ..................................... an
The model had a major problem: theoretically, amount of energy. This energy difference
electrons which are d)................................ should relates to the s)................................ of a spectral
constantly emit e)...................................., causing line in accord with t)...........................’s Quantum
all matter to constantly f)....................... with light. Theory and the u).................................. equation.
• Electrons in “v)............................... orbits” have
The “g).......................................................” of an a quantity of w)...................................... which is
element refers to the precise set of always a multiple of h/2π.
h).................................... of light emitted if the
element is energised, for example, in a Bohr was able to link his idea to the Balmer
i).............................................................. The lines Series of hydrogen spectral lines. In fact, it is
are visible if the light is viewed through a highly unlikely he could have developed his
j)................................................... idea without this evidence.
The visible lines in the spectrum of However, the Bohr model had a number of
k)................................. had been named the limitations:
“l)................................. Series”, and the • It worked only for x).............................................
m)........................................ equation had been • It could not explain the different
formulated to calculate the n)................................. y)...................................... of the spectral lines.
of each of the lines in the series. • There was evidence from the “z).........................
Effect”, and the observed “aa).............................”
Bohr used the evidence of the Balmer Series to refine spectral lines, that each orbit was actually
Rutherford’s atomic model. He suggested that: ab)......................... ..................................................
• Electrons o)........................................................., The model could not explain these
in which they will not p)......................................... observations.
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Worksheet 3 de Broglie & Matter Waves

Louis de Broglie argued that if Einstein’s They detected an l).............................. pattern
photons of light are waves with a)........................ which proved that the electrons were
properties, then electrons could be undergoing m)................................. This proved
b)....................... with c)....................... properties. that electrons do have n)..................... properties,
and confirmed de Broglie’s hypothesis.
He extended Bohr’s model to derive an equation
for the d).............................. (wave measurement) o).............................. is a wave phenomenon in
of the electron. Bohr’s “allowed orbits” were which waves which penetrate a small aperture,
explained as e)....................................... waves, then act like a point source of waves and
with an integer number of f).................................. p)........................ in a q)..........................................
fitting exactly around that orbit. pattern. When waves from 2 (or more) apertures
overlap, they r).................................... with each
De Broglie’s hypothesis had g).............................. other. Where crest meets crest the waves
impact on the scientific community. It seemed s)................... ........................... creating a higher
an interesting idea, but there was no t).................................... wave. Where crest meets
h)............................... from observations or trough, the waves u)........................ each other.
i)................................... to connect it to. With light, this results in a pattern of
v)......................... and ................................. spots.
Two scientists, j)........................... &
............................ carried out an experiment in Following the confirmation of de Broglie’s
which a beam of k)............................... was aimed theory, the science of Quantum Mechanics was
at a crystal. given a complete theoretical framework by the
work of Werner w)....................................... and
Wolfgang x)...............................
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1. 4.
Use de Broglie’s equation to calculate: Explain how de Broglie would describe Bohr’s
a) the wavelength of an electron with velocity “allowed orbits” around the nucleus.
2.25x106 ms-1 (mass of electron = 9.11x10-31kg)
5.
a) What is diffraction?
b) the velocity of an electron if its quantum
wavelength is 4.75x10-9m.
b) The diagram shows a breakwall with parallel

water waves approaching. There are 3 boat
channels through the wall. Complete the
diagram showing the pattern of the waves which
c) Use the wave equation to find the quantum go through the boat channels.
frequency of the electron in (b).
Water waves striking a
breakwall with 3 boat channels
d) Use Plank’s equation to calculate the

quantum energy of the electron in (b).
2.
Describe the impact of de Broglie’s proposal 6.
that particles could have wave properties. Assess the contribution of Heisenberg & Pauli
Account for this reaction by the scientific to the development of atomic theory.
community.
3.
Outline the experiment of Davisson & Germer.
State the result of the experiment and explain
the significance of this result.
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3. INTO THE NUCLEUS

Nucleons Discovery of the Neutron
A “nucleon” means any particle located in the The existence of the neutron was proven in 1932
nucleus of an atom. We now know that there are 2 by James Chadwick (1891-1974).
types of nucleon:
It was impossible then to detect and measure
Protons neutrons directly. The method Chadwick used
The existence of protons was considered likely
almost as soon as the electron was discovered. By
relied upon neutrons colliding with other
the 1920’s the proton had been positively identified, particles, then applying the scientific principles
and its properties measured. of Conservation of Energy and Conservation of
Momentum to measure the properties of the
Neutrons neutron. Beryllium Paraffin Wax
As early as 1907 it had been suggested that protons target target Detecting
equipment
alone were not sufficient to account for the mass of +
p
most atoms. It was suspected that there must be
α n0
another nucleon, with considerable mass, but no
electric charge. However, it was 25 years before the
neutron’s existence was proven.
Radioactive
Contrasting the Properties of the Nucleons substance
emitting
Proton Neutron α-pparticles
Electrical
Charge +1.602x10-19C 0 (neutral) • The alpha (α) particles emitted by a radioactive
substance were used to bombard a beryllium
-27 target.
Mass 1.673x10 kg 1.675x10-27kg
• The beryllium emitted neutrons, which (having
Note that:
no electrical charge) are very penetrating and
• The charge on a proton is exactly the same are unaffected by electric or magnetic fields, so
magnitude, but of opposite sign to that carried by an could not be measured or studied directly. Other
electron. scientists had thought the radiation was gamma
• In a normal atom: ( γ ) waves of extreme high energy.
No. of protons = No. of electrons = “Atomic No.”
• Some of the neutrons then hit a second target
• Protons and neutrons have almost identical of paraffin wax, which has a lot of hydrogen in it.
masses. (The neutron is slightly heavier) Occasionally a neutron collision would dislodge
a proton.
Both are almost 2,000 times heavier than an electron,
so virtually all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus.
• Chadwick was able to study some of these
No.protons + No.neutrons = “Atomic Mass Number” protons and measure the energy they carried.
Thus we get the familiar atomic model, with

• Chadwick could then apply the principles of
electrons (in Bohr’s allowed orbits) around a
Conservation of Momentum and Energy to
nucleus of protons and neutrons.
calculate the mass and velocity of whatever had
MAKE SURE YOU UNDERSTAND THE SHORTHAND DESCRIPTION
hit the protons and dislodged them.
The results indicated the presence of a particle

For example:
Sodium atom
(not γ-rays) with a mass almost the same as a
proton, and no electric charge. This matched
electrons = 11 perfectly with the (then hypothetical) neutron,
protons = 11 so the existence of the “missing” nucleon was
neutrons = 12 confirmed.
Background Information
Radioactivity had been discovered in 1896.
Although it was not fully understood, the use of
Total nucleons = 23 α-pparticles as “atomic bullets” in experiments
(protons + neutrons) had become quite routine.
Atomic Mass Number = 23
Na
23 After Chadwick’s experiment, the neutron
Atomic Number = 11 became the next “bullet” of choice.
11
®
Transmutation It would be wise to revise...

To “transmute” something means to change
it into a different form or substance. See Preliminary Topic “Cosmic Engine”
to revise the properties of α, β & γ radiation.
In Nuclear Physics, “Transmutation” refers to an
atom changing into an atom of a different element,
by undergoing a nuclear reaction.
Transmutations occur during:

• radioactive decay of natural or artificial radioisotopes.
• nuclear fission in a nuclear power station, or “atom bomb”.
• nuclear fusion in the stars, and in a “hydrogen bomb”.
Radioactivity
Some naturally-occurring atoms have a nucleus which is unstable and will
spontaneously undergo transmutation to change into a more stable form.
During the reaction, a variety of radiations are emitted from the nucleus.
There are several different reactions which can occur;

knowledge of only the 2 most common reactions is required by the syllabus.
Alpha ( α ) Decay Beta ( β ) Decay

Alpha decay occurs in atoms which have a very Some atomic nuclei, of any size, have an
large nucleus and are unstable. To achieve unstable mix of protons and neutrons. If there is
greater stability, the nucleus may an excess of neutrons, a neutron can be turned
spontaneously eject an alpha particle to carry into a proton plus an electron.
1 1
n0 p+ 0
e-
away excess mass and energy.
+
0 1 -1
1
Example:
Uranium is well known as a radioactive Neutron Proton Electron
substance, and “nuclear fuel” for nuclear
reactors and bombs. Its most common isotope How can this happen? It seems like magic, but it
is U-238, meaning it has a mass number of 238. shows what a strange place the quantum world
It decays as follows: is. Some detail on how such things can happen
will be covered later; for now you must accept
238 234 4 that it actually happens.
U Th + He + γ
92 90 2
The result is that:
Uranium-2
238 Thorium-2
234 Alpha Gamma
particle ray also • Number of neutrons decreases by 1.
emitted in • Number of protons increases by 1.
Note that the Mass No. most (This means Atomic Number goes up by 1
always decreases by 4, + n cases
but Atomic Mass Number does not change)
and the Atomic No. by 2 n+ • The electron is ejected from the nucleus at
high speed. This is the Beta particle... a high
speed electron.
The α-p particle
The Uranium atom has consists of Example
TRANSMUTED 2 protons & Carbon-14 is a well-known radioisotope which
into a different element 2 neutrons. decays:
It is the nucleus
14 14 0
of a Helium atom C N +
-1
1
e- + γ
6 7
Carbon Nitrogen β-p
particle Gamma ray
Example 2
Once again Transmutation has occurred.
Radium-226 transmutes by alpha decay:
In many cases of beta-decay there is a gamma
226 222 4
88
Ra Rn +
2
He + γ ray emitted as well.
86
Note that the Mass Numbers and Atomic
Hint: Use the Periodic Table to find Atomic
Numbers ALWAYS BALANCE across the
Numbers and identify names and symbols.
equation.
®
Pauli and the Neutrino

It was known that the electrons ejected To have avoided detection, this hypothetical
during Beta decay varied considerably particle must have no mass (or so little that it
was not measurable) and no electric charge.
in their velocity, and the amount of However, it could carry quantum energy. Pauli’s
energy they carried. This was puzzling, idea was that there was a certain total energy
because it was thought that the process involved in b-decay; some was carried off by the
involved was the same in every β-decay, beta particle, the rest by the mystery particle.
so why did the energy vary?
Enrico Fermi did the mathematics and
In 1931, Wolfgang Pauli suggested a the whole scenario worked so well in
quantum explanation. theory that the scientific community
accepted the new particle, even though
What if there was another particle being it was not positively detected and
produced, that no-one had detected? identified until 1956.
This “missing” particle could carry
away some of the energy in varying This new particle was eventually
amounts. christened the “neutrino” (little neutral
one) and is now a totally accepted fact
of the sub-atomic quantum world. In
β-pparticle
-
neutron fact, there are a whole family of
(electron)
n neutrinos; to keep it simple (KISS
Principle!) the one released in beta
The sum of the
energy of the beta decay is an “anti-neutrino”.
particle and
neutrino always
adds up to the The symbol used for the anti-neutrino is
same amount.
ν. The full equation for a beta decay is
therefore:
14 14 0
anti C N +
-1
1
e- + ν + γ
proton neutrino 6 7
Carbon Nitrogen β anti- Gamma
particle neutrino
What Holds the Nucleus Together?

This question had been asked as soon as Since the nucleus does exist, and doesn’t
Rutherford had proposed that atoms have a instantly explode, it was realized that there must
nucleus. There were just 2 forces then understood, be another force operating. It was called simply
which could be operating in the nucleus: the “Strong Nuclear Force”.
Gravity Its properties could be inferred and calculated:

All masses attract all other masses by gravity. • It must be much stronger than the proton-
This would attract all nucleons to each other. proton electrostatic repulsion. (it’s over 100X
stronger)
Electrostatic Forces
All charged particles exert a force on other • It must be independent of charge and attract
charged particles. This force would not act on all nucleons... protons & neutrons.
neutrons, but should cause protons to be
repelled by other protons. • It must be extremely short-ranged, operating
only across the tiny distances of the nucleus.
Calculations showed that the (Otherwise it might cause neighbouring atomic
nuclei to fuse together, and eventually pull all
electrostatic repulsion would be much, matter into one lump!) Even before its existence
much stronger than gravity. The was proven, the Strong Nuclear Force was
nucleus should instantly fly apart! known to exist, and scientists began
speculating on how to tap into its enormous
energy potential...
®
Measuring Mass & Energy in the Nucleus

Before going any further, you need to know about the commonly used methods of
measuring mass and energy at the atomic level.
Mass in Atomic Mass Units Energy in Electron-Volts
The “atomic mass unit” (u) is a measure of mass The “electron-volt” (eV) is an energy unit that is
devised for convenience in Chemistry. Roughly convenient because the energy of sub-atomic
speaking, both a proton and a neutron have a particles has traditionally been measured by their
mass of 1 u, although in the calculations behaviour within electric fields.
following, you need to be much more precise.
1 eV is the energy gained by an electron accelerating
Obviously, 1 u is a very small mass: in an electric field with a potential difference of 1 volt.
-27 1 eV is an extremely small amount of energy:
1 u = 1.661x10 kg
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 joules of energy
You need to be able carry out calculations using
either unit, so the following data may be useful. so the unit often used is the mega-electron-volt
(MeV)
Proton Neutron 1 MeV = 1x106 (one million) eV
Mass (in kg) 1.673x10-27 1.675x10-27
This is convenient when dealing with individual
Mass (in u) 1.0073 1.0087 atoms or particles.
Mass Defect in the Nucleus

It was realized that incredibly powerful forces Example Calculation
were operating within the atomic nucleus. How A normal carbon atom contains 6 protons and 6
could such forces arise? neutrons. (also 6 electrons, but mass is negligible)
The nucleus is known to have a mass = 11.9967 u
The answer lies in the fact that the mass of = 1.993x10-26 kg
every atomic nucleus (except hydrogen ) DOES Calculate the Mass Defect,
NOT ADD UP. and total Binding Energy.
If you add up the mass of all the

Solution
In kg and joules In u and MeV
protons+neutrons in any nucleus,
Mass of 6 protons Mass of 6 protons
the total is always more than the actual = 6 x 1.673x10-27 = 6 x 1.0073
measured mass of the whole nucleus. = 1.004x10-26 kg = 6.0438 u
Mass of 6 neutrons Mass of 6 neutrons

Mass of Mass of = 6 x 1.675x10-27 = 6 x 1.0087
Protons + Neutrons > Whole Nucleus -26
= 1.005x10 kg = 6.0522 u
Total particle mass Total particle mass
-26
This difference is called the “Mass Defect”. It’s = 2.009x10 kg = 12.0960 u
∴ Mass defect ∴ Mass defect
as if a little bit of mass “went missing” when the -26 -26
= 2.009x10 - 1.993x10 = 12.0960 -11.9967
protons and neutrons joined together to form = 1.600x10-28kg = 0.0993 u
the nucleus.
Where is the missing mass? These are the same, just

different units
It has converted to energy...

This missing mass has Each 1 u converts to
(you should have known converted to binding 931.5 MeV of energy
E = mc2 that Einstein would be energy according to (This value is in your
Physics Data Table)
involved sooner or later!)
E = mc2 So, binding energy
= 1.6x10-28 x (3.00x108)2 = 0.0993 x 931.5
...to provide the “Binding Energy” of the Strong = 1.44 x10-11J = 92.50 MeV
Nuclear Force which holds the nucleus
together.
These are the same, just
Einstein had developed his most famous different units
equation as part of his Theory of Relativity. He
never anticipated that it would find another From here on, all calculations will be done in
use... atomic mass units (u) and MeV.
®
Nuclear Fission The Manhattan Project

In the 1930’s, it was discovered that bombarding Following a “letter of concern” (outlining the danger
“target” atoms with alpha particles could of nuclear research in Nazi Germany) from Einstein to
occasionally produce a transmutation to a new the President of the USA , the top secret “Manhattan
radioactive isotope. Project” was set up in 1942. Its objective was to
research nuclear fission and develop an “atomic
27 4 30 1 bomb” if this was possible.
13
Al + 2
He 15
P + 0
n
The first step was to discover if a self-sustaining
Aluminium α-particle new isotope neutron chain-reaction of fissions was possible. Enrico Fermi
of phosphorus was appointed the leader of the scientific team. He
designed the reactor or “nuclear pile”, which was
In Italy, brilliant young physicist Enrico Fermi (1901- built in a squash court at the University of Chicago.
54) decided that using neutrons as “atomic bullets”
would be even more productive. In December 1942 the reactor achieved the first self-
sustaining, controlled chain reaction.
In 1934 he began bombarding every possible element,
in turn, with neutrons and studying the resulting The Fission Chain Reaction
radioactivity to detect any new radioisotopes. Over 40 Since fission is set off by a neutron, and since it
were discovered very quickly. For example: releases more neutrons, it follows that a chain
reaction can occur, in which each atom which splits
19 1 20 can set off more.
9
F + 0
n 9
F
Fluorine Neutron New, previously unknown
radioisotope of Fluorine
In one experiment he bombarded uranium atoms with

neutrons, confidently expecting to produce atoms of
“transuranic” elements. The radiation “signatures”
detected were unexpected and puzzling, but he was
focused on other things and failed to investigate Start
further.
Fermi had “split” the nucleus, but it was another 4

years before other scientists in Germany confirmed
what had happened. In his sample of uranium were
atoms of U-235 which had absorbed a neutron, then
totally disintegrated:
92 Krypton
36
Kr isotope
3 extra
235 1 1 neutrons
If the amount of “fissile” atoms is below a certain “critical mass”,
U+ n 3 0
n released.
most neutrons escape without striking another nucleus, and the
92 0 chain reaction is not self-s
sustaining and dies down.
These can
Uranium Neutron set off other
141 Barium atoms in a
56
Ba isotope “chain
In a critical mass of “fissile” atoms, if every fission
sets off (say) 2 more, then the chain reaction grows
reaction”
exponentially within a fraction of a second. This is
This is Nuclear Fission; the splitting of the nucleus., uncontrolled fission, and results in a nuclear
with enormous energy release, due to a mass defect explosion of devastating power... an “atomic bomb”.
and E=mc2.
If a neutron-absorbing material (such as cadmium) is
Meanwhile, Fermi had continued on with his work, present, it is possible to absorb many of the neutrons
and was awarded the Nobel Prize of 1938 for his so that each fission sets off exactly one other. This is
production of new radioactive materials. controlled fission and is what Fermi achieved in his
“pile” in 1942, and what occurs in every nuclear
With war looming in Europe and a Fascist regime in power station.
Italy, Fermi and his Jewish wife used attendance at
the Nobel Prize ceremony in Sweden to flee to the There are only 2 nuclei which will readily undergo
USA, where Fermi was immediately accepted into the fission:
239
scientific community. 235 Pu
92
U 94
By then he was aware of nuclear fission and its huge
energy potential, and that the experiments confirming Uranium-235 which Plutonium-239 which can
fission had been done in Nazi Germany. On the eve of occurs naturally in be made from U-238 by
World War II, it seemed that the knowledge to develop uranium ores, but in neutron bombardment in
an “atom bomb” was in the hands of the enemy. very small amounts. a nuclear reactor.
®
Mass Defect During Nuclear Fission

The enormous energy released by nuclear fission is due to a “mass defect”
between the starting nucleus and the product nuclei.
For example, in the fission of Uranium-235: Photo by

Daron Cooke
(Note: fission products can vary)
235 1 148 85 1 The energy released
92
U+ 0
n 57
La + 35
Br + 3 n might seem a very
0
small amount, but this
U-2235 neutron La-1
148 Br-8
85 3 neutrons is from just one atom.
mass mass mass mass mass In (say) 10kg of
235.0439 u 1.0087 u 147.8114 u 84.8917 u 3.0261 u
uranium there are
Simulated about 2.5x1025 atoms.
Nuclear If all of these were to
Total Mass before Total Mass after Explosion undergo fission, the
Fission Fission total energy released
236.0526 u 235.7292
would be about 1x1015
joules, all released
in a split second, in the case of an atom bomb.
Mass Defect = (Mass Reactants - Mass Products)
This is the amount of energy generated by an
= 236.0526 - 235.7292 = 0.3234 u
average size power station in about 30 years.
Energy yield per fission:
Remember that 1u 931.5 MeV This is the plutonium
of mass of energy fission bomb,
nicknamed “Fat Boy”,
So, energy released = 0.3234 x 931.5 which destroyed the city
= 301.2 MeV of Nagasaki in 1945.
(This equates to about 5 x 10-11 joules of energy)
Practical Work
Observing Nuclear Radiations
You may have done practical work with one or more
methods of detecting and observing radiation from a
radioactive isotope.
Enrico Fermi
in 1943 The Wilson Cloud Chamber
working on is a simple device which allows the “trails” of alpha
the particles to be seen. Simple School
“Manhattan
Cloud Chamber
Project”
Small chip of
radioactive
material
When you add up the total The tracks of

alpha particles
mass of all the products of a appear as thin
fission reaction, it is less “condensation
than the starting mass. trails”
The chamber is cooled with “dry ice” so that the

vapours within are on the point of condensation.
If a source of alpha particles is placed inside the

chamber, tiny “tracks” can be seen. An alpha particle
This “mass defect” has been collides with air molecules and ionises millions of
them along its path. The ionised molecules serve as
converted to energy.
sites of condensation, so a visible “condensation
E = mc2 trail” briefly shows the path of each alpha particle.
®
Worksheet 5 Into the Nucleus

A “nucleon” refers to all the particles Beta decay occurs when a neutron
a)......................................., and includes converts to a x)............................... An
b)........................ & .................................. y).......................... is created as well, and
These are different in their properties in it is ejected from the nucleus at high
that c).......................... are slightly speed... the beta particle. The Atomic
heavier, and d)........................... carry Number z)..........................................
e)................ electric charge. while the Mass Number aa)...............
................. ..................
The existence of the neutron had been
suspected, and was finally proven by It was discovered that the beta particles
f)...................................... in 1932. When from different isotopes carried
g)...............-particles were smashed into ab).................................... .......................
a beryllium target a penetrating Pauli suggested this was because
radiation was produced. Others had ac)...........................................................
thought it was h)........................ rays. which shared the energy with the
Chadwick allowed this radiation to electron. This particle is an ad)................
strike a second target of ...........................
i).......................... This dislodged
j)............................ which he could detect The nucleus is held together by the
and measure their energy. By applying “ae)................................................” which
the principles of k).............................. has to be much more powerful than the
................................. he could calculate af)....................................... between
the properties of the “mystery protons. It acts only over
radiation”. His results indicated a ag)........................ distances, and
l).............................. with mass similar to attracts all ah)......................... to each
m).................... but without n)................... other. The force arises from the “Mass
............................... ai).........................” of the nucleus. A
small amount of the mass has been
“Transmutation” refers to an atom aj)........................ ................... according
o)..................................................... when to ak).................................(equation)
it undergoes a p)...............................
reaction. This can occur during Nuclear al).......................... occurs when
q)....................................... decay, or a nucleus is struck by a
during nuclear r).......................... or am)............................., and then
............................. (opposite processes). an).................. ................. It also releases
2 or 3 more ao)................................ which
Alpha decay occurs in a nucleus which can cause a ap)............................
is unstable because s).................... Reaction to occur. During each fission
................................ It ejects an alpha there is a large energy release due to
particle (which is made up of t)................ aq).............................................................
......................................) so that the Mass
Number u)...................................... and The first controlled fission reaction was
the Atomic Number v).................... achieved in 1942 as part the secret
........................ There is usually emission “ar).................................... Project”. The
of w)............................. as well. reactor was designed by
as)..................................................
®
Worksheet 6 Practice Problems

Nuclear Reactions Student Name..........................................
Alpha Decay Equations Beta Decay Equations
Work out the missing nuclide, identifying 1. If each of the following nuclides underwent
• Mass Number & Atomic Number beta decay, write the symbol, Mass Number &
• Symbol & name Atomic Number of the new nuclide.
222 4
1.
86
Rn +
2
He + γ a) Iodine-131
b) Thorium-234
241 4
2.
95
Am +
2
He + γ c) Hydrogen-3
d) Sodium-24
210 4
3.
84
Po +
2
He + γ
e) Uranium-239
4. 233 4
91
Pa +
2
He + γ f) Cobalt-60
210 4 2. Write complete decay equations for the beta

5.
84
Po +
2
He + γ decay of:
a) Lithium-8
b) Xenon-135
6. Write the equation for the alpha decay of
Actinium-227
c) Phosphorus-31
7. Write the equation for the alpha decay of

Plutonium-244
d) Chlorine-38
Need to contact us? PO Box 2575

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(02) 6583 4333 FAX (02) 6583 9467
®
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®
Worksheet 7 Practice Problems

Mass Defect Student Name..........................................
Use the data table at right. Data for Calculations
For each of the following nuclear reactions Nuclide Nuclear Mass Nuclide Nuclear Mass
calculate: (u) (u)
a) the Mass Defect (u) 1 1
b) the energy released (MeV) 0
n 1.0087
1
H 1.0073
1. 9 4 12 1 4 7
Be + He C + n He 4.0026
3
Li 7.0160
4 2 6 0 2
9 12
Be 9.0122
6
C 11.9967
4
22 25
11
Na 21.9780 Mg 24.9575
12
92 92
36
Kr 91.8804
38
Sr 91.8776
141 145
56
Ba 140.8167
56
Ba 144.8115
235 239
2.
92
U 235.0439
94
Pu 239.0446
235 1 141 92 1
92
U+ 0
n 56
Ba + 36
Kr + 3 n
0
4.
239 1 145 92 1
94
Pu + 0
n 56
Ba + 38
Sr + 3 0 n
3. 5.
7 1 4 4 22 25 1
Li + H He + He 4
3 1 2 2 11
Na + He 12
Mg + 1
H
2
®

1. 4.
Outline Chadwick’s experiment to Discuss why the neutrino was
confirm the existence of the neutron, “invented” (and by whom) and its
and discuss the importance of existence accepted, many years before
“conservation laws” in determining the it was physically detected and proven to
neutron’s mass. exist.
2.
Account for the need for the “strong
nuclear force” and outline its
properties.
5.
a) Explain why a “chain reaction” of
fissions is possible.
3.
a) What is meant by the “mass defect”
of the nucleus?
b) Compare the requirements for
controlled and uncontrolled nuclear
fission.
b) Explain the connections between the

strong nuclear force, the mass defect,
and Einstein’s equivalence of mass &
energy.
®
4. APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Significance of the
Manhattan Project Photo of
Fermi’s first controlled fission chain reaction in 1942 Horoshima a
was just the first step in one of the most significant few days after
scientific research projects in human history. the bomb.
Parts of the city
Within 3 years, fission bombs were used to destroy literally “ceased
the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and to exist”.
bring a sudden end to World War II.
The Manhattan Project brought the world into the

“Atomic Age”, with the following significant changes:
This ruined
Technologies Developed building in
• Nuclear power stations, currently meet about 20%
of the world’s energy needs. Fission power is Horoshima,
“Greenhouse friendly”, but presents the danger of Japan, has been
devastating accidents such as at Chernobyl (Ukraine) preserved as a
in 1986. There are also great challenges in the safe memorial to the
storage and disposal of radioactive wastes from many thousands
fission power stations. who died in the
atom bomb
• Nuclear weapons proliferated during the 40 year attacks in 1945
“Cold War”. On several occasions the world seemed
to be on the brink of a nuclear war which potentially
could have destroyed all human civilization.
Later in this section are more examples, and specific
• Rockets were developed to deliver the nuclear details, of technologies which are based on Nuclear
weapons, but the “spin-off” was their use for space Physics and are therefore a direct result of the
exploration and satellite technology. The modern Manhattan Project.
world relies heavily on satellites for communication,
commerce and finance as well as entertainment. Nuclear Technologies have been widely considered
as having more risks and dangers than benefits.
• Nuclear Medicine includes all the ways that nuclear However, there have also been many “spin-offs”
technology is used for diagnosis and treatment of a which have been highly beneficial to society.
wide range of health problems, including cancer. Whatever your opinion, the Manhattan Project was
certainly one of the most significant scientific
• Even the humble smoke alarm in your home is research events in human history.
connected to nuclear technology. It contains a tiny
pellet of radioactive material (Am-241) manufactured As always, the Science (and the technology it leads
in a nuclear reactor. to) is neither good nor bad; that is determined by the
choices and decisions made by people.
Nuclear Physics is Still Investigating Matter

The Manhattan Project, and the “Nuclear Age” Particle Accelerators
all grew from research by scientists like are another tool of modern research.
Chadwick and Fermi who wanted to find out
about the structure of atoms. They used alpha A Particle Accelerator uses powerful electromagnets
particles and neutrons as “bullets” to probe the to accelerate electrically charged particles through
nucleus to try to understand the fundamental huge circular tubes. Other electromagnets “steer”
structure of matter. and focus the beam of accelerating particles. At the
desired energy level, the particles are allowed to
collide head-on, or smash into their target. An array of
Well, guess what? Scientists are still doing exactly
detection equipment studies the particle tracks and
that, and still using (essentially) the same technique. radiation from the collision.
Neutrons as Nuclear Probes For example, the accelerator at C.E.R.N.
Neutrons are still used as probes because their (underground on the French/Swiss border) is 27 km in
lack of electric charge allows them to penetrate circumference, and accelerates particles to velocities
the nucleus more easily than a proton or alpha of 99.995% of the speed of light.
particle. A beam of neutrons might be scattered
by a nucleus, or other particles may be ejected At the end of the section is a brief summary of our
from it. This allows scientists to study the understanding of matter, as revealed by the “atom
structure of the nucleus. smashers”.
®
Nuclear Fission Reactors

The main peaceful use of nuclear fission technology is to operate controlled chain
reactions in a fission reactor, and use the energy released to make electricity.
There are many different designs. The following schematic diagram

shows the main features of all fission power stations
Moderator
(usually graphite or “heavy water”)
The reactor “pile” is made of a

Control Rods are made of moderator substance which slows
cadmium or boron which absorbs neutrons. down the neutrons. This increases
Lowering them into the pile slows the chain the likelihood of each neutron
reaction; raising them speeds it up. causing a fission in the next
In an emergency, they can be dropped under nucleus it hits.
gravity to shut the reactor down. (fast neutrons tend to pass through
without causing a fission)
Steam driven Fuel Rods

Turbine Uranium or Plutonium
&
Generator Each rod is less than
Heat
Exchanger the critical mass,
but together they form
Heat from well over the
reactor critical mass
Electricity boils needed to sustain
water to a chain reaction.
steam
Each rod can be
Condenser withdrawn for
re-ffuelling
These are
usually
huge
cooling
towers Heat absorbing fluid (Often a liquid metal)
Circulates through the pile and transfers heat to
the heat exchanger for steam production.
Sizewell Nuclear Power Station, England
The reactor “pile” is inside this

dome, heavily shielded to prevent
any radiation escaping
Photo by
Les Powell
The following is background information only... Instead, we rely on hydro-electricity and on burning
fossil fuels. Most of our electricity is made by burning
Australia is a non-nuclear country. coal, which is a major contributor to the “Greenhouse
We have one small fission reactor in Sydney for Effect” and Global Warming.
research, and to produce radio-isotopes for medicine
and industry. Many people believe that nuclear technologies have
been improved, and are now safe enough for Australia
Ironically, Australia is also the country with the to look towards nuclear power for our growing
largest mineral deposits of uranium ores. Our energy demands.
economy benefits greatly by selling uranium to other
nations, but our government policy (based on the Please have an opinion on this important issue,
democratic will of the people) has always been NOT
but make sure it is an informed opinion.
to use nuclear power.
HSC Physics Option Topic “From Quanta to Quarks” Usage & copying is permitted according to the
Copyright © 2006-22009 keep it simple science 22
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Site Licence Conditions only
®
Uses of Radio-isotopes Radio-isotopes in Industry

in Medicine The gamma rays from cobalt-60 are very
One application of Nuclear Physics that is likely to penetrating, and very destructive to living cells.
affect each of us, or our family, is the use of radio-
isotopes in health care. In the manufacture of medical supplies, such as
bandages and dressings, it is vital that the
Radio-isotopes are used for: product is totally sterile (germ-free). This is
achieved by irradiating the products with doses
Imaging and Diagnosis of gamma radiation high enough to destroy any
Radio-isotopes have now joined X-rays and
ultrasound scans for medical imaging and diagnosis. bacteria or fungi spores which might be present.
For example, the artificial isotope thallium-201 is

used with a “gamma ray camera” to image heart
muscle and detect any damage from heart disease.
When injected into the bloodstream, thallium tends to

collect in any active muscle because it “mimics”
potassium ions. Being radioactive (it gives off a lot of
low-energy gamma rays) it allows a gamma ray
camera to make computer-aided images of heart
muscle to identify if any part of it is damaged.
The isotope has an extremely short half-life, so it

rapidly disappears and presents little danger to the In paper manufacture, alpha emitting isotopes
patient. such as Americium-241, are used for thickness
control. A radiation detector constantly
Cancer Treatment measures the percentage of radiation which
“Radiation therapy” relies on the fact that rapidly- penetrates the paper as it moves at high speed
dividing cancer cells are more easily killed by gamma through “thicknessing” rollers. If the radiation
radiation than normal healthy cells.
level drops, this means the paper is too thick, so
The isotope cobalt-60 (which emits beta and strong the rollers are automatically adjusted.
gamma radiation) is commonly used as a source of
radiation which is accurately beamed into the tumour. Radio-isotopes in Engineering
In aircraft construction, the airplane parts may
Another example is the use of iodine-131 in the be welded together. It is essential that the
treatment of thyroid cancer. The thyroid gland is welded joints are totally strong and free of
located in the throat, and produces a vital defects. X-rays are not able to penetrate the
hormone which has iodine atoms in it. metal welds, but gamma rays can.
This gland is the only part of the body which To “see” inside the weld, gamma rays (again,
uses iodine, and enzymes in the gland are able cobalt-60) are used like X-rays; they are beamed
to chemically “recognize” iodine ions and very through the welded joint and an image captured
efficiently “harvest” iodine from the blood by a “gamma-ray camera”. Analysis of the
stream. image allows engineers to be sure of the quality
of the welding.
Iodine-131 is radioactive and emits beta and
gamma rays. Radio-isotopes in Agriculture
If a small amount of I-131 is Radio-iosotopes are not used directly in
injected into a patient who has
farming, but are very important in Agricultural
a tumour in the thyroid gland,
the radiation level is so low research, such as that carried out by the CSIRO.
that there is little risk to their
healthy tissue. For example, to study and compare the rates of
uptake of fertilisers into crop plants, isotopes
However, due to the chemistry such as nitrogen-15 and phosphorus-32 are
of the iodine, the thyroid commonly used.
gland rapidly absorbs the
isotope and concentrates it. Small concentrations of these isotopes can be
The radiation is concentrated included in a fertiliser applied to experimental
in the “target organ” and is
Location of
plants. The uptake of the fertiliser, and where it
very effective in destroying
Thyroid the tumour. ends up in the plant, can be “traced” by using
Gland radiation detection equipment. This research
I-131 has a short half-life and ultimately helps farmers to produce food crops
the radiation disappears more efficiently and economically.
rapidly.
®
The “Standard Model” of Matter

After 100 years of scientific research into the sub-atomic quantum universe,
just what is the latest “picture” we have for the structure of matter?
Our modern understanding is known as the “Standard Model”,

and is a description of both matter and energy (since these are inter-changeable)
at its most fundamental level.
So far, it has NOT been possible to
The Four Fundamental Forces: combine Quantum Mechanics and the
Standard Model of Matter with
Einstein’s Relativity Physics.
Gravity (the weakest of all) acts between all masses, and holds planets,
stars & galaxies together and in orbit. This would be the GUT; “Grand United
Theory”, which would combine an
explanation of EVERYTHING.
Electomagnetic Force acts only between charged particles. It is
responsible for holding atoms and molecules together (all chemical bonds
are basically electrical) as well as causing all electrical and magnetic
phenomena.
The Nuclear Weak Force is involved in radioactivity

such as when an electron and an anti-neutrino are produced The Structure of Matter
during beta decay in the nucleus. Many Particles, but Just Two Families.
Once the “atom-smashing” Particle
The Nuclear Strong Force (the strongest of all) acts Accelerators were developed, scientists
only between particles of the “hadron” family. It acts only over began detecting a bewildering assortment
very short range and is what holds protons and neutrons of sub-atomic particles.
together in the atomic nucleus.
We now know that protons & neutrons are composed of This confusion has now been simplified
smaller particles called quarks. with the realisation that all these particles
belong to just 2 basic types or classes:
Leptons & Hadrons

Leptons
include the electron, and the
neutrino family.(there are several
types of neutrino)
As well as being the particles Hadrons are made from QUARKS

which flow in an electric Hadrons include the proton and neutron, and a family of Then there are the
current, electrons are at particles called mesons.
home in orbit around a
Bosons
These are quantum “particle-
nucleus. Remember too, that All the hadrons are composed of
waves” and are the means by
they have wave properties combinations of “quarks”.
which all the particles
and form (de Broglie’s) exert forces on each other.
Each quark has a charge of either +2/3 or -1/3
“standing waves” within
(compared to the charge of an electron = -1).
(Bohr’s) allowed orbits. The best known is the “photon”
Protons contain 3 quarks with charge = +2/3 +2/3 -1/3 = +1 of electromagnetic radiation,
When formed in the nucleus Neutrons contain 3 quarks with charge= +2/3 -1/3 -1/3 = 0 such as light.
during beta decay, the
electron (and an anti- Quarks themselves come in a variety of “flavours” which Gravity is thought to involve
“gravitons”, but these have not
neutrino) is instantly ejected have been given whimsical names such as “charm” and
yet been proven to exist.
at high speed. “strange”. These names are labels for quantum states and
bear no connection to the normal meanings of these words.
The nuclear forces are carried
by gluons (strong force) and
W-particles (weak).
Anti-Particles and Anti-Matter

It has been discovered that for every Hadron and Lepton that exists, there is also a corresponding anti-particle.
For example, there are electrons, and there are anti-electrons (“positrons”) which have the same mass, but
opposite electric charge. There are also anti-protons, anti-neutrons, and so on. As you know, the other particle
formed in beta-decay is an anti-neutrino.
Theoretically, there could exist “anti-matter” with atoms made entirely of anti-particles.
When any particle and its anti-particle meet, they mutually annihilate each other... all the mass is converted into
energy (photons of gamma radiation) according to E=mc2.
®
Worksheet 9 Applications of Nuclear Physics

The Manhattan Project brought the Nuclear reactors not only provide
world into the a).......................... Age and electricity, but are used to make many
was one of the b)............................... artificial u)............................... isotopes
scientific research projects in history. It that are useful in Medicine and Industry.
led to technologies such as
c)......................................... from which Medical uses include v).............................
the world gets about 20% of its and diagnosis, as well as treating
electricity. d)....................................... w)..................... by irradiation. An isotope
were a threat to civilization during the used for imaging is x).............................,
“e)............................ War”. Rockets were while y)........................ radiation for
developed to carry weapons, but now cancer therapy often comes from the
we rely on them for f)........................ isotope z).............................
................................. The many uses of
g)............................ substances in This same isotope is also used in
Medicine and Industry are also direct industry, for example, to
“spin-offs”. aa)...................................... surgical
dressing and bandages after
Nuclear research is still going on. manufacture and packaging. In paper
Neutrons are excellent “probes” or manufacture, the isotope ab)....................
“bullets” because h).................................. is used to control the thickness by
................. In addition, i)....................... measuring the penetration of
................................. are used to ac).............................. through the paper.
accelerate j)............................... particles
up to near the k).................. In engineering, gamma rays from
............................ From the l).................... ad)......................... are used to check the
& .................... from a collision, quality of ae)..........................................,
scientists are able to infer the structure for example in aircraft construction.
of matter.
In agricultural research, isotopes such
A nuclear fission reactor has 3 main as af)...................... and .............................
components: are used to “trace” the movement of
• Fuel Rods made of a “fissile” material chemicals into and through a plant.
such as m)................................. or
................................... Our modern “picture” of matter is called
• n)........................ Rods (made of the ag)................... ..............................
o).......................) These control the rate There are many sub-atomic particles,
of fission by absorbing p)......................... but they all belong to 2 classes:
• The Moderator, which is usually • ah)........................, including the
q)................................. or “heavy water”. electron and a variety of ai)......................
Its job is to r).................................... the • aj)..........................., including the
neutrons so that fission is more likely to ak)....................... and ............................
occur. The energy released by the Each of these is composed of smaller
fission reaction is used to make steam, (although more massive) particles
which then drives a s)............................. called al)...........................
and ............................. to make
t)...........................
®

1. 4.
Assess the significance of the Using named examples of 4 different
Manhattan Project to society, including radio-isotopes, describe an application
mention of 2 technologies that were of radioactivity in
developed from it. a) medicine.
b) industry.
c) engineering.
2.
Explain the basic principles of a fission
reactor, outlining the composition and
function of the fuel rods, moderator and d) agriculture.
control rods.
5.
Discuss the the key features of the
“Standard Model” of matter including
the main “classes” of particles,
examples of each, and whether each is
3. composed of anything smaller.
a) What properties of neutrons make
them useful as “probes” to investigate
the nucleus?
b) Identify and briefly describe another

technology used in modern nuclear
research to investigate the structure of
matter.
®
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (“Mind Map”) OF TOPIC

In all the Core Topics you were given examples of a “Mind Map”
as a way to summarise the content of the topic.
If you have found this a useful way to summarise and learn, then you may want to do it again.
By now you should have developed the skills to do it yourself...
Rutherford & Bohr

Models of the Atom
de Broglie
&
Matter Waves
FROM QUANTA
TO QUARKS
Into the
Nucleus
Applications
of
Nuclear
Physics
®
Answer Section
2 2
Worksheet 1 Electrons in orbit 7. 1 = RH( 1/nf - 1/ni )
λ
1. around central
= 1.097x107( 1/12 - 1/82 )
nucleus λ = 1.080 x 107
1/λ
∴ λ = 9.20x10-8 m ( = 92 nm)
Atom mostly
Visible light has wavelengths from about 400-700 nm.
empty space This is much shorter, therefore is in the ultra violet.
Nucleus
2. Worksheet 2
The existing theory for EMR stated that electrons a) nucleus b) J.J.Thomson
accelerating in circular motion should constantly emit c) orbit
light energy, but obviously they don’t. d) accelerating/in circular motion
e) (electromag) radiation f) glow
3. g) emission spectrum h) wavelengths
a) Balmer Series is the 4 lines of visible light in the i) discharge tube j) spectroscope
emission spectrum for hydrogen. k) hydrogen l) Balmer
b) 1 = RH( 1/nf2 - 1/ni2 ) m) Rhydberg n) wavelength
λ o) revolve only in “allowed” orbits
= 1.097x107( 1/22 - 1/42 ) p) radiate energy/emit light
λ = 2.057 x 106
1/λ q) jump r) absorb or emit
∴ λ = 4.86x10-7 m s) wavelength/frequency t) Plank’s
c) c = λ.f, ∴ f = c/λλ u) Rhydberg v) allowed
= 3.00x108 /4.86 x10-7 w) angular momentum x) hydrogen
= 6.17x1014Hz. y) intensities/brightness z) Zeeman
E = h.f aa) hyperfine ab) divided into sub-orbits
= 6.63x10-34 x 6.17x1014
= 4.09x10-19 J.
d) The energy difference between the 2nd and 4th
quantum levels (or “allowed orbits”).
Worksheet 3
4. a) particle b) particles
It is very unlikely that Bohr could have developed his c) wave d) wavelength
atomic model without the evidence of the hydrogen e) standing f) wavelengths
spectrum. The fact that there were distinct lines at g) very little h) evidence
precise wavelengths all pointed to quanta of energy, i) experiment j) Davisson & Germer
rather than variable amounts. k) electrons l) interference
m) diffraction n) wave
5. o) Diffraction p) spread out
a) More energy, because it is the difference between q) semi-circular r) interfere
5th-2nd orbits, compared to 4th-2nd. s) add together t) amplitude
b) Higher frequency, because Plank’s E = hf shows a u) cancel v) bright and dark
direct relationship between energy and frequency. w) Heisenberg x) Pauli
c)Shorter, because frequency and wavelength are
inversely related by the wave equation , v=lf.
6.
a) Worksheet 4
• electrons revolve only in certain stable, “allowed 1.
orbits” a) λ = h = 6.63x10-34/(9.11x10-31 x 2.25x106)
• Energy must be absorbed, or emitted, in quantised mv
amounts when an electron jumps from one orbit to = 3.23x10-10 m
another. b) λ = h
• Within the “allowed orbits” the electron’s angular mv so v = h/mλ λ
momentum is quantised to a multiple of h/2π π. = 6.63x10-34/9.11x10-31x4.75x10-9
b) = 1.53x105 ms-1.
* it applied only to the hydrogen atom. c) c = λf, so f = c/λλ = 3.00x108/4.75x10-9
* it could not explain the different intensities of the = 6.32x1016 Hz
spectral lines. d) E = h.f
* it could not explain the “hyperfine” spectral lines. = 6.63x10-34 x 6.32x1016
* it could not explain the “Zeeman Effect”. = 4.19x10-17 J.
®
Worksheet 4 (cont) z) increases by 1 aa) stays the same

ab) different amounts of energy
2. ac) another particle was produced
His proposal had very little impact at first. It was a ad) anti-neutrino ae) Strong Nuclear Force
“neat” idea, and mathematically valid, but the af) electrostatic repulsion
scientific community took little notice because there ag) extremely short
was no evidence from observation or experiment to ah) nucleons ai) defect
link it to. It was not until the hypothesis was tested by aj) converted to energy ak) E = mc2
Davisson and Germer that the Physics world really al) fission am) neutron
took notice. an) splits apart ao) neutrons
ap) chain
3. aq) mass conversion/defect
Outline: In a vacuum tube, a beam of cathode rays ar) Manhattan as) Enrico Fermi
(electrons) were beamed at a specially prepared
nickel crystal.
Result: They detected an interference pattern in that Worksheet 6
part of the beam that reflected from the crystal. 1. 218 Po 2. 237
Np 3. 206 Pb
Significance: this proved that electrons showed wave
properties (diffraction & interference) and confirmed 84 93 82
de Broglie’s hypothesis.
Polonium Neptunium Lead
4.
4. 237 5. 214
The “allowed orbits” are where the the electron can Np Rn
exist as a standing wave around the nucleus. The 93 86
orbit circumference is exactly equal to an integral
number of electron wavelengths. Neptunium Radon
6. 227 223 4
5.
Ac Fr + He + γ
a) When waves pass through a small gap in a barrier, 89 87 2
the gap acts like a point source of waves, which
spread out in a semi-circular pattern. Francium
b)
244 240 4
7. Pu U + He + γ
94 92 2
Uranium
Beta Decay Equations

1.
a) 131 b) 234 c) 3
Xe Pa He
6. 54 91 2
In the 1920’s, Atomic Physics was using a mixture of
“classical” ideas, overlaid with the new quantum d) 24 e) 239 f) 60
ideas, but it was artificial and contrived. Mg Np Ni
12 93 28
It was Heisenberg (“Uncertainty Principle”) and Pauli
(“Exclusion Principle”) who developed the theoretical 2.
framework of Quantum Mechanics so it could become a) 8 8 0-
a coherent, modern scientific model of matter. Li Be +
-1
1
e + ν + γ
3 4
b) 135 135 0-
Worksheet 5 Xe Cs +
-1
1
e + ν + γ
a) in the atomic nucleus b) protons & neutrons 54 55
c) neutrons d) protons
c) 31 31 0
e) positive f) Chadwick P S +
-1
1
e- + ν + γ
g) alpha h) gamma 15 16
i) paraffin wax j) protons
d) 38 38 0 -
k) conservation of momentum and energy Cl Ar +
-1
1
e + ν + γ
l) particle m) a proton 17 18
n) electric charge
o) changing into a different element
p) nuclear q) radioactive
r) fission or fusion s) too large
t) 2 protons & 2 neutrons
u) decreases by 4
v) deceases by 2 w) gamma rays
x) proton y) electron
®
Worksheet 7 4.
1. It was noticed that the electrons produced by beta
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products) decay varied a lot in the energy they carried, although
= (9.0122+4.0026)-(11.9967+1.0087) the process was thought to be the same in each case.
= 13.0148-13.0054 Why?
= 0.0094 u Pauli suggested that there was another particle
Energy release = 0.0094 x 931.5 = 8.756 MeV involved, which shared the total energy with the
2. electron... the neutrino (actually an anti-neutrino).
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products) This explanation of beta decay was so convincing
= (235.0439+1.0087)-(140.8167+91.8804+3.0261) that the existence of the neutrino was accepted many
= 236.0526 - 235.7232 years before its actual detection.
= 0.3294 u
Energy release = 0.3294 x 931.5 = 306.8 MeV 5.
3. a)A fission reaction is set off by a neutron striking a
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products) suitable nucleus. The fission process produces 2 or 3
=(7.0160+1.0073)-(4.0026 x 2) new neutrons, each of which can set off another
= 8.0233 - 8.0052 fission. Therefore, once started, it is possible to have
= 0.0181 u a chain reaction of fissions.
Energy release = 0.0181 x 931.5 = 16.86 MeV
4. b) If 2 or more neutrons are released, and each sets
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products) off another fission, the chain reaction will grow
=(239.0446+1.0087) - (144.8115+91.8804+3.0261) exponentially. This is an uncontrolled reaction.
= 240.0533 - 239.7180 If some neutrons are absorbed so that each fission
= 0.3353 u sets off exactly 1 other fission, then the chain
Energy release = 0.3353 x 931.5 = 312.3 MeV reaction will continue, but at a steady, controlled rate.
5.
Mass defect = (mass reactants) - (mass products)
=(21.9780+4.0026) - (24.9575+1.0073)
= 25.9806 - 25.9648 = 0.0158 u Worksheet 9
Energy release = 0.0158 x 931.5 = 14.72 MeV a) Atomic/Nuclear b) most significant
c) nuclear power stations
d) Nuclear weapons
Worksheet 8 e) Cold f) launching satellites
1. g) radioactive
Chadwick used a radioactive material to fire alpha h) their lack of electric charge makes it more likely
particles at a beryllium target. This produced a they will collide with the nucleus
penetrating radiation that others thought were i) particle accelerators j) charged
gamma rays. Chadwick let this radiation strike a k) speed of light l) radiation & particles
paraffin wax target. From this came streams of m) uranium or plutonium
protons, dislodged by the “mystery” rays. He used n) Control
the laws of conservation of energy and momentum to o) cadmium/boron p) neutrons
calculate the nature of the radiation that had q) graphite r) slow down
dislodged the protons. s) turbine & generator t) electricity
This showed it was particles with mass about 1u, and u) radioactive v) imaging
no electric charge... neutrons. w) cancer x) thallium-201
y) gamma z) cobalt-60
2. aa) sterilise ab) americium-241
Calculations showed that gravity was too weak to ac) alpha particles ad) cobalt-60
hold the nucleons together in the face of electrostatic ae) welded joints af) nitrogen-15 & phosph-31
repulsion between protons. No other forces were ag) Standard Model ah) leptons
known, but there must exist another force in the ai) neutrinos aj) Hadrons
nucleus. ak) proton & neutron al) quarks
This “Strong Nuclear Force” must attract all
nucleons, and must be very powerful. It must be
extremely short-ranged, and work only across the
distance of a single nucleus.
Worksheet 10
3. 1.
a) Every nucleus larger than hydrogen has a mass This was one of the most significant scientific
slightly less than the sum of the protons and projects in history. It led directly to the development
neutrons it contains. The difference is the mass of nuclear weapons which (during the Cold War)
defect. threatened to destroy civilization, and still have that
potential. It also lead to nuclear technologies such as
b) The “missing mass” of the mass defect is mass the many uses of radioactive isotopes in Medicine (eg
that has converted to energy according to E=mc2. for imaging, diagnosis & cancer treatment) Both
This energy provides the “binding energy” of the these technologies, and others, have had profound
strong nuclear force. impacts upon society, both positive and negative.
®
Worksheet 10 (cont) 4.
a) Iodine-131 can be used to treat thyroid cancer.
2. Iodine becomes concentrated in the thyroid gland
The fuel rods are composed of uranium or plutonium where the radiation kills tumour cells with minimal
which undergoes fission. Each rod is below the damage to healthy tissue.
critical mass for a chain reaction, but when many
rods are inserted into the reactor, a chain reaction b) Americium-241 is used to monitor the thicknes of
can be sustained. paper during manufacture. The penetration of alpha
particles through the paper is used as a measure of
Control rods are made from cadmium or boron and thickness, and equipment adjusted automatically.
are good neutron absorbers. These control the rate of
the reaction by adjusting how many neutrons are c) Gamma rays from cobalt-60 can be used to “image”
available to continue the chain reaction. welded joints in aircraft manufacture.
The moderator is graphite or “heavy water” which d) Nitrogen-15 is used as a “tracer” in agricultural
slows the neutrons down. This makes collisions more research. Added to soil or fertilizer, its uptake and
likely to set off a fission, and allows the reactor to run travel through the plant can be traced by radiation
efficiently at a steady rate. detection equipment.
3. 5.
a) Neutrons have no electrical charge. This makes There are many sub-atomic particles, but they all
them more penetrating, and less likely to be deflected belong to 2 classes:
by electrons or protons before they collide with a
nucleus. Leptons include the electron, and a variety of
neutrinos. These are fundamental particles, not
b) Particle Accelerators use powerful electromagnets composed of anything smaller.
to accelerate charged objects up to very high speeds.
They are then allowed to collide head-on, or to strike Hadrons include the proton and neutron and others.
“target” atoms. The radiation and particle tracks from These are composed of combinations of different
the collision are studied to reveal information about quarks. A proton, for example, is composed of 3
the structure of matter. quarks, bound together by a huge mass defect.
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keep it simple science

From QUANTA to QUARKS

1. RUTHERFORD & BOHR MODELS OF THE ATOM

Problems with Rutherford’s Atom Practical Work

Tube filled with Hydrogen gas

Plank’s Quantum Theory Neils Bohr Puts It All Together

Bohr & the Balmer Series Limitations of the

Summary Worksheet for Section 1 is at the end of the next section

2. b) would the Hχ line have a higher, lower, or the

c) would the Hχ line have a longer, shorter, or

b) List, in brief form, 4 limitations of the Bohr

d) According to Bohr, what does this amount of 7.

Calculate the wavelength of this spectral line

2. DE BROGLIE & MATTER WAVES

Diffraction Forms Davisson & Germer’s Experiment

+ which could measure the intensity of the beam.

However, this isn’t happening, so Bohr proposes that

The “allowed orbits” around an atom are located

The Contributions of Heisenburg & Pauli

Werner Heisenberg (1901-76) “If you think you understand

Heisenberg developed the mathematical

Later in this topic you will see that Pauli

Therefore, their contributions must be seen as being very important.

Worksheet 2 Rutherford-Bohr Model of the Atom

Worksheet 3 de Broglie & Matter Waves

Worksheet 4 Test Questions section 2 Student Name...............................

b) The diagram shows a breakwall with parallel

d) Use Plank’s equation to calculate the

3. INTO THE NUCLEUS

Thus we get the familiar atomic model, with

The results indicated the presence of a particle

Transmutation It would be wise to revise...

Transmutations occur during:

There are several different reactions which can occur;

Alpha ( α ) Decay Beta ( β ) Decay

Pauli and the Neutrino

What Holds the Nucleus Together?

Gravity Its properties could be inferred and calculated:

Measuring Mass & Energy in the Nucleus

Mass Defect in the Nucleus

If you add up the mass of all the

Mass of 6 neutrons Mass of 6 neutrons

Where is the missing mass? These are the same, just

It has converted to energy...

Nuclear Fission The Manhattan Project

In one experiment he bombarded uranium atoms with

Fermi had “split” the nucleus, but it was another 4

Mass Defect During Nuclear Fission

For example, in the fission of Uranium-235: Photo by

When you add up the total The tracks of

The chamber is cooled with “dry ice” so that the

If a source of alpha particles is placed inside the

Worksheet 5 Into the Nucleus

Worksheet 6 Practice Problems

210 4 2. Write complete decay equations for the beta

7. Write the equation for the alpha decay of

Need to contact us? PO Box 2575

keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au

Worksheet 7 Practice Problems

Worksheet 8 Test Questions section 3 Student Name...............................

b) Explain the connections between the

4. APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS