2.

1: Cell Theory
2.1.1 Outline the Cell Theory:
Three main principles:
- Living organisms are composed of cells
- Cells are the smallest unit of life
- Cells come from pre-existing cells

2.1.2 discuss the evidence for the Cell Theory:

First Principle
Robert Hook:
- First discovered cells 1665
- Observing cork with a microscope he built himself
- Drew cells and created the word cell

Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek:

- Observed the first living cells
- Discovered tiny ‘animalcules’ (protozoa) in stagnant water
- ‘Animalcules’  Little animals
- Single Lens microscope 200X
- 1983 found bacteria in Saliva

Mathis Schleding:
- Stated in 1838 that plants are made of cells

Theodor Schwann:
- Similar statement about animals 1839

Second Principle
Scientists have not been able to find any living entity that is not made of at least one cell

Rudolf Virchow:
- Suggested that ‘all cells come from cells’ 1855

Third Principle
Louis Pasteur:
- 1860s performed experiments
- E.g. After sterilizing chicken broth by boiling, he showed that living organisms would
not ‘spontaneously’ reappear. Only after exposure to pre-existing cells was life able to
re-establish itself in the sterilized chicken broth

Robert Remak:
- Discovered cell division under his microscope

2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life
All organisms exist in either a unicellular or a multicellular form. They all carry out all the
functions of life:
- Metabolism: includes all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism
- Growth: limited but is always evident
- Reproduction: involves hereditary molecules that can be passed to offspring
- Response: to the environment is imperative to the survival of the organism
- Homeostasis: maintaining a constant internal environment e.g. acid-base
levels/temperature
- Nutrition: providing a source of compounds with many chemical bonds which can be
broken to provide the organism with energy and nutrients necessary to maintain life

2.1.4 compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria,
organelles and cells using the appropriate SL unit

Metric Equivalent
Unit Abbreviation
Whole scientific notation
kilometer km 1 000 m 103 m
Metre m 1m 1m

centimeter cm 0.01m 10-2 m

Milimetre mm 0.001 m 10-3 m

micrometer μm 0.000 001 m 10-6m

nanometer nm 0.000 000 001 10-9m

- Cells in decreasing size order: Organelles, bacteria, viruses, membranes, molecules

2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in
images of known magnification
Steps:
1. Write Formula
2. Apply Numbers
3. Set out answer separately

Formulas:
- Magnification= Measured length/Scale Bar label
- Actual size= Measure length/Magnification

2.1.6 Explain the importance of the Surface Area to Volume Ratio as a factor limiting cell
size
- Volume: Affects functions of rate of heat and waste production and rate of resource
consumption. It affects the rate of chemical reactions to occur in the interior of the cell
- Surface Area: Controls what materials move in and out of the cells. Affects the amount
of materials able to move in and out of cells. Cells with more SA per unit volume are able to
move more materials in and out of the cells for each unit volume of the cell.

SA (increases slower): Volume

Limiting cell size:

- Large cells has relatively less surface area to bring in needed materials and to get rid
of waste in the cell, than a small cell
- Cells need to be able to still carry out the functions of life
- Larger cells change in order to function efficiently e.g. change shape (from spherical to
long and thing), and they also have infoldings/outfoldings to increase their SA relative
to their volume
- Larger organisms have more cells, not larger cells

2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties

Emergent properties: Properties that emerge as a result of interactions between
components. They are seen at every level of increasing complexity.
- Muliticellular organisms show emergent products as cells form into more complex
structures forming a multicellular organism (cells  tissues  organs  organ
systems  multicellular organisms)
- Cells working as a unit allow the different organelles to perform their job together; cells
by themselves aren’t much use

2.1.8 explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized
functions by expressing some of their genes but not others
- Certain genes of the cell are switched on where as others are switched off in order for
cells to carry out specialized functions
- Differentiation process to produce all the required cell types that are necessary for the
well being of the organism
- Genes allow for the production of all the different cells in the organism and each cell
contains all the genetic information for the production of the complete organism. However,
only a certain DNA segment becomes active depending on the specific cell.

2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have to ability to differentiate
along different pathways
Stem Cells: Retain their ability to divide and differentiate into various cell types.
- They are special as they are able to reproduce cells that then differentiate into various
cells
- They can produce some cells that remain as stem cells once they have divided to form
a specific type of tissue. This allows for the continual production of a particular type of
tissue.
- Disadvantage: They cannot be distinguished by their appearance from other cells, only
on the basis of their behavior
- Advantage: Used to treat certain human diseases

2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells

Bone Marrow Transplants: Treat people with certain cancers
- Stem cells found in bone marrow give rise to red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets in the body
- High doses of chemotherapy kills the cancer cells but also the normal cells in the bone
narrow. This means that the patient cannot produce blood cells.
Steps:
1. Stem cells can be removed for themselves or a matching donor from the pelvis
using a needle
2. After chemotherapy the patient will have a bone marrow transplant: All the stem
cells are transplanted back into the patient through a drip
 3. The transplanted cells find their way back to the bone marrow and produce healthy
blood cells in the patient

2.2 Prokaryotic Cells

2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia Coli (E. Coli) as an
example of a prokaryote

2.2.2 Annotate the diagram with the functions of each named structure
Functions of Prokaryotic cells:
1. Flagella: Solid protein structures, with a corkscrew shape, projecting form the cell wall,
which rotate and cause locomotion
2. Pili: Hairlike structures projecting from the cell wall, that can be ratcheted in and out;
when connected to another bacterial cell they can be used to pull cells together
3. Nucleoid: Region of cytoplasm that contains naked DNA which is the genetic
information of the cell
4. Cytoplasm: Contains enzymes that catalyse the chemical reactions of metabolism and
contains DNA in a regiong called the nucleoid.
5. Ribosomes: Small granular structures that synthesize proteins by transplanting
messenger RNA. Some proteins stay in the cell and others are secreted.
6. Plasma Membrane: Controls entry and exit of substances, pumping some of them in
by active transport.
7. Cell wall: Forms a protective outer layer that prevents damage from outside and also
bursting if internal pressure is high.

2.2.3 identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E.coli

2.2.4 State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission
Binary Fission: During this process, the DNA is copied, the two daughter chromosomes
become attached to different regions on the plasma membrane, and the cell divides into
two genetically identical daughter cells. This process includes an elongation of the cell and
a partitioning of the newly produced DNA by microtube-like fibres made of protein.

2.3 Eukoryotic Cells

2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an
animal cell

2.3.2 Annotate the diagram with the functions of each named structure
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Synthesizes proteins for secretion from the
cell
2. Mitochondrion: Carries out aerobic respiration
3. Golgi apparatus: Processes proteins before secretion
4. Plasma Membrane: Controls energy and exit of substances
5. Free ribisosmes: Synthesise protein for the use in cytoplasm
6. Lysosome: Stores digestive enzymes
7. Nucleus: Stores the genetic material
8. Central Vacuole: Storage and hydrolic functions
 9. Lysosomes: Contain and transport enzymes.
10. Nucleolus: Involved in ribosome synthesize
11. Centrioles: Associated with nuclear division
12. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: ER without ribosomes

2.3.3 Identify the structures in electron micrographs of liver cells

2.3.4 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic Cells

A naked loop of DNA
DNA free in the cytoplasm (nucleoid region)
No mitochondria
Small ribosomes (70S)
No internal membranes to form organelles
Less than 10 micrometers in size
DNA with proteins as chromosomes/chromatin
DNA enclosed within a nuclear envelope
(nucleus)
Mitochondria present
Larger ribosomes (80S)
Many internal membranes that
compartmentalize the cytoplasm including ER,
Golgi apparatuses, lysosomes
More than 10 micrometers in size

Similarities:
- Both have some sort of outside boundary that always involves a plasma membrane
- Both carry out all the functions of life
- DNA is present in both

2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells

Feature Animal Plant

Cell Wall No cell wall, only a plasma Cell wall and plasma
membrane membrane present
Chloroplasts Not present Present in cells that
 photosynthesize
Polysaccharides Glycogen is used as a Starch is used as a storage
storage compound compound
Vacuole Not usually present Large fluid-filled vacuole often
present
Shape Able to change shape. Fixed shape. Usually rather
Usually rounded. regular.

2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components

1. Roles of Plant Cell Wall:
- Maintaining the cell’s shape
- Allowing high pressure to build up in the cell without it bursting
- High pressure in plant cells prevents excessive water uptake by osmos
- High pressure in plant cells (turgor pressure) makes the cell almost rigid, helping to
support the plant
2. Roles of the glycoprotein’s:
- Supporting single layers of thing cells, which might otherwise tear or perforate
- Cell to cell adhesion e.g. a basement membrane helps capillary wall cells to adhere to
alveolus wall cells

2.4 Membranes
2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes

2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help
maintain the structure of cell membranes
Phospholipids are both water soluble and not water soluble as they are composed
of a 3-carbon compound, Glycerol. The two fatty acids are not water soluble
however the alcohol with phosphate is highly polar and is soluble. One area is
hydrophilic (water loving) and the other hydrophobic (water fearing). These
properties allow phospholipids to align as a bilayer if water is present. The
membrane tends to be fluid/flexible as the fatty acids are not strongly attracted to
 each other. This allows animal cells to have a variable shape and allows the
process of endocytus.
2.4.3 List the functions of membrane proteins
1. Hormone binding sites: A site exposed on the outside of the membrane allows
one specific hormone to bind. A signal is then transmited to the inside of the cell.
2. Enzymes: They catalyse reactions inside or outside the cell, depending on
whether the active site is on the inner or outer surface
3. Cell to cell comunicatipon and cell adhesion: Glycoproteins allow cells to
communicate with each other and to stick together to form tissues
4. Channels for Passive Tranpsort: Channels are passages throught he center of
membrane proteins and allow one specific substance to pass through
5. Pumps for active transport: Pumps release energy from ATP and us it to move
specific substances across the membrane
2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion: Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of higher
concentrations to a region of lower concentration, as a result of the random motion
of particles.
Osmosis: Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules from a region of
higher (lower solute) concentration to a region of lower (higher solute)
concentration, across a partially permeable membrane.
2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated
diffusion
- Simple diffusion is when substances move between the phospholipids molecules in
the membranes
- Facilitated diffusion is when substances are unable to pass between the
phospholipids and to allow these substances to diffuse through membranes channel
proteins are needed. Facilitated diffusion always causes particles to move from a
region of higher to lower concentration.

Simple Diffusion Substances other than water move between

phospholipids molecules or through proteins
which possess channels
Facilitated diffusion Non-channel protein carriers change shape to
allow movement of substances other than
water.
Osmosis Only water moves through the membrane
using aquaporins that are proteins with
specialized channels for water movement.

2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes
- Active Transport: The movement of substances across membranes using energy
from ATP. It allows substances to move against the concentration gradient.
- Protein pumps: Used for active transport. Each pump only transports particular
substances, so cells can control what is absorbed and what is expelled. They work in a
specific direction.
1. Particle enters the pump from the side with a low concentration
2. Particle binds to a specific site. Other types of particle cannot bind.
3. Energy from ATP is used to change the shape of pump
4. Particle is released on the side with a higher concentration and the pump returns to its
original shape
 2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the
rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.
- Vecicle: A little sac that transports substances around cells.
- Exocytosis: Process that allows macromolecules to leave. The vehicles fuses with the
plasma membrane and empties it contents out of the cell.
- Endocytosis: Process that allows macromolecules to enter the cell.

Process Steps
Vecicles 1. Proteins are synthezised by ribosomes
and then enter the rough endoplasmic
reticulum
2. Vesicles bud off from the rER and carry
the proteins to the Golgi apparatus
3. Vesicles bud off from the Golgi apparatus
and carry the modified proteins to the
plasma membrane
Endocytosis 1. Part of the plasma membrane is pulled
inwards
2. A droplet of fluid becomes enclosed when
a vesicle is pinched off
3. Vesicles can then move through the
cytoplasm carrying their contents
Exocytosis 1. Vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane
2. The contents of the vesicle are expelled
3. The membrane then flattens out again

2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-
form during endocytosis and exocytosis
The ends of the membrane reattach because of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic
properties of the phospholipids and the presence of water. The cell membranes
are fluid in consistency as the phospholipids molecules are not closely packed
together larger due to their rather ‘loose’ connections between the fatty acid tails. It
is stable as the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the different regions of
the phospholipids molecules cause them to form a stable bilayer in an aqueous
environment.

2.5 Cell division

2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and
cytokinesis.
- Interphase: An active period during which the cell carries out many biochemical
reactions and grows larger.
o G1: A period of growth, DNA transcription and protein synthesis
o S: The period during which all DNA in the nucleus is replicated.
o G2: The period in which the cell prepares for division. There are more organelles and
DNA condenses into visible chromosomes.
- Mitosis: Nucleus divides into two genetical nuclei
- Cytokinesis: The process of dividing the cytoplasm to form two cells
2.5.2 State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that
these can occur in any organ or tissue.
 Tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled mitosis. The normal control of
mitosis in a cell fails, due to a change in the genes of the cells. This can happen in
any tissue or organ and can spread to any part of the body.
2.5.3 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic
reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the
number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.
The interphase is an active period in the life of the cell, in which the cell carries
out many biochemical reactions and grows larger. The DNA molecules in the
chromosomes are uncoiled and the genes on them can be transcribed, allowing
the protein synthesis that is needed for growth. There is also an increase in the
number of mitochondria and in plant cells in the number of chloroplasts.
2.5.4 Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase).
Prophase:
1. Spindle microtubules are growing
2. Chromosomes are becoming shorter and fatter by supercoiling
3. Each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids formed by DNA
replication in interpahse and held together by a centromere
4. Spindle microtubules extend from each pole to the equator
Metaphase:
1. The nuclear membrane has broken down and chromosomes have moved
to the equator
2. Spindle microtubules from both poles are attached to each centromere, on
opposite sides.
Anaphase:
1. The centromeres have divided and the chromatids have become
chromosomes
2. Spindle microtubules pull the genetically identical chromosomes to opposite
poles
Telophase:
1. All chromosomes have reached the poles and nuclear membranes form
around them
2. Spindle microtubules break down
3. Chromosomes uncoil and are no long individually visible
4. The cell divides (cytokinosis) to form two cells with genetically identical nuclei
2.5.5 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei.
- Cells replicate their DNA/Genetic material just before mitosis so that when they divide
the two ‘daughter’ cells produced are genetically identical to the original ‘parent’ cell.
- During mitosis, the replicated chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of
the cell thus providing the same genetic material to each of these locations. When the
chromosomes are at the poles of the cell, the cytoplasm divides to form two distinct
cells from the larger parents cells. These two cells have the same genetic material and
are referred to as daughter cells.
2.5.6 State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction
involve mitosis.
Mitosis is used in eukaryote whenever genetically identical cells are needed:
- During growth
- During embryonic development, when the large cell produced by fertilization
(zygote) divides repeatedly to produce many smaller cells
- When tissues have been damaged and need to be repaired
- To reproduce asexually

Mitosis takes place in body cells, somatic cells, and does not take place in sex cells,
gametes.