Part Two

Strategies and Cultural Perspectives

in Translation
 Chapter 3 | 41

Chapter 3

Strategies and Cultural

Perspectives in Translation

1. Introduction

Is translation possible, if we begin with this most basic question, a

fundamental answer will be yes. It is again common for the critics to propose

a statement that perfect translation is impossible. This statement gives rise to

more sensitive questions like: why perfect translation is impossible? If

impossible, where can the line be drawn? What can a translator do? What

can a translator not do? What are the tools and strategies a translator chooses

in order to make the work of translation a success? This chapter is an attempt

to address some of these issues and consequently build a theoretical

framework of cultural translation, addressing the need for incorporating

culture as a part of translation studies.

A work of translation of Shakespeare’s text into another language is

quite difficult as certain features of Shakespeare’s verse are not in use in

modem times and some features vanished long back. The features like poetic

expression, selection of words, figure of speech, syntax, use of idioms,

rhythm, sound effect, tone, have no accurate substitute in other languages.

Hence, at first level, a translator formulates different strategies to locate

equivalents as they are readily available to him in target language. In second

 Chapter 3 42

level, Shakespeare’s potential blank verse, use of dramatic language,

complex wordplay and imagery, poetic vocabulary, courtly and plain style,

intense artistry, imaginative excitement and so on, prepare a new ground for

the translator to understand and translate his texts with admiration. In this

context a detailed discussion is made on the various general and specific

strategies of translating a Shakespearean play.

2. Defining Strategies in translation

The word ‘strategy’ in translation refers to the tools a translator

employs to render the original text to the target language. Prominent authors

in the field of translation have defined translational strategies in different

ways. Some definitions are quoted here for the present study.

(i) L.Venuti indicates that translation strategies “involve the basic

tasks of choosing the foreign text to be translated and developing

a method to translate it”. He employs the concepts of

domesticating and foreignizing in order to refer to translation

strategies. (Venuti, 240)

(ii) Krings defines translation strategy as “translator's potentially

conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the

framework of a concrete translation task”. (18)

(iii) Bell differentiates between global (those dealing with whole

texts) and local (those dealing with text segments) strategies and

confirms that this distinction results from various kinds of

translation problems. (188)

 Chapter 3 [ 43

(iv) Jaaskelainen considers strategy as, “a series of competencies, a

set of steps or processes that favor the acquisition, storage, and/or

utilization of information.” He maintains that strategies are

“heuristic and flexible in nature, and their adoption implies a

decision influenced by amendments in the translator's objectives.”

(71)

(v) Loescher defines translation strategy as “a potentially conscious

procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any

segment of it.” As it is stated in this definition, the notion of

consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies which are

used by the learners or translators. (7-9)

(vi) Newmark (1988) mentions the difference between translation

methods and translation procedures. He writes that, while

translation methods relate to the whole text, translation

procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of

language.”(81)

3. Translation Strategies

The word ‘strategy’ in translation refers to the tools a translator

employs in order to render the original text to the target language. Lorscher

(2002), in his process oriented research, identifies nine basic elements of

translational strategies. In the present context the nine original elements from

Lorscher’s framework of translational tools are quoted to get a clear picture

of the process of translational strategy formation act.

 Chapter 3 | 44

Original Elements of Translational Strategies

> Realizing a translational problem

> Verbalizing a translational problem

> Searching for a possible solution to a translational problem

> Identifying a possible solution to a translational problem

> Preliminary solution to a translational problem

> Parts of a solution to a translational problem

> A solution to a translational problem is still to be found

> Negative solution to a translational problem

> Problem in the reception of the Source language text

According to Lorscher, these elements are combined by translators into

different structures during the process of translation. In fact, the translator’s

decisions are formed, in the first place, by identifying a translational

problem, secondly, by creating an appropriate and acceptable solution for it.

In this light, now a question arises, what kinds of acceptable solutions and

textual changes do translators make? To answer this question in detail, if at

all possible, the global and local strategies in translation are categorized

under three heads as per the framework formulated by A. Chesterman in

his book Memes of translation translational tools (Chesterman 107). They

are depicted in some detail with reference to Peter Newmark’s (80-120)

formulations of translational procedures and methods in the present context.

3.1 Syntactic Strategies

3.2 Semantic Strategies

3.3 Pragmatic Strategies

 Chapter 3 | 45

Chesterman gives a definition of these three strategies appropriately as, “If

syntactic strategies manipulate the form, and semantic strategies manipulate

meaning, pragmatic strategies can be said to manipulate the message itself.”

(107)

Here follows a list of these strategies, with definitions and functions of each.

3.1 Syntactic strategies

Syntactic strategies are related to and have an effect on the form of the text.

They are functional in bringing changes in the language structure of the

target language and they primarily manipulate the form. They are,

> Literal translation

> Borrowing

> Loan

> Transposition

> Unit change

> Level shift

> Cohesion change

> Rhetorical scheme change

> Transference

> Naturalization

> Literal Translation-A word-for-word translation can be used in

some languages and not others dependent on the sentence structure.

Sometimes it works and sometimes it does not. Literal translation is

 Chapter 3 | 46

ideal for a linguistic study of a text. Newmark also suggests that in

literal translation the source language (SL) grammatical

constructions are converted to their nearest target language (TL)

equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated out of

context.

> Borrowing- Borrowing is considered as a direct translation

technique. It is the taking of words directly from one language into

another without translation. Many English words are borrowed into

other languages; for example software in the field of technology

and funk in culture. English also borrows numerous words from

other languages; cafe and resume from French; hamburger and

kindergarten from German; musk and sugar from Sanskrit.

Borrowed words are often printed in italics when they are

considered to be foreign.

> Loan translation- Loan translation is a form of borrowing from

one language to another whereby the semantic components of a

given term are literally translated into their equivalents in the

borrowing language .The adoption by one language of a phrase or

compound word whose components are literal translations of the

components of a corresponding phrase or compound in a foreign

language English ‘superman’ is a loan translation from German

iUbermensch\ Newmark calls it through translation where

common collocations, names of organizations and components of

compounds are translated literary. (84).

 Chapter 3 47

> Transposition- Transposition is considered as an oblique translation

technique and it is used when the structural or conceptual elements

of the source language cannot be directly translated without altering

meaning or upsetting the grammatical and stylistics elements of the

target language.

It is required that the translator knows it is possible to replace a word

category in the target language without altering the meaning of the source

text. It involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for instance, (i)

change from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific SL

structure does not exist in the TL, (iii) change of an SL verb to a TL word,

change of an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth. (86)

> Unit Change- A unit in language refers to a morpheme, word, phrase,

clause, sentence or paragraph and so on. A unit change occurs when a

source text (ST) unit is translated as a different unit in the target text

(TT). This happens very frequently and different sub-classifications can

be set up for unit shifts of different types.

> Level shift- In translation, levels refer to phonological, morphological,

syntactic and lexical levels. Different types of languages use these levels

in very different ways to express meaning. An example of level shift can

be seen in how questions are often translated. Since English heavily

relies on intonation as a signal of the speaker intentions, the written

example below implies that the English sentence would have a strong

rising intonation in order to make what otherwise looks like a statement

 Chapter 3 | 48

into a question. The translation shifts the level, and produces the question

through the standard syntactic device of inverted word order.

> Cohesion change- Textual cohesion refers to how the parts of a text ‘stick

together’ to form a fluent comprehensible whole. The cohesion change

strategy affects intra-textual cohesion, which mainly takes the form of

reference through pronouns, ellipsis (leaving out direct reference to

something that can be understood from the previous text), substitution or

repetition.

> Rhetorical scheme change- Rhetorical schemata such as parallelism,

alliteration, and in poetry, metrical rhythm and rhyming parallelism when

translated into another language, similar arrangement of a pair or a series

of words, phrases or sentences are immediately available to the

translator. Hence, the translator may choose a new rhetorical scheme in

the TT to express the meaning in a different form.

> Transference- It is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text. It

includes transliteration and transcription of the original.

> Naturalization- It adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation,

then to the normal morphology of the TL. (82)

3.2 Semantic strategies

Use of semantic strategy in the translation is the process of using semantic

information appropriately in the framework of the target language. Semantic

strategies are those that change or modify the meaning of the text. This

strategy looks at the target text closely and aims at retaining meaning

fidelity as in the original text. In this process, the meaning is retained with
 Chapter 3 | 49

some loss and sometimes the meaning is expanded with some new addition

to bring clarity in the target language. The strategies used in the translation

are,

> Using a synonym

> Using an antonym

> Abstraction change

> Distribution change( Condensation and Expansion)

> Emphasis change

> Paraphrase

> Modulation

> Compensation

> Componential analysis

> Communicative translation

> Equivalence

> Using a synonym- This strategy selects not the obvious equivalent of a

word, but a synonymy or near synonymy for it. It involvs the use of a

synonym in TT instead of a more immediately available unit. As per

Newmark’s definition, synonymy is a “near TL equivalent” where

economy triumphs accuracy. (84)

> Using an antonym- It involves the use of negated opposite. The

translator selects an antonym and combines this with a negation

elements to create intended effects.

> Abstraction change- It involves the changes between abstract and

concrete terms.
 Chapter 3 | 50

> Distribution change - It refers to any change in the distribution of the

same semantic elements over more or fewer lexical items( expansion

and condensation).

> Emphasis change - Adding to, reducing or altering the focus.

> Adaptation - Adaptation occurs when something specific to one

language culture is expressed in a totally different way that is familiar

or appropriate to another language culture. It is a shift in cultural

environment. It involves changing the cultural reference when a

situation in the source culture does not exist in the target culture.

> Modulation - Modulation consists of using a phrase that is different in

the source and target languages to convey the same idea. It changes the

semantics and shifts the point of view of the source language. Through

modulation, the translator generates a change in the point of view of the

message without altering meaning and without generating a sense of

awkwardness in the reader of the target text. In the context, Newmark

also suggests that it occurs when the translator reproduces the message

of the original text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms

of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar in terms of

perspective. (88)

> Compensation- It occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a

sentence is compensated in another part. (90)

> Componential analysis- it means “comparing an SL word with a TL

word which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one

equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their

differing sense components.” (114)

 Chapter 3 | 51

> Communicative translation- It attempts to render the exact contextual

meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language

are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.

> Equivalence- Here we have to express something in a completely

different way, for example when translating idioms or advertising

slogans. The process is creative, but not always easy. In the context,

Newmark suggests three types of equivalents. They are defined below.

> Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a

TL one. However, “they are not accurate”. ( 83)

> Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture-neutral word.

> Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the SL cultural

term is explained in several words.

3.3 Pragmatic Strategies

Pragmatic strategies work with the selection of information in the

target text (TT),a selection that is governed by the translator’s knowledge of

the prospective readership of the translation. These strategies are often a

result of a translator’s global decisions concerning the appropriate way to

translate the text as a whole.

Pragmatic strategies concern the message of the text itself and they typically

incorporate syntactic and semantic strategies.

The strategies used are,

> Explicitation

> Implicitation
 Chapter 3 | 52

> Information Change

> Interpersonal change

> Illocutionary change

> Distribution change

> Coherence Change

> Partial Translation

> Formality change

> Trans-editing

> Cultural filtering

> Compensation

> Paraphrasing

> Explicitation -It makes information more explicit in the TT, depending

on reader’s knowledge.

> hnplicitation - It makes information more implicit in the TT, depending

on reader’s knowledge.

> Information change - It refers to the changes in meanings to convey

intended varying degrees by adding more to a word or deliberately

omitting a word with addition or omission.

> Interpersonal change - It refers to the changes at the level of formality,

form of address, use of pronoun and so on.

> Illocutionary change (Speech act change) - It involves changes of

speech acts, monologue, soliloquy and so on.

 Chapter 3 | 53

> Coherence Change - Change in the logical arrangement of the

information in the text. The translation strategy of relocation or

dislocation, rearrangement of various information and so on.

> Emphasis change - This strategy adds to, reduce of alters the emphasis

or thematic focus for one reason or another

> Partial Translation - This refers to summary translation or gist

translation.

> Trans-editing - This refers to re-editing by the translator.

> Cultural filtering - It involves adaptation of particular source culture

specific terms to target culture norms and expectations. This takes into

account domestication and foreignization .

> Compensation- In general terms compensation can be used when

something cannot be translated, and the meaning that is lost is

expressed somewhere else in the translated text.

> Paraphrasing - In the use of this strategy, the meanings of the

individual words are disregarded, in favor of the pragmatic sense of

some higher unit. Filtering of wordplay into the target text is often

realized with this strategy.

4. Cultural Perspectives

In a work of translation, a translator uses these tools and strategies in

order to execute his /her own decisions. These decisions are more important

than the linguistic transfer of elements in a work of translation. Such

decisions are inherent in the translation and Can be social, political or

cultural. Hence, a work of translation needs to be seen as in the light of

 Chapter 3 | 54

these decisions and should not be judged on the basis of a comparison

between the original and the translated text. The strategies discussed above

are vital as they enable a translator to carry out his/her purpose in a work of

translation. The translator’s purposes and decisions emerge from the

contemporary social representations and cultural-political conditions. The

social and political concerns influence the translator to build the objectives

in a work of translation and the cultural issues gain focus when the

translator activates a cultural resistance in his/her work. In translating an

Elizabethan text, the cultural problems are found embedded in the linguistic

composition of the original text. Hence they need not be opposed for they

are complementary to each other. As language holds these cultural problems

in translation, a study of cultural translation problems are found

incorporated in the linguistic theory of translation. Yet, cultural issues are

more vital than linguistic ones. Hence, instead of studying a work

translation on the basis of a linguistic theory, it can be studied with a

cultural and political orientation for meaningful exploration of the

translated texts undertaken in this thesis. Itamar-Even-Zohar is probably the

first person to take initiative in this regard and study literal translation as an

active system “correlated with other cultural systems and embedded in the

ideological and socio-economic structures of society” (Hermans-11). And,

no translation activity can free itself from the “general values and ideas

shared by a community” (Toury-55). These new perspectives have taken on

a socio-political turn and hence can throw some light on the difficulty of

translating any text which is embedded in a given situation and, which is

itself conditioned by its soeio-cultural background. The translation is

 Chapter 3 | 55

dependent on its function as a text is implanted in the target culture,

whereby there is the alternative of either preserving the original function of

the source text in its culture or of changing the function to adapt to specified

needs in the target culture. In a work of translation, culture manifests in two

ways. First, the concept or reference of the vocabulary items is somehow

specific for the given culture. Second, the concept or reference is actually

general but expressed in a way specific to the source language culture. In

practice, however, it is suggested that a translator should take into account

the purpose of the translation in translating the culturally-bound words or

expressions. Hence, certain procedures of cultural translation are borrowed

from Leppihalme’s framework and discussed in the context to meet the

requirements of present study.

Nine essential strategies for the translation of key-phrase allusions are

proposed by Leppihalme in the year1997 as follows:

i. Use of a standard translation,

ii. Minimum change, that is, a literal translation, without regard to

connotative or contextual meaning,

iii. Extra allusive guidance added in the text,

iv. The use of footnotes, endnotes, translator's notes and other explicit

explanations not supplied in the text but explicitly given as additional

information,

v. Stimulated familiarity or internal marking, that is, the addition of

intra-allusive allusion,
 Chapter 3 | 56

vi. Replacement by a TL item,

vii. Reduction of the allusion to sense by rephrasing,

viii. Re-creation, using a fusion of techniques: creative construction of a

passage which hints at the connotations of the allusion or other

special effects created by it,

ix. Omission of the allusion. (82)

Leppihalme proposes another set of strategies for translating the proper name

allusions:

1. Retention of the name:

a. using the name as such.

b. using the name, adding some guidance.

c. using the name, adding a detailed explanation, for instance, a

footnote.

2. Replacement of the name by another:

d. replacing the name by another SL name.

e. replacing the name by a TL name (79)

Moreover, nine strategies for the translation of key-phrase allusions are

proposed by Leppihalme as follows:

> Use of a standard translation,

> Minimum change, that is, a literal translation, without regard to

connotative or contextual meaning,

 Chapter 3 | 57

> Extra allusive guidance added in the text,

> The use of footnotes, endnotes, translator's notes and other explicit

explanations not supplied in the text but explicitly given as additional

information,

> Stimulated familiarity or internal marking, that is, the addition of

intra-allusive allusion,

> Replacement by a TL item,

> Reduction of the allusion to sense by rephrasing,

> Re-creation, using a fusion of techniques: creative construction of a

passage which hints at the connotations of the allusion or other

special effects created by it,

> Omission of the allusion. (82)

The strategies to translate culture-bound expressions, already borrowed from

Chesterman’s framework of translational tools, are now reinforced with a

cultural perspective to arrive at the target effect in translation.

> Transference-The source language (SL) word is brought into the target

language text (TLT) to refer to religious and scholastic references.

> Naturalization - The SL word is brought into the TLT and the writing is

adjusted to the TLT writing system to refer to values, beliefs, norms

and institutions.

> Using cultural equivalent- The SL cultural word is replaced with the

TL cultural word to refer to traditions, costumes or lifestyles.

 Chapter 3 | 58

> Using synonym- The SL word is translated into neutral TL word to

refer to social culture and habits (work, profession, leisure time,

activity etc.) or material culture (artifacts, food, clothes, houses etc.)

> Using descriptive equivalent- The translator explains the description

and function of the cultural note or idea embodied in the SL word.

Usually it results in long wording. It depends on the translator’s choice

to explain the SL culture for the TL readers.

> Using componential analysis- SL word is replaced with a more general

TL word and one or more TL sense components to complete the

meaning which is not embodied within the first TL word.

> Reduction- SL phrase, as a translation unit, is replaced with a TL word

which does not embrace part of the SL word meaning, it involves the

formation of new meaning, independent of SL culture.

> Expansion- SL phrase as a translation unit, is replaced with a TL phrase

which covers the SL word meaning and the cultural note as well.

> Addition and note- An addition or note is added after the translation of

the TL word or phrase. This addition is clearly not a part of the

translation but added to bring clarity in culture bound expressions.

> Deletion- SL cultural word or phrase, as a translation unit, is dropped

in the TLT to avoid irrelevant or complex cultural or political

explanation.

> Modulation- The SL cultural word or phrase, as a translation unit, is

translated into a TL word or phrase; and this involves change in the

point of view. The translator sees the phrase from different point of
 Chapter 3 | 59

view, perspective or very often category of thought in translating it to

make it communicative in TT cultural context.

5. Research Hypothesis

A translator uses these methods in the process of translation to

convey meanings and impressions created in the original text. But this is not

the chief responsibility of a translator. Here his task becomes multifold; the

translator comprehends both the literal and implied meaning in the source

text and, simultaneously conveys his awareness and participation in

contemporary national/ social concerns. While translating a Shakespearean

play, the translators not only deal with complex linguistic and cultural

problems with the help of these translational tools discussed above but, they

also intervene in the contexts of their own times. This act of intervention has

a strong reflection on the language and cultural representations in the target

text. However, it is strongly suspected that the three texts chosen for

analysis, Premika-Premikaa, Hamlet, and Othello reflect such concerns

thereby making the texts of Odia translations more than linguistic renderings.

To successfully carryout their intentions, the translators use translational

tools, chiefly concentrating on their own purpose. Hence, the focus falls on

contemporary scenes and the translators go beyond the basic linguistic

explanations. The strategies used in these translations, though derived from

all three categories, they are employed to carry out translators’ inherent

objectives apart from fulfilling a basic linguistic function. For this reason,

we find strategies belonging to all three categories are used in the work of

translations undertaken, but they are used to achieve certain objectives

 Chapter 3 60

relating to culture, society, and politics in three different settings in Odia

history. However, the translator acts as an author who may empower his

work of translation with a national agenda, contemporary social/cultural

concerns or innovations. In the light of this hypothesis the next part of the

thesis attempts to address these issues with the help of above discussed

methods in translation.
 Chapter 3 | 61

Work Cited

Bell, R. T. Psychological /cognitive approaches. M. Baker. Ed. Routledge

encyclopedia of translation studies. London & New York: Routledge. 1998:
188. Print.

Chesterman, A. Memes of translation. (2nd ed). Amsterdam/Philadelphia:

JohnBenjamins, 2000. Print.

Hermans, T. Ed., The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary

Translation. London:Croom Helm, 1985: 10-11. Print.

Jaaskelainen, R. Tapping the process: an explorative study of cognitive and

effective factors involved in translating. Joensuu: University of Joensuu
Publications. 1999: 71. Print.

Krings, H.P. “Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced

German learners of French.” Interlingual and intercultural communication.
Eds. J. House, & S.Blum-Kulka.Tubingen: Gunter Narr, 1986:263-275.
Print.

Leppihalme, R. Culture bumps: an empirical approach to the translation of

allusions. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1997: 79-82. Print.

Loescher, W. Translation performance, translation process and translation

strategies. Tuebingen: Guten Narr, 1991: 7-10. Print.

Newmark, P. A Textbook of Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall, 1988.

Print.

Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond. Amsterdam and

Philadelphia: JohnBenjamins, 1995: 55. Print.

Venuti, Lawrence. Strategies of translation. Ed. M. Baker. London and New

York: Routledge, 1998: 240-244. Print